医学英语文献选读2部分文章全文翻译

The clinical and cost-effectiveness of Pharmalgen® for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy1 TITLE OF PROJECTThe clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen® for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy2 TAR TEAMLiverpool Reviews and Implementation Group (LR i G), University of Liverpool Correspondence to:Rumona Dickson, MsDirector, LR i GUniversity of LiverpoolRoom 2.12Whelan BuildingThe QuadrangleBrownlow HillLiverpoolL69 3GBTel: +44 (0) 151 794 5682Fax: +44 (0)151 794 5585Email: R.For details of expertise within the TAR team, see section 7.3 PLAIN ENGLISH SUMMARYAllergic reactions to bee and wasp venom may occur in venom-sensitive patients immediately following a sting, and can vary in severity, with initially mild symptoms sometimes progressing to critical conditions within seconds. The most severe systemic allergic reactions (generalised reactions) are known as anaphylaxis, a reaction characterised by abnormally low blood pressure, fainting or collapse, and in extreme reactions these symptoms can cause death.Each year in the UK there are between two and nine deaths from anaphylaxis caused by bee and wasp venom. The immediate treatment for severe allergic reactions to bee and wasp venom consists of emergency treatment with drugs to decrease the patient’s response to the venom and support breathing, if required.To avoid further reactions, the use of sensitisation to bee and wasp venom, through a process known as venom immunotherapy (VIT), has been investigated. Venom immunotherapy consists of subcutaneous injections of increasing amounts of venom into patients with a history of anaphylaxis to bee and wasp venom. Pharmalgen® has had UK marketing authorisation for the diagnosis and treatment (using VIT) of allergy to bee venom (using Pharmalgen® Bee Venom) and wasp venom (using Pharmalgen® Wasp Venom) since March 1995, and it is used by more than 40 centres across the UK. This review aims to assess whether using Pharmalgen® in VIT is clinically useful when treating people with a history of severe reaction to bee and wasp stings. The review will compare preventative treatment with Pharmalgen® to other treatment options, including high dose antihistamines, advice on theavoidance of bee and wasp stings and adrenaline auto-injector prescription and training. If suitable data are available, the review will also consider the cost effectiveness of using Pharmalgen® for VIT and other subgroups including children and people at high risk of future stings or severe allergic reactions to future stings.4 DECISION PROBLEM4.1 Clarification of research question and scopePharmalgen® is used for the diagnosis and treatment of immunoglobin E (IgE)-mediated allergy to bee and wasp venom. The aim of this report is to assess whether the use of Pharmalgen® is of clinical value when providing VIT to individuals with a history of severe reaction to bee and wasp venom and whether doing so would be considered cost effective compared with alternative treatment options available in the NHS.4.2 BackgroundBees and wasps form part of the order Hymenoptera (which also includes ants), and within this order the species that cause the most frequent allergic reactions are the Vespidae (wasps, yellow jackets and hornets), and the Apinae (honeybees).1Bee and wasp stings contain allergenic proteins. In wasps, these are predominantly phospholipase A1,2 hyaluronidase2 and antigen 5,3 and in bees are phospholipase A2 and hyaluronidase.4 Following an initial sting, a type 1 hypersensitivity reaction may occur in some individuals which produces the IgE antibody. This sensitises cells to the allergen, and any subsequent exposure to the allergen may cause the allergen to bind to the IgE molecules, which results in an allergic reaction.These allergens typically produce an intense, burning pain followed by erythema (redness) and a small area of oedema (swelling) at the site of the sting. The symptoms produced following a sting can be classified into non-allergic reactions, such as local reactions, and allergic reactions, such as extensive local reactions, anaphylactic systemic reactions and delayed systemic reactions.5-6 Systemic allergic reactions may occur in venom-sensitive patients immediately following a sting,7 and can vary in severity, with initially mild symptoms sometimes progressing to critical conditions within seconds.1The most severe systemic allergic reaction is known as anaphylaxis. Anaphylactic reactions are of rapid onset (typically up to 15 minutes post sting) and can manifest in different ways. Initial symptoms are usually cutaneous followed by hypotension, with light-headedness, fainting or collapse. Some people develop respiratory symptoms due to an asthma-like response or laryngeal oedema. In severe reactions, hypotension, circulatory disturbances, and breathing difficulty can progress to fatal cardio-respiratory arrest.Anaphylaxis occurs more commonly in males and in people under 20 years of age and can be severe and potentially fatal.84.3 EpidemiologyIt is estimated that the prevalence of wasp and bee sting allergy is between 0.4% and 3.3%.9 The incidence of systemic reactions to wasp and bee venom is not reliably known, but estimates range from 0.15-3.3%,10-11 Systemic allergic reactions are reported by up to 3% of adults, and almost 1% of children have a medical history of severe sting reactions.9, 12 After a large local reaction, 5–15% of people will go on to develop a systemic reaction when next stung.13 In people with a mild systemic reaction, the risk of subsequent systemic reactions is thought to be about 18%.13 Hymenoptera venom are one of the three main causes of fatalanaphylaxis in the USA and UK.14-15 Insect stings are the second most frequent cause of anaphylaxis outside of medical settings.16 Between two and nine people in the UK die each year as a result of anaphylaxis due to reactions to wasp and bee stings.17 Once an individual has experienced an anaphylactic reaction, the risk of having a recurrent episode has been estimated to be between 60% and 79%.13In 2000, the register of fatal anaphylactic reactions in the UK from 1992 onwards was reported by Pumphrey to determine the frequency at which classic manifestations of fatal anaphylaxis are present.18 Of the 56 post-mortems carried out, 19 deaths were recorded as reactions to Hymenoptera venom (33.9%). A retrospective study in 2004 examined all deaths from anaphylaxis in the UK between 1992 and 2001, and estimated 22.19% to be reactions to Hymenoptera venom (47/212). This further breaks down into 29/212 (13.68%) as reactions to wasp stings, and 4/212 (1.89%) as reactions to bee stings. The remaining 14/212 were unidentified Hymenoptera stings (6.62%).194.4 Current diagnostic optionsCurrently, individuals can be tested to determine if they are at risk of systemic reactions to bee and wasp venom. The primary diagnostic method for systemic reactions to bee