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pragmatics定义Pragmatics，即语用学，是语言学的一个分支领域，研究的是语言在实际使用中的意义和效果。
它关注的是人们如何根据语境和目标来理解和运用语言，以达到交际的目的。
在本文中，我们将探讨语用学的定义、重要概念和应用领域。
让我们来定义一下语用学。
语用学研究的是语言的使用，而不仅仅是语言的结构和形式。
它关注的是人们是如何根据具体的语境来理解和运用语言的。
在语用学中，我们研究的是语言的意义，即语言的含义和使用者的意图之间的关系。
在语用学中，有一些重要的概念需要我们了解。
第一个概念是"言外之意"，即指的是人们在交际中所传达的除了字面意义之外的意思。
例如，当一个人说"天气好"时，他可能的言外之意是希望对方与他一起出去玩。
这个概念在理解他人的意图和进行有效的沟通时非常重要。
第二个概念是"会话合作原则"，它由语言学家Grice提出。
会话合作原则指的是在交际过程中，人们通常会遵循一些准则，以确保交流的顺利进行。
这些准则包括：合作原则、量原则、质原则和关联原则。
合作原则要求人们相互合作，尽力使对方理解自己的意思；量原则要求提供足够的信息，既不多也不少；质原则要求提供真实和可靠的信息；关联原则要求在交际中保持话题的连贯性。
语用学在现实生活中有许多重要的应用领域。
其中之一是交际策略。
交际策略是指人们在交际过程中采取的一些技巧和方法，以实现自己的交际目的。
例如，当一个人想要请求帮助时，他可以使用委婉语言来表达请求，以增加对方的接受度。
交际策略的研究可以帮助人们更好地理解和运用语言，从而提高交际的效果。
另一个应用领域是语言教学。
语用学可以帮助教师更好地教授语言，使学生能够真正地理解和运用语言。
通过教授学生一些常见的交际策略和语用规则，学生能够更好地掌握语言的意义和使用方式。
这有助于提高他们的语言水平和交际能力。
语用学还在法律、广告和政治等领域有广泛的应用。
Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics that studies how context and social factors contribute to meaning in language. It looks at how language is used in real-life situations and how it can be interpreted beyond its literal or grammatical meaning. Pragmatics also examines howmunicative acts are performed and understood, including the role of speaker intentions, assumptions, and presuppositions inmunication.1. Definition of PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language. It focuses on the use of language inmunication, taking into account the speaker's intentions, the context of the conversation, and the social and cultural factors that may impact meaning. Unlike semantics, which deals with the literal meaning of words and sentences, pragmatics looks at the implied or inferred meaning of language in use.2. Key Concepts in Pragmaticsa. Speech ActsOne of the central concepts in pragmatics is speech acts, whichrefers to the actions performed by speakers through their utterances. These actions can include making requests, giving orders, making promises, or expressing opinions. Speech acts are not just about the words themselves, but also the intentions and effects behind them.b. Grice's MaximsGrice's conversational maxims are another important concept in pragmatics. These maxims, proposed by philosopher H.P. Grice, outline the principles that guide cooperativemunication. They include the maxims of quantity, quality, relevance, and manner, which suggest that speakers should be informative, truthful, relevant, and clear in theirmunication.c. ImplicatureImplicature refers to the inferred meaning that arises from an utterance, beyond its literal meaning. The study of implicature is central to the understanding of how context and pragmatic principles affect the interpretation of language. For example, when someone says "It's cold in here," the implicature might be a request to close a window or turn up the heat.3. Applications of PragmaticsPragmatics has implications for various areas of language use, including language teaching, cross-culturalmunication, and discourse analysis.a. Language TeachingIn language teaching, an understanding of pragmatics is crucial for learners to effectively use language in real-world situations. Teaching pragmatics involves helping learners understand the appropriate use of language in different contexts and how to interpret the implied meanings and intentions inmunication.b. Cross-Cultural CommunicationPragmatics also plays a significant role in cross-culturalmunication. Different languages and cultures may have varying pragmatic norms and conventions, leading to potential misunderstandings or mimunications. By understanding the pragmatic differences between languages, individuals can navigate cross-cultural interactions more effectively.c. Discourse AnalysisIn discourse analysis, pragmatics is used to examine how language is used to achievemunicative goals in different contexts. This includes studying the patterns of interaction, power dynamics, and politeness strategies in discourse, as well as how context influences the interpretation of language in specific settings.4. Challenges and Controversies in PragmaticsDespite its importance, pragmatics also faces several challenges and controversies in its study. These include issues related to the cultural and context-specific nature of pragmatic meaning, the difficulty of establishing universal pragmatic principles, and the role of pragmatics in language processing and understanding.a. Cultural and Context-Specific NatureOne challenge in pragmatics is the recognition of the cultural and context-specific nature of pragmatic meaning. Differentcultures may have unique norms and conventions formunication, leading to variations in pragmatic interpretation. This makes it difficult to establish universal rules for pragmatic understanding.b. Universal Pragmatic PrinciplesAnother controversial issue is the search for universal pragmatic principles. While some scholars argue for the existence of cross-linguistic and cross-cultural pragmatic principles, others emphasize the diversity and variability of pragmatic