and/or wasp stings is venom skin testing.Skin testing involves intradermal injection with the five Hymenoptera venom protein extracts, with venom concentratio ns in the range of 0.001 to 1.0 μg/ml. This establishes the minimum concentration giving a positive result (a reaction occurring in the individual). As venom tests show unexplained variability over time,20 and as negative skin tests can occur following recent anaphylaxis, it is recommended that tests be repeated after 1 to 6 months.21Other methods of diagnosis in patients following an anaphylactic reaction include radioallergosorbent test (RAST), which detects allergen-specific IgE antibodies in serum. This test is less sensitive than skin testing but is useful when skin tests cannot be done, for example in patients with skin conditions.22-234.5 Current treatment optionsPreventative treatments include education on how to avoid bee and wasp venom, and prescription of high dose antihistamines. Patients with a history of moderate local reactions should be provided with an emergency kit,24 containing a H1-blocking antihistamine and a topical corticosteroid for immediate use following a sting. Patients with a history of anaphylaxis should be provided with an emergency kit containing a rapid-acting H1-blocking antihistamine, an oral corticosteroid and an auto-injector for self administration, containing epinephrine.Injected epinephrine (a sympathomimetic drug which acts on both alpha and beta receptors) is regarded as the emergency treatment of choice for cases of acute anaphylaxis as a result of Hymenoptera stings.25 For adults, the recommended dose is between 0.30 mg/ml and 0.50mg/ml I.M, and 0.01 ml/kg I.M. for children. Individuals with a history of anaphylactic reactions are recommended to carry auto injectors containing epinephrine (commonly known as EpiPen®, Adrenaclick®, Anapen® or Twinject®). These are intended for immediateself-administration by individuals with a history of hypersensitivity to Hymenoptera stings and other allergens.Preventive measures following successful treatment of a systemic allergic reaction to Hymenoptera venom consists of either allergen avoidance or specific allergen immunotherapy,known as VIT. Venom immunotherapy is considered to be a safe and effective treatment.26 Currently, VIT can be used with several regimes, including Pharmalgen® (manufactured by ALK Abello, and licensed in the UK), Aquagen® and Alutard SQ® (both manufactured by ALK Abello and unlicensed in the UK but licensed in some parts of Europe), VENOMENHAL® (HAL Allergy, Leiden, Netherlands, unlicensed in the UK), Alyostal® (Stallergenes, Antony Cedex, France, unlicensed in the UK), and Venomil® (Hollister-Stier Laboratories LLC, unlicensed in the UK). Venom immunotherapy is recommended to prevent future systemic reactions. It is recommended that VIT is considered ‘when positive test results for specific IgE antibodies correlate with suspected triggers and pat ient exposure’.27 Venom immunotherapy consists of subcutaneous injections of increasing amounts of venom, and treatment is divided into two periods: the build up phase and maintenance phase. Venom immunotherapy is now the standard therapy for Hymenoptera sting allergy,28 and is a model for allergen-specific therapy,29-30 with success rates (patients who will remain anaphylaxis free) being reported as more than 98% in some studies.4, 31 There are now 44 centres across the UK which provide VIT to people for bee and wasp sting allergy. Venom immunotherapy is normally discontinued after 3 to 5 years, but modifications may be necessary when treating people with intense allergen exposure (such as beekeepers) or those with individual risk factors for severe reactions. There is no method of assessing which patients will be at risk of further anaphylactic reactions following administration of VIT and those who will remain anaphylaxis free in the long term following VIT.27Local or systemic adverse reactions may occur as a result of VIT. They normally develop within 30 minutes of the injection. Each patient is monitored closely following each injection to check for adverse reactions. Progression to an increased dose only occurs if the previous dose is fully tolerated.4.6 The technologyPharmalgen® is produced by ALK Abello, and has had UK marketing authorisation for the diagnosis (using skin testing/intracutaneous testing) and treatment (using VIT) ofIgE-mediated allergy to bee venom (Pharmalgen® Bee Venom) and wasp venom (Pharmalgen® Wasp Venom) since March 1995 (marketing authorisation number PL10085/0004). The active ingredient is partially purified freeze dried Vespula spp. venom in Pharmalgen® Wasp Venom and freeze dried Apis mellifera venom in Pharmalgen® Bee Venom, each provided in powder form for solution for injection.Before treatment is considered, allergy to bee or wasp venom must be confirmed by case history and diagnosis. Treatment with Pharmalgen® Bee or Wasp Venom is performed by subcutaneous injections. The treatment is carried out in two phases: the initial phase and the maintenance phase.In the build up phase, the dose is increased stepwise until the maintenance dose (the maximum tolerable dose before an allergic reaction) is achieved. ALK Abello recommends the following dosage proposals: conventional, modified rush (clustered) and rush updosing. In conventional updosing, the patient receives one injection every 3-7 days. In modified rush (clustered) updosing, the patient receives 2-4 injections once a week. If necessary this interval may be extended up to two weeks. The 2-4 injections are given with an interval of 30 minutes. In rush updosing, while being hospitalised the patient receives injections with a 2-hour interval. A maximum of four injections per day may be given in the initial phase.The build up phase ends when the individual maintenance dose has been attained and the interval between the injections is increased to 2, 3 and 4 weeks. This is called the maintenance phase, and the maintenance dose is then given every 4 weeks for at least 3 years. Contra-indications to VIT treatment are immunological diseases (e. g. immune complex diseases and immune deficiencies); chronic heart/lung diseases; treatment with β-blockers; severe eczema. Side effects include superficial wheal and flare due to shallow injection; local swelling (which may be immediate or delayed up to 48 hours); mild general reactions such as urticaria, erythema, rhinitis or mild asthma; moderate or severe general reactions such as more severe asthma, angioedema or an anaphylactic reaction with hypotension and respiratory embarrassment; anaphylaxis (often starting with erythema and pruritus, followed by urticaria, angioedema, nasal or pharyngial congestion, wheezing, dyspnoea, nausea, hypotension, syncope, tachycardia or diarrhoea). 324.7 Objectives of the HTA projectThe aim of this review is to assess the clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen® in providing immunotherapy to individuals with a history of type 1 IgE-mediated systemic allergic reaction to bee and wasp venom. The review will consider the effectiveness of Pharmalgen® when compared to alternative treatment options available in the NHS, including advice on the avoidance of bee and wasp stings, high dose antihistamines and adrenaline auto-injector prescription and training. The review will also examine the existing health economic evidence and identify the key economic issues related to the use of Pharmalgen® in UK clinical practice. If suitable data are available, an economic model will be developed and populated to evaluate if the use of Pharmalgen® for the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy, within its licensed indication, would be a cost effective use of NHS resources.5 METHODS FOR SYNTHESISING CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS EVIDENCE5.1 Search strategyThe major electronic databases including Medline, Embase and The Cochrane Library will be searched for relevant published literature. Information on studies in progress, unpublished research or research reported in the grey literature will be sought by searching a range of relevant databases including National Research Register and Controlled Clinical Trials. A sample of the search strategy to be used for MEDLINE is presented inAppendix 1.Bibliographies of previous systematic reviews, retrieved articles and the submissions provided by manufacturers will be searched for further studies.A database of published and unpublished literature will be assembled from systematic searches of electronic sources, hand searching, contacting manufacturers and consultation with experts in the field. The database will be held in the Endnote X4 software package.5.1.1 Inclusion criteriaThe inclusion criteria specified in Table 1 will be applied to all studies after screening. The inclusion criteria were selected to reflect the criteria described in the final scope issued by NICE for the review. However, as there is likely to be a limited amount of RCT data, the inclusion criteria of study design may be expanded to include comparative studies and descriptive cohorts. The clinical and cost effectiveness of Pharmalgenfor the treatment of bee and wasp venom allergy Page 11 of 21Table 1: Inclusion criteria Intervention(s) Pharmalgen® for the treatment of bee and waspvenom allergy,Population(s) People with a history of type 1 IgE-mediatedsystemic allergic reactions to:wasp venom and/or bee venomComparators Alternative treatment options available in theNHS, without venom immunotherapy including:advice on the avoidance of bee and waspvenom,high-dose antihistamines,adrenaline auto-injector prescription andtrainingStudy design Randomised controlled trialsSystematic reviewsOutcomes Outcome measures to be considered include:number and severity of type 1 IgE-mediatedsystemic allergic reactionsmortalityanxiety related to the possibility of future allergicreactionsadverse effects of treatmenthealth-related quality of lifeOther considerations If the evidence allows, considerations will begiven to subgroups of people, according totheir:risk of future stings (as determined, forexample, by occupational exposure)risk of severe allergic reactions to future stings(as determined by such factors as baselinetryptase levels and co-morbidities)If the evidence allows, the appraisal willconsider separately people who have acontraindication to adrenaline.If the evidence allows, the appraisal willconsider children separately.Two reviewers will independently screen all titles and abstracts of papers identified in the initial search. Discrepancies will be resolved by consensus and where necessary a third reviewer will be consulted. Studies deemed to be relevant will be obtained and assessed for inclusion. Where studies do not meet the inclusion criteria they will be excluded.5.1.2 Data extraction strategyData relating to study design, findings and quality will be extracted by one reviewer andindependently checked for accuracy by a second reviewer. Study details will be extracted using a standardised data extraction form. If time permits, attempts will be made to contact authors for missing data. Data from studies presented in multiple publications will be extracted and reported as a single study with all relevant other publications listed.5.1.3 Quality assessment strategyThe quality of the clinical-effectiveness studies will be assessed according to criteria based on the CRD’s guidance for undertaking reviews in healthcare.33-34 The quality of the individual clinical-effectiveness studies will be assessed by one reviewer, and independently checked for agreement by a second. Disagreements will be resolved through consensus and if necessary a third reviewer will be consulted.5.1.4 Methods of analysis/synthesisThe results of the data extraction and quality assessment for each study will be presented in structured tables and as a narrative summary. The possible effects of study quality on the effectiveness data and review findings will be discussed. All summary statistics will be extracted for each outcome and where possible, data will be pooled using a standard meta-analysis.35 Heterogeneity between the studies will be assessed using the I2 test.34 Both fixed and random effects results will be presented as forest plots.6 METHODS FOR SYNTHESISING COST EFFECTIVENESS EVIDENCE The economic section of the report will be presented in two parts. The first will include a standard review of relevant published economic evaluations. If appropriate and data are available, the second will include the development of an economic model. The model will be designed to estimate the cost effectiveness of Pharmalgen® for VIT in individuals with a history of anaphylaxis to bee and wasp venom. This section of the report will also consider budget impact and will take account of available information on current and anticipated patient numbers and service configuration for the treatment of this condition in the NHS.6.1 Systematic review of published economic literatureThe literature review of economic evidence will identify any relevant published cost-minimisation, cost-effectiveness, cost-utility and/or cost-benefit analyses. Economic evaluations/models included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be included in the review and critiqued as appropriate.6.1.1 Search strategyThe search strategies detailed in section 5 will be adapted accordingly to identify studies examining the cost effectiveness of using Pharmalgen® for VIT in patients with a history of allergic reactions to bee or wasp venom. Other searching activities, including electronic searching of online health economic journals and contacting experts in the field will also be undertaken. Full details of the search process will be presented in the final report. The search strategy will be designed to meet the primary objective of identifying economic evaluations for