norms across languages and cultures. This ongoing debate reflects theplexity of studying pragmatics on a global scale.c. Pragmatics and Language ProcessingThe relationship between pragmatics and language processing is another area of contention. Some researchers argue that pragmatics is an essentialponent of language understanding, while others m本人nt本人n that it is secondary to the processing of grammatical and semantic information. Resolving this issue has implications for the study ofmunication disorders and the development of natural language processing systems.5. ConclusionIn conclusion, pragmatics offers valuable insights into theplex nature of language use and interpretation. By examining the role of context, social factors, and speaker intentions inmunication, pragmatics enhances our understanding of how language works in the real world. Despite the challenges and controversies it faces, the study of pragmatics continues to be an important and dynamic field within linguistics, with implications for language teaching, cross-culturalmunication, and discourse analysis. As we strive to better understand the multifaceted nature of language andmunication, pragmatics rem本人ns a crucial area of investigation.。
第五章 Reference （领会） – the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference， a speaker indicates which things in the world （including persons） are being talked about. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. This connection is the result of generalization and abstraction. Although reference is abstract， yet with the help of context， it can refer to something specific. Concept（领会） – which beyond language is the result of human cognition reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It isn’t affected by language. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. Meaning belongs to language， so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are language in the world. Sense （领会） – denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language. It is also abstraction. Motivation——accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. English does have words whose meanings can be explained to a certain extent. Most words are non-motivated. The connection of the sign and meaning dose not have a logical explanation. Onomatopoeic Motivation – the words whose sounds suggest their meaning. （Indicate the relationship between sound and meaning）. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example， bang， ping-pang， crow by cocks， etc. Such echoic words are also conventional for the sounds we say in English may not be the same in other language. Morphological Motivation ——Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. （Indicate the relationship between word meaning and each morpheme meaning）. For instance， airmail means to “mail by air”， miniskirt is “a small skirt”。
Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis Having discussed the structure and formation of words, we now move to the meaning of words. In Chapter 1, we touched upon word meaning in brief, in this chapter we will discuss it in more depth in terms of meanings of 'meaning', motivation of meaning, types of meaning and the components of word meaning.5.1 Word MeaningIt is agreed that a word is the combination of word-form and its meaning. 'Form' refers to both its pronunciation and spelling. 'Meaning' is what the form stands for. For example, the linguistic form cat /kaet/ is used to denote 'a small four-legged animal with soft fur and sharp claws'. It can be said that 'a small four-legged animal with soft fur and sharp claws' is the meaning of the word cat. But the term is not as simple as it seems to be. There are some related concepts which need further clarification.1. ReferenceWords are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. 'By means of reference, aspeaker indicates which things in the world (including persons) are being talked about.' (Hurford and Heasley 1983:25) In other words, only when a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, i. e. , an object, a phenomenon, a person, etc. does the sign become meaningful. The form cat is meaningful because the language user employs it conventionally to refer to the 'animal' concerned. So part of the word meaning is the reference under discussion.The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary(任意的) and conventional （约定俗成的）(See Chapter 1). This connection is the result of generalization(概括) and abstraction(抽象). The word cat refers to a whole set of animals of the same species without the distinction of size, color, region, owner and other factors. It is the extension of all cats in the universe.Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something definite(确定的). Cat without context denotes a set of cats; but it refers to a particular cat in 'Jean forgot to feed her cat yesterday evening'. Therefore, meaning can be pinned down(确定；使明确说明) by the user, time, place, etc. . The same thing can have different referring expressions without causing any confusion. The cat can bereferred to as, say, the animal, my dear, Jassy, this , she and so on.2. ConceptIn many cases meaning is used in the sense of concept. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical(完全相同的). They are both related directly to referents(所指) and are notions of the words but belong to different categories(范畴). Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认知), reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on whereas meaning belongs to language, so is restricted to language use. Therefore, a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world. Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words. For example, much and many both have the same concept, but collocate with different words, much time, much money, much water, but many people, many books, many buildings, not vice versa. Synonymous(同义的)pairs such as die—pass away, maiden—-woman, quarrel—argue are all good examples. Each pair has the same concept but different socio-cultural and stylistic values(文体色彩).3. SenseGenerally speaking, the meaning of 'meaning' is perhaps what is termed sense. Unlike reference, sense denotes(指称) the relationships inside the language. ' The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language'. (ibid) Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction that can be entertained(心存，持有（信心、意见）；容纳，接受；（准备）考虑) in the mind of a language user. Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference. For example, probable, nearly, and, if, but, yes, none of which refer to anything in the world, all have some sense. Just as one can talk of the same concept in different languages, so one can talk of expressions in different dialects of one language as laving the same sense: pavement in British English and sidewalk in American English have the same sense, so do pal(<口>伙伴，好友)and chum(<口>好友，同房间的人).5.2 MotivationMotivation(理据)refers to the connection between thelinguistic symbol and its meaning. As we know, the relationship between the word-form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary, most words can be said to be non-motivated(没有理据的). That is, the connection of the sign and meaning does not account for the meaning. Nevertheless, English does have words the meanings of which are transparent(透明的，清楚的；意义与形式有联系的) and reasonably explicable(可解释的).1. Onomatopoeic Motivation（拟声理据）In modern English one may find some words whose phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating(模拟) the natural sounds or noises. For example, bow-wow, bang, ping-pong, miaow, cuckoo, tick-tuck, ha ha and the like are onomatopoetically motivated words. Knowing the sounds which they represent means understanding the meaning. All the words based on the sounds made by birds, animals, insects and so on belong to this category: crow by cocks, quack by ducks, trumpet by elephants, buzz by bees or flies, croak by frogs, squeak by mice, neigh by horses, bleat by goats, hiss by snakes, roar by lions, etc. . But such echoic(拟声的；回声的) words are conventional to quite a large extent, for the sounds we say in English may not be the same in other languages; splashand whisper do not mean 'splash' and 'whisper' for example in German or French (Quirk 1978).2. Morphological Motivation(形态理据)Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic(多词素的) words and the meanings of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Often, when one knows the meanings of the morphemes or bases, one can deduce the meanings of the words. For instance, airmail means ' to mail by air' ; reading-lamp is ' the lamp for reading'; miniskirt is 'a small skirt'; and hopeful means 'full of hope'.It should be pointed out that there are a lot of words whose structures are opaque(不透明的，不发亮的；难以理解), i.e. their meanings are not the combinations of the constituent parts. Black market, for example, is by no means the market black in color but expressing 'illegal selling and buying'. Likewise, egghead is not the head in the shape of an egg, but ' a learned person' in the derogatory(毁损的，贬低的) sense.3. Semantic MotivationSemantic motivation is the mental associations based on the conceptual meaning of a word. In other words, it is thefigurative(比喻性的) sense of the word. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate ' the opening part of the river' with ' the mouth of a human being or an animal'. When we use the foot of the mountain , we are comparing ' the lower part of the mountain' to ' the foot of a human being'. Bottle in ' He is fond of the bottle' reminds one of what is contained inside; and pen and sword in ' The pen is mightier(更强大的) than the sword' is suggestive(示意的；启发的；引起联想的) of 'writing' and 'war'.4. Etymological MotivationThe origins of words more often than not throw light on(说明，揭示) their meanings. For example, now people use pen for any writing tool though it originally refers to 'a heavy quill(羽毛管；羽根) or feather', because before modern pens were created, feathers were trimmed(整理；修剪) to a split point（有分叉的尖端）, used as writing tools. Though