inclusion in the cost-effectiveness literature review. At the same time, the search strategy will be used to identify economic evaluations and other information sources which may include data that can be used to populate a de novo economic model where appropriate. Searching will be undertaken in MEDLINE and EMBASE as well as in the Cochrane Library, which includes the NHS Economic Evaluation Database (NHS EED).6.1.2 Inclusion and exclusionIn addition to the inclusion criteria outlined in Table 1, specific criteria required for thecost-effectiveness review are described in Table 2. In particular, only full economic evaluations that compare two or more options and consider both costs and consequences will be included in the review of published literature. Any economic evaluations/models included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be included as appropriate. Studies that do not meet all of the criteria will be excluded and their bibliographic details listed with reasons for exclusion.Table 2: Additional inclusion criteria (cost effectiveness) Study design Full economic evaluations that consider both costs and consequences(cost-effectiveness analysis, cost-utility analysis, cost-minimisation analysis and cost benefit analysis)Outcomes Incremental cost per life year gainedIncremental cost per quality adjusted lifeyear gained6.1.3 Data extraction strategyData relating to both study design and quality will be extracted by one reviewer and independently checked for accuracy by a second reviewer. Disagreement will be resolved through consensus and, if necessary, a third reviewer will be consulted. If time constraints allow, attempts will be made to contact authors for missing data. Data from multiple publications will be extracted and reported as a single study.6.1.4 Quality assessment strategyThe quality of the cost-effectiveness studies/models will be assessed according to a checklist updated from that developed by Drummond et al.36 This checklist will reflect the criteria for economic evaluation detailed in the methodological guidance developed by NICE.37 The quality of the individual cost-effectiveness studies/models will be assessed by one reviewer, and independently checked for agreement by a second. Disagreements will be resolved through consensus and, if necessary, a third reviewer will be consulted. The information will be tabulated and summarised within the text of the report.6.2 Methods of analysis/synthesis6.2.1 Cost effectiveness review of published literatureIndividual study data and quality assessment will be summarised in structured tables and as a narrative description. Potential effects of study quality will be discussed.To supplement findings from the economic literature review, additional cost and benefit information from other sources, including the manufacturer submission(s) to NICE, will be collated and presented as appropriate.6.2.2 Development of a de novo economic model by the AGa. Cost dataThe primary perspective for the analysis of cost information will be the NHS. Cost data will therefore focus on the marginal direct health service costs associated with the intervention. Quantities of resources used will be identified from consultation with experts, primary data from relevant sources and the reviewed literature. Where possible, unit cost data will be extracted from the literature or obtained from other relevant sources (drug price lists, NHS reference costs and Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accounting cost databases).Where appropriate costs will be discounted at 3.5% per annum, the rate recommended in NICE guidance to manufacturers and sponsors of submissions. 37b. Assessmentof benefitsA balance sheet will be constructed to list benefits and costs arising from alternative treatment options. LRiG anticipates that the main measures of benefit will be increased QALYs. Where appropriate, effectiveness and other measures of benefit will be discounted at 3.5%, the rate recommended in NICE guidance to manufacturers and sponsors of submissions. 37 b. ModellingThe ability of LRiG to construct an economic model will depend on the data available. Where modelling is appropriate, a summary description of the model and a critical appraisal of key structures, assumptions, resources, data and sensitivity analysis (see Section d) will be presented. In addition, LRiG will provide an assessment of the model’s strengths and weaknesses and discuss the implications of using different assumptions in the model. Reasons for any major discrepancies between the results obtained from assessment group model and the manufacturer model(s) will be explored.The time horizon will be a patient’s lifetime in order to reflect the chronic nature of the disease.A formal combination of costs and benefits will also be performed, although the type of economic evaluation will only be chosen in light of the variations in outcome identified from the clinical- effectiveness review evidence.If data are available, the results will be presented as incremental cost per QALY ratios for each alternative considered. If sufficient data are not available to construct these measures with reasonable precision, incremental cost-effectiveness analysis or cost-minimisation analysis will be undertaken. Any failure to meet the reference case will be clearly specified and justified, and the likely implications will, as far as possible, be quantified.d. Sensitivity analysisIf appropriate, sensitivity analysis will be applied to LRiG’s model in order to assess the robustness of the results to realistic variations in the levels of the underlying parameter values and key assumptions. Where the overall results are sensitive to a particular variable, the sensitivity analysis will explore the exact nature of the impact of variations.Imprecision inthe principal model cost-effectiveness results with respect to key parameter values will be assessed by use of techniques compatible with the modelling methodology deemed appropriate to the research question and to the potential impact on decision making for specific comparisons (e.g. multi-way sensitivity analysis, cost-effectiveness acceptability curves etc).7 HANDLING THE MANUFACTURER SUBMISSION(S)All data submitted by the drug manufacturers arriving before 22nd March 2011 and meeting the set inclusion criteria will be considered for inclusion in the review. Data arriving after this date will only be considered if time constraints allow. Any economic evaluations included in the manufacturer submission(s) will be assessed. This will include a detailed analysis of the appropriateness of the parametric and structural assumptions involved in any models in the submission and an assessment of how robust the models are to changes in key assumptions. Clarification on specific aspects of the model may be sought from the relevant manufacturer. Any 'commercial in confidence' data taken from a manufacturer submission will be clearly。