people in modern times no longer use feathers in writing, for the sake of conventionality, the name is retained. All the words commonized from proper names can be explained in terms of their origins. One example will suffice(足够) for illustration. The word laconic meaning 'brief' or 'short' is derived From Lacons, a tribe of people who were known for their brevity(简洁；简练) of speech and for their habitof never using more words than necessary. Hence a Laconic answer is 'a short answer' (See Commonization of Proper Names for details).5.3 Types of MeaningWord meaning per se(本身) is not monogeneous（单一的）but a composite(复合体)consisting of different components, which are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning. These meanings are not found in every word, and in fact some words possess some of them, devoid(没有的；缺乏的) of others. Some types of meanings may appear more prominent in certain words than in others. Some meanings are constant, and others may be transient(暂时的), existing only in actual contexts. All these form part of the study of semantics and prove of paramount(最高的，首要的)importance in the use of words. This section will discuss in brief each type of meaning.1. Grammatical Meaning and Lexical MeaningAs mentioned earlier, grammatical meaning refers to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), singular and plural meaning of nouns,tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional paradigm(范例，样式；【语】（名词、动词等的）词形变化)(forget, forgets , forgot, forgotten , forgetting). Grammatical meaning becomes transparent only when words are used in connected speech. For example, 'The dog is chasing a ball. ' The words dog and ball are nouns and both are singular used as subject and object in the sentence respectively; is chasing is the predicate verb(谓语动词), showing present continuous tense(现在进行时), and the and a are determiners(限定词，限定成分；决定因素), specifying definiteness and number. Unlike lexical meaning, different lexemes(词素)or lexical items(词项), which have different lexical meanings, may have the same grammatical meaning, e. g. tables, men, oxen, potatoes (having the same plural meaning) and taught, -worked, forgave (having the same tense meaning). On the other hand, one and the same lexeme may have different grammatical meaning as shown in forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting. Functional words, though having little lexical meaning, possess strong grammatical meaning whereas content words have both meanings, and their lexical meanings are prominent.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning form the word meaning. As stated already, grammatical meaning surfaces(显现)only in use, but lexical meaning is constant in all the content words within or without context as it is related to the concept the word conveys. Therefore it remains the focus of semantic studies and naturally is our chief concern. Lexical meaning itself embraces(包括)two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.2. Conceptual Meaning and Associative MeaningConceptual meaning ( also known as cognitive（认知的）, denotative（外延的）, or designative（指称的）meaning) is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word generally has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers in the same speech community. Take 'The sun rises in the east'. The symbol sun here means 'a heavenly body which gives off light, heat, and energy', a concept which is unmistakable to anyone who speaks English.Associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented(补充) to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture,experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education, etc.. Nida in his Language, Culture, and Translating (1993) lists six sources of associative meanings, namely,(1)the persons who use such lexemes;(2) the settings in which such lexemes are generally employed;(3) the occurrence of such lexemes in prior texts (intertextuality(互文性));(4) contamination(（词语的）感染错合；（文章的）混杂) from linguistic collocations;(5) contamination from homophones(同音词);(6) cultural values associated with the referents of the lexemes.These could be fused into four categories: connotative(内涵的), stylistic, affective(情感的), and collocative(搭配的) (Leech 1981).1) Connotative MeaningOpposite to the denotative meaning(外延意义), connotative meaning(内涵意义) refers to the overtones(附带意义)or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations. It is not an essential part ofthe word meaning, but social and cultural values that might occur in the mind of particular users of the language. For example, mother, denoting a 'female parent', is often associated with 'love', 'care', 'tenderness', 'forgiving', etc. . These connotations are not given in the dictionary, but associated with the word n actual context to particular readers or speakers. Another example is home, whose conceptual meaning is 'a dwelling place'. When readers come across the term in actual reading, they may make out more than that. It may remind them of their 