第一章To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, hematology, immunology, psychology etc.了解人体各部分的组成及其功能，对于认识人体是必需的。

研究人体结构的科学叫解剖学；研究人体功能的科学叫生理学。

其他研究人体的科学包括生物学、细胞学、胚胎学、组织学、内分泌学、血液学、遗传学、免疫学、心理学等等。

Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are described in this article.解剖学家发现把整个人体分成骨骼、肌肉、循环、呼吸、消化、泌尿、内分泌、神经、生殖系统以及感觉器官的做法是很有帮助的。

医用英语2翻译UNIT1-B发炎炎的定义和性质1当活组织受伤，一系列的变化，这可能会持续几个小时，几天或几周，发生在和周围的损伤面积。

这种损伤的反应称为炎症，一词源于拉丁文，意思是烧inflammare。

2伤是不正常的，但身体的反应，炎症，是一种正常的，复杂的生理反应，只有一个可能，尤其是受伤的情况下。

由约翰·亨特（1794），谁，他的战争创伤的研究后，得出结论：“炎症本身是不被考虑作为一种疾病，但这种炎症反应性被首次发现，作为一个有益的操作，一些暴力或一些随之而来的病“。

许多不同类型的损伤可能会引起炎症。

他们可分为如下：1）物理因素，如过度加热或冷却，紫外线或电离辐射或机械损伤。

2）化学物质，包括各种细菌的毒素。

3）过敏反应。

可能与细菌或其他抗原抗体或致敏淋巴细胞的反应，过敏释放物质引起的炎症反应机制。

4）微生物感染的炎症很重要的原因。

在一些微生物可能伤害组织方式由外或内毒素的释放，过敏机制或看到许多病毒感染的细胞死亡的细胞增殖。

5）从几乎任何原因引起的组织坏死，导致在邻近的活组织诱导炎症的物质释放。

4，在受伤后的头几个小时的反应伤害的原因是定型，并广泛应用于不同的各种类似的初步反应，急性炎症反应。

通常表示后缀炎的炎症病灶性质。

因此，阑尾发炎是阑尾炎，肝炎等。

偶尔有历史的例外。

肺部发炎是传统的肺炎，肺炎，胸膜胸膜炎胸膜炎。

急性和慢性长期指的响应时间。

急性炎症持续数天或数周;慢性炎症持续几个星期，几个月，甚至几年。

5炎症反应通常是有益的，的确是在打击大多数感染和限制许多有毒物质的有害影响的关键。

然而，它并不总是利益。

有许多情况下，当组织或其他不良影响的破坏是由于不损伤剂，但一个或其他方面的身体受伤的反应。

例如在喉部的急性炎症有可能是足够的炎性肿胀，阻碍呼吸道和窒息导致死亡。

同时在奥胡斯的反应和某些蜱叮咬，组织坏死，局部反应是由物质积聚在损伤部位的炎症反应的一部分，多形核白细胞中解放出来：如坏死引起的，不会发生在剥夺动物骨髓的毒药，如氮芥治疗前血白细胞。

Unit OneText A： Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人，尊重病人，尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。

作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的，虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。

根据医学历史权威的看法，这个宣言的内容是在公元前四世纪起草的，这使希波克拉底自己起草这个宣言成为可能。

无论如何，不管是否是希波克拉底自己起草的（希波克拉底宣言），这个宣言的内容都反映了他在医学伦理上的看法。

作为代表当时希腊观点的唯一一小部分，希波克拉底誓言首次被写时并没有受到很好的欢迎。

然而,在那远古时代结束时,医生们开始遵循誓言的条款。

当科学医学在罗马帝国衰亡后遭受一显而易见的衰退时，这个誓言,连同希波克拉底医学的指示命令，在西方都几乎被遗忘是有可能的。

正是通过东方坚持不懈的探索精神，使得希波克拉底医学信念和希波克拉底宣言得以在这一恶化的时期幸存下来，尤其是通过阿拉伯当局在医学上的著作。

希腊医学知识而后在西方基督教复活是通过了阿拉伯文论著和原始希腊文的拉丁文翻译。

到17世纪后期，专业行为标准已经在西方世界建立。

被专业组织通过的第一部医学伦理学的法典是由英国内科医生托马斯·珀西瓦尔(1740 - 1804)1794年编写的, 并在1846年被改编和通过了美国医学协会(AMA)。