'family, friends, warmth, safety, love, convenience', etc. . These connotations are implied in he well-known sayings ' East or west, home is best' and ' There is no place like home'.Connotative meaning is peripheral(边缘的；不重要的) compared with conceptual meaning and annotations are relatively unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. Suppose a child is prejudiced against, often jeered(嘲笑)at, beaten or scolded at home, then home to him is nothing but a hell, naturally he unfavorable connotations, 'indifference', 'hatred', 'disgust' and so on. Even a phrase like son of a bitch which normally has an associative meaning of crude vulgarity(粗俗；粗野) may convey the connotation of 'friendly conviviality'(欢宴；宴饮交际) used between two close friends when they meet after some prolonged period of time as in 'And how are you doing, you old son of a bitch ?'. (Nida 1993:41)2) Stylistic MeaningApart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles. These distinctive features form the stylistic meaning of words. In some dictionaries, these stylistic features are clearly marked as formal', 'informal', 'literary', 'archaic' (古体的，不通用的；过时的), 'slang' and so on. For instance, pregnant, expecting, knocking up, in the club, greggers, up the stick, up the spout(被典当掉；被毁灭；丧失掉；怀孕), glowing, etc. , all can have the same reference, but differ in their contextual appropriateness. Words such as facticity(确凿性), neoclassicism(新古典主义), plausibility(似真性),legitimacy(合法性)carry meanings of pedantry(卖弄学问；迂腐) and are appropriate for technical writing.The stylistic differentiation(差异) is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and the stylistic meaning. Martin Joos (1962) in his The Five Clocks suggests five degreesof formality: 'frozen'(冷冻体), 'formal'(正式体), 'consultative'(商洽体), 'casual'(随意体) and 'intimate '(亲密体). Accordingly, the synonyms charger(战马), steed(骏马), horse, nag(老马), plug(老而无用的马)can be labeled as 'frozen', 'formal', consultative', 'casual' and 'intimate' respectively. People generally do not go into such elaboration(详述). The normal terms used to classify styles are 'formal', 'neutral' orinformal'. In such terms charger and steed can be marked 'formal', nag and plug 'informal' and horse ' general' or ' neutral'. Compare the following two groups of synonyms:domicile (very formal, official)(住宅；【律】原籍)residence (formal)abode (poetic)(住所)home (general)diminutive (very formal) (小的，小型的)tiny (colloquial)w ee (colloquial, dialectal)(极小的；（苏格兰）一点点)(Leech 1981: 14-15)Leech also illustrates the stylistic distinction in the following two sentences (ibid):(1) They chucked(扔)a stone at the cops(条子), and then did a bunk with(窜)the loot(战利品).(2) After casting a stone at the police, they absconded() with the money.Apart from the structural difference, the stylistic features of words are quite conspicuous(). Sentence (1) could be said by two criminals, talking casually about the crime afterwards, so all the words used in italics are slang, whereas sentence (2) might be said by the chief inspector in making his official report, thus the words used are literary (cast, abscond) or neutral (police, money).3) Affective MeaningAffective meaning expresses the speaker's attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be overtly and explicitly conveyed simply by the choice of the right words as many have emotive content in themselves, e. g. vicious(恶毒的), villainous(罪恶的), tyrant(暴君), love, hate, anger, grief(悲痛), pleasure. Interjections(感叹词)are generally expressions of emotions such as oh , dear me, alas, hurrah.Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: appreciative(褒义的)or pejorative. Words ofpositive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval such as famous, determined, slim /slender, black; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt(鄙视)or criticism, e.g. notorious(臭名昭著的), pigheaded(倔强的), skinny(皮包骨的), nigger.(黑鬼)Just like connotative meaning, affective meaning varies from individual to individual, from culture to culture, from generation to generation, from society to society. Words like revolution, freedom, democracy, imperialism may have quite different interpretations in different societies and sometimes these' emotive' overtones are more important in the words' use than the denotations (概念意义) (Jackson 1988). Another example is the word dog which may have quite different affective meanings in different societies. In most Western countries, dog is associated with 'loyalty', 'faithfulness', a close companion' and all positive qualities; whereas to Chinese, dog at its best is a useful animal. As a matter of fact, it generally takes on negative associations. If a person is compared to a dog, the speaker's attitude towards the person is no more than contemptuous'(鄙视的). In many cases, the appreciative or pejorative meaning of the words are brought out only by the speakers in context:(1) He is bright and ambitious.(有抱负的)(2) Knowledge of inequality has stimulated envy, ambition and greed.(野心)(3) The reactionary's chief ambition is to become the emperor.