重新出现的疾病：今天去了，明天在这里？我们有两种选择。

请选择1，并在10年的头条新闻可能会报告在美国国会最新的自相残杀的争吵，或者运动员签订了多少百万。

选择2，在另一方面，可能会导致头条新闻，如“新流感病毒价差：死亡人数达一百五十万”1969年，卫生局局长威廉·斯图尔特，美国国会作证时说，我们可以“传染病合上这本书。

”抗生素和疫苗都留下了印象深刻的胜利一串医学界平齐，从青霉素到小儿麻痹症。

这场战争，他们认为，即将结束。

如今，面对的是已成为被称为新出现和重新出现的疾病，我们知道更好。

“'崛起'，其实是回归，回归到标准在上个世纪盛行普遍，”1诺贝尔奖得主，哥伦比亚大学生物学家约书亚莱德伯格写在美国医学协会杂志的特殊传染病的问题。

在同一期杂志的一份报告量化了日益严重的威胁：在美国1980年和1992年之间，死亡率因感染性疾病增加了58％。

2艾滋病的占了一半以上的跳略多，但其他条件，尤其是呼吸道感染也显著贡献。

由于胜利宣言的激动人心的日子里，新的疾病，如艾滋病和埃博拉突然出现了，老痛苦，以为征服了，已经爆发了。

白喉是使前苏联卷土重来。

结核病- 它从来没有真正离开，但高档的歌剧爱好者可能会认为这是仅限于“波希米亚人”的生产- 再一次在城市中心，包括纽约市的威胁。

甲类链球菌情况有上升的趋势，这意味着猩红热可能再次成为熟悉。

每个人都在传染病领域的担心有一天感冒了强大的新菌株席卷全球。

“战争已经赢了，”一位科学家最近打趣说。

“到了另一边。

”保持我们的眼睛对运动目标事实上，这种情绪可以反映尽可能多的夸张的前卫生的。

也许目前的情况有更清楚快照是战斗已经加入。

世界卫生组织和美国疾病控制和预防已加速运转了他们的努力，检查传染病，包括复出的。

1995年10月，世卫组织建立了一个新的部门致力于在全球范围内监视和新出现的疾病的控制。

疾病预防控制中心提出了1994年预防策略虽然美国国会在1995年，不到达斯汀·霍夫曼的工资主演如“爆发”的感染战斗机资助的疾病预防控制中心的努力，只有$ 670万调- 他们都提出了数字至$ 26日万元用于感染性疾病1997年公众意识，或许是部分原因是由于这样的电影，可能影响国会的前景。

Cardiac surgery:a brief history心脏外科简史Possibly some of the greatest achievements in medical science have been those made in cardiac surgery.The first successful example was carried out in 1896 by Dr Ludwig Rehn(Germany),who repaired a stab wound to the right ventricle,Open-heart surgery itself dates form the 1950s,while bypass operations began in the mid-60s. By the 1980s,two-thirds of those receiving heart transplants survived five years or more.Today,heart surgery is robotized:incisions to the heart have been reduced to a minimum and patient recovery time is down from six months to a few weeks.也许医学上最伟大的成就是在心脏外科。

第一个成功的例子是Ludwig Rehn博士（德国）在1896年修补了右心室的刀伤，心脏手术本身始于上世纪50年代，而旁路手术开始于60年代中期。

上个世纪80年代，那些接受心脏移植的人三分之二存活五年以上。

今天，心脏手术已经机械化：切口心脏被减少到最低限度，病人恢复时间从六个月减少到几周。

One of the first pioneers in the field of cardiac surgery was Dr Dwight Harken,a US army medic serving during World WAR 2.Initially,he operated on animals to improve his skills,moving on to soldiers arriving from the European front with bullets lodged in their hearts.Dislodging them almost always proved fatal,but Harken developed a technique that enable him to cut into the wall of a still beating heart and successfully remove it.With time,more and more of his patients began to survive,proving it was indeed possible to operate on the human heart.其中一个在心脏外科领域的鼻祖是Dwight Harken博士，在2次世界大战期间的一个美国陆军军医。

1. 生理学是研究生物体正常功能的一门科学。

它研究生物体如何进行各种活动，如何饮食，如何运动，如何适应不断改变的环境，如何繁殖后代。

这门学科包罗万象，涵盖了生物体整个生命过程。

生理学成功地解释了生物体如何进行日常活动，基于的观点是生物体好比是结构复杂而灵巧的机器，其操作受物理和化学规律控制。

尽管从生物学整个范畴看，生物体某些活动过程是相似的，如基因编码的复制，但许多过程还是某些生物体群组特有的。

鉴于此，将这门学科分成不同部分研究如细菌生理学，植物生理学和动物生理学是有必要的。

Physiology is the study of thefunctions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations . The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite mac hines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry. Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for example —many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology. 2.正如要了解一个动物如何活动，首先需要了解它的构成，要充分了解一个生物体的生理学活动就必须掌握全面的解剖学知识。