(野心)(4) One who is filled with ambition usually works hard.(抱负)In sentences (1) and (4), the italicized words are obviously used in good sense showing approval on the part of the speaker. In sentences (2) and (3), however, ambition undoubtedly conveys a pejorative overtone. Therefore, to a large extent the affective meaning of the word depends on the circumstances under which it is used.4) Collocative MeaningAs Leech defines, 'collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment. ' In other words, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words with which it co-occurs. He illustrates the point by the synonyms of pretty and handsome. These two words share the conceptual meaning of 'good-looking ' , but are distinguished by the rangeof nouns they collocate with:girl boyboy manwoman carflower womanpretty gardenovercoathandsomecolor airlinevillage typewriteretc. etc.It may be noted that there is some overlap between the collocations of the two words, e. g. pretty woman and handsome woman. Though both are perfectly correct, yet they suggest a different kind of attractiveness. A pretty woman stresses the attractiveness of facial features while a handsome woman may not be facially beautiful yet is attractive in other respects: a slender figure, graceful posture and behaviour, etc. . The same is true of tremble and quiver, both meaning 'shake involuntarily', but people tremble with fear and quiver withexcitement, showing different implications.It is again noticeable that collocative meaning overlaps with connotative and affective meaning because in a sense both connotative and affective meanings are revealed by virtue of collocations or contextuality(互文性). As Nida notes, one can often tell what work a person has been doing by the kinds of stains on clothing, so a word in particular contexts is likely to acquire associative meanings reflecting such usage. Green is a kind color but its meaning is obviously affected when it occurs in such phrases as green on he job, green fruit, green with envy, green-eyed monster.5.4 Componential AnalysisComponential analysis, according to Leech, is the process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components. Every content word, even some of the simplest, harbours(包含；怀有) an amazingly explicit(明确) set of wayward(难以捉摸的，无法预言的；不规则的) traits(特征，特性) . Digging them out, classifying them, and showing their relationships is termed componential analysis(成分分析) ( Bolinger and Sears 1981:114). As an example, let us examine a group of semantically related words man , woman , boy, girl.A B1 man wo ma n2 boygirlThis diagram represents three-dimensions of meaning of these words. Vertically, Column A and Column B show the dimension of sex 'male' and 'female'; horizontally, Line 1 and Line 2 reveal the dimension of age 'adult' and 'young'. Considered as a whole, these four words form the semantic field(语义场) 'human race', the third dimension. These traits of words are abstracted from the words and are called by semantic analysts semantic features(语义特征) , which are the components of the sense of words. Conventionally, these minimal components can "be symbolized in terms of binarity(两极性) : + ADULT (adult) , —ADULT (young), + MALE (male), —MALE (female), + HUMAN (human), -HUMAN (non-human). Therefore, the meanings of the individual items can be expressed by combinations of these features:man ( + HUMAN + ADULT + MALE)woman ( + HUMAN + ADULT -MALE)boy( + HUMAN -ADULT + MALE)girl( + HUMAN - ADULT - MALE) however, the sexual dimension of the meaning of many lexical items is characteristic of neutralization(中性) of opposition such as cat, child. Under such circumstances, we might describe the definition as follows (See Leech 1981:90) :child ( + HUMAN - ADULT OMALE)cat ( - HUMAN + ADULT OMALE)In making componential analysis, it is important to focus on the defining features, i.e. features which can distinguish one word from another. For example, between horse, cattle and machine, chair, the defining feature is ( ± ANIMATE); between road, house and thought, philosophy, the distinguishing feature(区别性特征) is ( ± CONCRETE); between water, gas and stone , tree, the discriminating feature(区别性特征) is [ ±COUNTABLE] , etc. . Verbs like nouns also have defining features(区别性特征) , for example, ( ± MOMENTARY), ( ±DYNAMIC), ( ±TRANSITIVE).Componential analysis as a theory of word meaning is a useful and revealing technique(展示手段) for demonstrating relations of meaning between words. Knowing the semanticfeatures of a word helps one in grasping the conceptual meaning. For example, the word dog can be defined as ( + ANIMATE, -HUMAN, +CANINE(犬科动物) , + DOMESTIC) plus (OMALE) or (+ COUNTABLE) depending on the intention of the user. Similarly, the meaning of foal() is composed of [ + ANIMATE, -HUMAN, + EQUINE(马；马科动物) , -ADULT, OMALE], which tell us it is a 'young horse'.Secondly, componential analysis can help show the synonymy of two items by giving them both the same componential features. For instance, spinster and maiden are synonymous in that both are [ + HUMAN, - MALE, - MARRIED], but differ considerably in connotations: the former conveying a negative overtone(含蓄之意；暗示) , the latter a positive association.Thirdly, by componential analysis of words, we can tell whether a certain collocation or syntactic structure is acceptable or not. Let us look at two sentences:(1) * He has left this neighborhood for ten years.(2) He has lived in this neighborhood for ten years.The surface structures of the two sentences are very similar. It seems that one is not any better than the other. However, if we analyze just the semantic features of the verbs, we will come toquite a different conclusion. The verb leave used in sentence (1) is [ + MOMENTARY], and is not supposed to co-occur with 'for+ time' which is characteristic of [ - MOMENTARY]; while in sentence (2), live is a [ - MOMENTARY] verb, and is grammatically compatible with(与…一致的) 'for + time'. Therefore, sentence (1) is not acceptable whereas sentence (2) is. This can be further illustrated:(1) The robbers broke into the bank with a hammer.(2) * A hammer broke into the bank by the robbers. Break has the feature of [ + DYNAMIC], entailing a subject which is [+ANIMATE]. The word robber is [ + HUMAN], which is semantically included in the feature of [+ANIMATE], so logically sentence (1) is correct. But sentence (2) is problematic, as hammer is [-ANIMATE], incapable of the agent of the action of breaking. (Consequently, sentence (2) is unacceptable.Nevertheless, semanticists do not agree on the merits of componential analysis, which is in fact controversial. The major views are:1) Componential analysis is useful only in a limited scope,for it accounts for only some parts of a language'svocabulary. It is well applicable, to concrete wordswhich have definite referents, but not effective when we deal with words of abstract ideas or words whose referents are not clear. For example, what are the semantic features of beauty, delight, hostility?It is not easy to abstract components of their senses. Even a concrete word like game is hard to analyze. Failing to find the essential defining features that constitute game, Wittgenstein concluded that we know what the word game means only by virtue of recognizing certain 'family resemblance'(家族相似性) between the activities it refers to. Labov's experiment with the object 'cup' (1973) leads to the same conclusion that often a word can not be defined in terms of a clear-cut, unvarying set of features. Does the cup have a handle, have a saucer? Is it narrow and deep rather than wide and shallow? Is it used for drinking out of or for other purposes? Indeed, it is difficult to pin them down (See discussion by Leech 1981: 117-118).2) Some semanticists hold that it is not enough to breakdown the sense of a word into its components in terms of their referents' physical aspects. In the actual contexts, many words are used in figurative rather than literalsense. For example, tiger is defined as [+ ANIMATE,+FELINE(猫科动物；猫科的) , +CARNIVOROUS(食肉的)], but it does not explain the sentence 'There is amixture of the tiger and the ape in the character of theimperialists'. Obviously, tiger in this context does notrefer to the animal in its physical sense but theassociative qualities of the referent under discussion, i. e.'cruel and ferocious(凶恶的；残忍的) '.Because of the figurative use of words, many collocations which in appearance are impossible are acceptable, e. g. beautiful tyrant, cold fire , honorable villain . Look at a few lines chosen from Oscar Wilde's The Ballad of Reading Goal:With yawning mouth the yellow hole (黄穴张开血盆大口，)Gaped for a living thing;(窥视等着吞食那生物；)The very mud cried out for blood(干渴的环形沥青之下，)To the thirsty asphalt ring:(泥土叫嚷拿血来喝。
词汇学术语第一章词word, lexis词汇vocabulary，lexicon本族词native words外来词borrowed words词汇学lexicology形态学morphology语义学semantics词汇语义学lexical semantics认知语义学cognitive semantics 词源学etymology词典学lexicography认知词典学cognitive lexicography 语料库语言学corpus linguistics纵聚合关系paradigmatic relation 新词coinage时髦词语buzzwords第二章词素morpheme自由词素free form粘着词素bound form\morpheme 变体allomorph词根root自由词根free root粘着词根bound root组合词素combining form词缀affix前缀prefix后缀suffix词缀法affixation派生法derivation派生词derivative构词能力productivity复合法compounding，composition复合词compound转化法conversion 或功能转化法functional shift 或转移法transmutation 零位后缀派生法derivation by zero suffix 或零位派生法zero derivation第三章拼缀法blending截短法clipping首字母拼写法acronmy逆生法back formation由专有名词而来words from proper names拟声法onomatopoeia缩略法abbreviation 或shortening截短词clipped word首字母缩略词initialism首字母拼音词acronym拼缀词blend截除词尾apocope截除词首aphaeresis截除首尾front and back clipping截除词腰syncope缩约形式contractions混成词telescope word行囊词portmanteau word拟声词onomatopoetic word 或imitative word或echo word基本拟声词primary onomatopoeia次要拟声词secondary onomatopoeia第四章语义sense词义meaning意义（概念）meaning（concept）理据motivation拟声理据onomatopoeic motivation形态理据morphologic motivation语义理据semantic motivation词源理据etymologic motivation固定意义timeless meaning 或字面意义literal meaning 应用固定意义applied timeless meaning语义情景意义occasion meaning说话者的情景意义utterer`s occasion meaning概念意义conceptual meaning外延意义denotative