医学学术英语课文翻译医学英语文献选读课文译文及部分参考答案Unit1 中医能否治好姚明的伤？1 NBA超级巨星姚明决定回中国寻求传统中医方法治疗他的应力性骨折，这一决定使医生和中医专家们就中医疗法是否有效争论不休。

2 这位27岁，7.6英尺高的休斯顿火箭队全明星中锋，因为左脚的应力性骨折被迫退出了这个赛季。

特别是在连接脚踝和脚掌的足舟骨上有一道裂缝。

3 姚明在上个月初进行了手术，手术时植入了一颗固定骨骼的钢钉。

施行手术的医生表示，手术十分成功。

姚明术后一旦能行走，将会进行积极的康复治疗。

4 这项手术通常需要4个月的术后休息。

但似乎姚明也想借助传统中医方法（中医是一种包括针灸和草药在内的医学体系）加快治疗进度。

周五，美联社报道称姚明已经回到了他的祖国，和中国顶级的中医专家进行了探讨。

5 一些美国医生，比如位于华盛顿特区的乔治・华盛顿大学中的整形外科医生---Robert.J.Neviaser，对这种额外的举动是否会有任何益处表示怀疑。

6 “我很清楚没有任何已知的科学证据表明，中医疗法能对应力性骨折有明显的效果。

”Neviaser说，“我们不太了解针灸，他的价值似乎在对手术麻醉的一种替代，但没有任何数据表明它对医治骨折有好处。

”7 但有些中医专家声称，尽管没有文献证据证明，但中医的方法似乎可以成功的解决姚明的伤痛。

8 “这么做毫无问题，如果我是姚明我也会这样做的。

因为传统西方医学中，除了被动地恢复也没有什么好的办法来治疗应力性骨折。

”Raymond Chang博士说，他是位于纽约的“中西药研究院”的院长。

9 “尽管只凭经验没有研究，传统中医在这种情况下是有用的，作为我们中国人所受教育的一部分，在几乎所有中国人的眼里，它是常见的，且享有盛誉，姚明选择这种疗法实在正常不过。

”Chang博士补充道。

10 应力性骨折十分疼痛，并且难以治愈。

11 和其他骨折不同，应力性骨折并不是一下子发生的。

相反，它是承重骨中脆弱的部分在机械性应力反复作用的的产物，比如那些足部骨骼。

介导性shRNA能抑制肺癌细胞中livin沉默基因的表达从而促进SGC-7901细胞凋亡背景—由于肿瘤细胞抑制凋亡增殖,特定凋亡的抑制因素会对于发展新的治疗策略提供一个合理途径。

Livin是一种凋亡抑制蛋白家族成员，在多种恶性肿瘤的表达中具有意义。

但是, 在有关胃癌方面没有可利用的数据。

在本研究中,我们发现livin基因在人类胃癌中的表达并调查了介导的shRNA能抑制肺癌细胞中livin沉默基因的表达，从而促进SGC-7901细胞凋亡。

方法—mRNA及蛋白质livin基因的表达用逆转录聚合酶链反应技术及西方吸干化验进行了分析。

小干扰RNA真核表达载体具体到livin基因采用基因重组、测序核酸。

然后用Lipofectamin2000转染进入SGC-7901细胞。

逆转录聚合酶链反应技术和西方吸干化验用来验证的livin基因在SGC-7901细胞中使沉默基因生效。

所得到的稳定的复制品用G418来筛选。

细胞凋亡用应用流式细胞仪(FCM)来评估。

细胞生长状态和5-FU的50%抑制浓度(IC50)和顺铂都由MTT比色法来决定。

结果—livin mRNA和蛋白质的表达检测40例中有19例(47.5%)有胃癌和SGC-7901细胞。

没有livin基因表达的是在肿瘤邻近组织和良性胃溃疡病灶。

相关发现在livin基因的表达和肿瘤的微小分化和淋巴结转移一样(P < 0.05)。

4个小干扰RNA真核表达矢量具体到基因重组的livin基因建立。

其中之一,能有效地减少livin基因的表达,抑制基因不少于70%(P < 0.01)。

重组的质粒被提取和转染到胃癌细胞。

G418筛选所得到的稳定的复制品被放大讲究。

当livin基因沉默,胃癌细胞的生殖活动明显低于对照组(P < 0.05)。

研究还表明,IC50上的5-Fu 和顺铂在胃癌细胞的治疗上是通过shRNA减少以及刺激这些细胞(5-Fu proapoptotic和顺铂)(P < 0.01)。

医学英语文献选读部分文章全文翻译Unit1 Text B定义和自然的炎症反应当生活组织都受伤了,一系列的变更,这可能会持续几个小时,几天或几周内,发生在和伤病的周围。

这个反应损伤被称为炎症,术语源自拉丁语inflammare意义燃烧.这受伤异常但身体的反应,炎症,是很正常的,如果复杂的、生理的反应——唯一一个可能的情况下的特殊损伤。