meaning认知意义cognitive meaning语义特征semantic features语义成分semantic components内涵意义connotative meaning社会意义social meaning情感意义affective meaning褒义化appreciative贬义化pejorative依附性范畴parasitic category联想意义reflective meaning委婉词语euphemistic expressions搭配意义collocative meaning主题意义thematic meaning语义成分分析法componential analysis语义场理论semantic field theory义素sememe 也称语义特征、语义成分或语义标示semantic markers区别性语义特征distinctive semantic feature表活动的词activity verb表过程的词process verb表身体感受的词verb of bodily sensation表过度性事件的词transitional event verb表短暂活动的词momentary verb同义义场synonymy反义义场antonymy同义场又分为：dialectal synonyms，stylistic synonyms，collocational synonyms，semantically different synonyms 反义场分为：gradable antonyms，complementary antonyms，relational antonyms认知现实主义cognitive realism框架语义学frame semantics第六章词义关系sense relations同义词synonym概念标准conceptual criterion语义标准semantic criterion基本意义denotation内涵成分connotation可替换性标准interchangeable criterion完全同义词absolute，exact，perfect synonyms部分同义词near，partial，loose synonyms口语体colloquial俚语slang方言dialect书面体written学术体learned术语体terminological古语archaic语义相反semantic oppositeness绝对反义词true antonym或矛盾词contradictory terms或二元反义词binary antonym或互补词complementaries 或不可分级反义词non-gradable antonym两极反义词polar antonym或相反词contrary terms或可分级反义词gradable antonym相对反义词converse antonym或相互反义词reciprocal antonym 或关系反义词relational opposites多项不相容词multiple incompatibility矛盾修饰法oxymoron一词多义polysemy多义词polysemic words原型prototype家族相似形family resemblance直线形关系发展linear relation非直线形关系发展non-linear relation指代anaphora同型异义关系homonymy音同sound-alike形同look-alike同形（同音）异义词homonym同音异形（异义）词homophone同形异义词homograph层级关系hierarchical relation下义词hyponym下义关系hyponymy共下义词co- hyponym上义词superordinate term包含关系relationship of inclusion 准下义关系quasi- hyponymy词汇分类结构lexical taxonomy分类关系taxonomy分类词taxonyms上类词superordinate共类词co- taxonyms共类关系co- taxonomy准分类关系quasi-taxonomy核心分类词core taxonym原型分类词prototypical taxonym 外围分类词peripheral taxonym可及性transitivity可推理性deduction部分整体关系partonomy分总的层次关系part-whole总项superordinate分项meronym必要分项necessary meronym非必要分项optional meronym空词项lexical gap第七章词义的发展meaning development 词义的转移meaning shift字面意义literal meaning比喻意义figurative meaning语言内部linguistic语言外部extra- linguistic迂回说法circumlocution词义的扩大the enlarging/widening/extension/expansion of meaning词义的一般化the generalization of meaning词义的缩小the narrowing/restriction of meaning词义的特殊化the specialization of meaning词义的升格the elevation/ascent/amelioration of meaning词义的降格degradation/degeneration/deterioration/catachresis/pejoration of meaning 委婉词语euphemism新义的诞生废弃义obsolete meaning过时义archaic meaning/old-fashioned词义转移semantic shift类比analogy隐喻metaphor相似likeness 联想association借代metonymy提喻synecdoche移位修饰transferred epithet通感synaesthesia拟声onomatopoeia中心范畴central category边缘范畴marginal category相似性similarity 相邻性contact放射型或辐射型radiation连锁型concatenation综合性词义的繁衍proliferation第八章历时的角度diachronic overview谱系分类法genetic classification原始语parent language语系大家族superfamily古英语old English中古英语middle English现代英语modern English本族词语native words借词loan/borrowed words新词neologism世界性词汇cosmopolitan vocabulary 源语言source language接受语言borrowing language第十章新词neologism或vogue words重新分析法reanalysis重叠法reduplication第十一章搭配collocation词语组合combinations of words固定型组合fixed combination自由型组合free combination习惯型搭配natural collocation语言环境linguistic context搭配的理据motivation of collocation 语法理据grammatical motivation语义理据semantic motivation语用理据pragmatic motivation语用性习惯性用语pragmatic idioms认知理据cognitive motivation第十二章成语idiom自由词组free phrase固定词组restricted collocation纯成语pure idioms半成语semi- idioms字面意义的成语literal idioms习用性idiomaticity定型性syntactic frozenness整体性semantic unity不透明性semantic opacity语言的晦涩或透明的程度差异degrees of opacity 透明的transparent半成语semi- idiom半透明semi- transparent不透明的opaque隐喻metaphor 明喻simile idioms比喻成语figurative idioms隐喻成语metaphorical idioms明喻成语similized idioms单词动词single-word verb多词动词multi-word verb短语动词phrasal verbs介词动词prepositional verbs短语介词动词phrasal- prepositional verbs英语谚语English proverbs头韵alliteration元韵assonance尾韵end rhyme头韵兼尾韵alliteration and end rhyme英语谚语词格特征明喻simile隐喻metaphor借喻analogy换喻metonymy拟人personification夸张hyperbole重复repetition排比parallels对偶antithesis倒装inversion省略ellipsis英语词组或英语成对词twin words或words in pairs。
第五章意义(语义学)(semantics)关注意义研究的学科叫语义学（semantics）。
更具体地说，语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
虽然"语义学"这一术语仅有百年出头的历史，但意义一直是人类学术活动的一个中心话题。
早在公元前五世纪，古希腊哲学家柏拉图的著作中就有关于意义的讨论。
中国的老子甚至在更早的时候就讨论过类似问题。
多年来出现了大量解释词语意义的词典，这一事实也为意义研究的悠久历史提供了证据。
然而，与语音学、音系学、形态学和句法学相比，语义学仍然是语言学中研究最少的领域。
5.1 "意义"的意义意义研究的困难之一是"意义"一词本身有不同的意义。
奥格登（C.K. Ogden）和理查兹（I.A. Richards）在1923年出版的《意义的意义》一书中罗列了"著名意义研究者提出的有代表性的主要定义"（p.186），分为16大类，加上次类则共22种。
利奇（G. Leech）在1974年第一次出版的《语义学》（p. 23）中比较温和地认可了七种意义类型，如下所示：1. 概念意义逻辑的，认知的，或者外延的内容联想意义2. 内涵意义通过语言所指所传达的意义3. 社会意义所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义4. 感情意义所传达的关于说话人或作者感情、态度方面的意义5. 反射意义通过联想同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义6. 搭配意义通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义7. 主题意义通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义利奇指出，意义的第一种类型--概念意义--构成了意义的中心部分。
这种意义是"外延"的，因为它关注词和它所指事物之间的联系。
从这点看，概念意义在很大程度上与指称相交叉。
但是，作为第二种意义类型名称而使用的"内涵"一词却不同于它在哲学讨论中的意义。
哲学家们用内涵与外延相对，表示词所指实体的性质。