炎症反应的性质是首先被约翰亨特(1794),他在研究战伤后,得出结论:infammation本身是不应被视为一种疾病,但从而有利于机体要么暴力或一些疾病”。

许多不同类型的损伤可能引发炎症。

他们可分为如下:(1)物理因素如过度加热或冷却,紫外线和电离辐射或机械创伤。

(2)化学物质,包括各种细菌毒素。

(3)过敏反应。

反应的抗体或敏感的淋巴细胞和细菌或其他抗原可以释放物质的机制导致过敏炎症反应.(4)微生物感染中是一个非常重要的原因的炎症反应。

微生物在几个方面可能会伤害到组织——的释放将外——或者endo -毒素,通过超敏反应机制或细胞内乘法紧随其后的是细胞死亡中看到许多病毒感染。

(5)坏死的组织几乎任何原因导致释放物质诱发炎症在邻近的生活组织。

(6)反应在受伤后的头几个小时,一般印象和广泛不同的损伤缺陷引起simlilar最初反应-急性炎症反应。

炎性病变的性质通常是suffixitis所表示的。

因此发炎的阑尾是阑尾炎,肝肝炎等。

偶尔会有一些异常历史。

肺部炎症传统上是肺炎,而不是肺炎以及不pleuritis胸膜炎的胸膜。

急性和慢性的术语指响应的时间。

急性炎症持续几天或几周;慢性炎症持续数周、数月甚至数年。

炎性反应通常是有益的,事实上它是根本的在对抗大多数感染和限制的有害影响的许多有毒因子。

但是,事情并非总是有利的。

在许多情况下破坏的组织或其他意料之外的效果是由于不破坏代理,但一个或其他方面的受伤的身体反应。

例如在急性炎症喉部可能有足够的炎性肿胀来阻止气道,导致死亡的窒息。

在阿尔都反应和当地应对某些蜱虫叮咬,坏死的组织是由于物质的解放polymorphonuclear白细胞的累积损伤的部位的炎症反应的一部分:这种坏死并没有出现在动物的血液白细胞剥夺由之前的治疗与骨髓毒药如氮芥。

Smallpox vaccination①smallpox is caused by the variola virus and is most often transmitted by inhaling the virus.天花是由天花病毒引起的,通常是通过吸入病毒传播it has an incubation period of between 7 and 17 days,after which symptoms begin to appear.the inital symptoms are flu-like.A significant feature of the disease is the development of blisters on the upper part of the boby,which eventually scab over and leave scars when the scabs fall off. around 30 per cent of those infected with smallpox die,usually within two weeks of symptoms appearing.它有7至17天的潜伏期,之后开始出现症状。

初是类似流感的症状。

疾病的一个重要特征是水泡上的发展身体的一部分,最终愈合留下疤痕有30%的感染者因天花死去,通常在两周内出现症状。

②The first attempts to control the disease used a technique know as variolation. dried scab tissue from victims of smallpox was used to deliberately infect young people. of those infected by variolation, one per cent died,far fewer than the 30 per cent killed by infection in the normal way.despite the risks, variolation was still used in some remote communities until relatively recently. 第一个试图控制这种疾病使用天花接种的技术知道。

1. 生理学是研究生物体正常功能的一门科学。

它研究生物体如何进行各种活动，如何饮食，如何运动，如何适应不断改变的环境，如何繁殖后代。

这门学科包罗万象，涵盖了生物体整个生命过程。

生理学成功地解释了生物体如何进行日常活动，基于的观点是生物体好比是结构复杂而灵巧的机器，其操作受物理和化学规律控制。

尽管从生物学整个范畴看，生物体某些活动过程是相似的，如基因编码的复制，但许多过程还是某些生物体群组特有的。

鉴于此，将这门学科分成不同部分研究如细菌生理学，植物生理学和动物生理学是有必要的。

Physiology is the study of thefunctions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its v aried activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circums tances, how it spawns new generations. The subject is vast and embraces the who le of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite machi nes whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry. Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replicatio n of the genetic code for example—many are specific to particular groups of or ganisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various par ts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology. 2.正如要了解一个动物如何活动，首先需要了解它的构成，要充分了解一个生物体的生理学活动就必须掌握全面的解剖学知识。

医学英语教程生物医学课文翻译生物医学课文翻译：Medical English Tutorial - Biomedical TextbookBiomedical research plays a crucial role in advancing our understanding of human health and developing new treatments for diseases. In this tutorial, we will explore various topics in the field of biomedical sciences.Lesson 1: Introduction to Biomedical ResearchBiomedical research is the investigation of biological processes and diseases at the molecular, cellular, and organismal levels. This lesson will provide an overview of the different research methodologies used in the field, including genome sequencing, proteomics, and animal studies. We will also discuss the ethical considerations associated with biomedical research.Lesson 2: The Human Genome ProjectThe Human Genome Project was a landmark scientific initiative that aimed to map and sequence the entire human genome. This lesson will delve into the history of the project, its impact on biomedical research, and the novel insights gained from analyzing the human genome. We will also explore the future implications of this project in personalized medicine.Lesson 3: Genetics and DiseaseUnderstanding the genetic basis of diseases is crucial for the development of effective treatments. This lesson will focus on the relationship between genetics and common diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disorders, and neurodegenerative conditions.We will also discuss the advancements in genetic testing and the potential of gene therapy.Lesson 4: Stem Cells and Regenerative MedicineStem cells have the unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, making them valuable tools in regenerative medicine. This lesson will explore the different types of stem cells, their therapeutic potential, and the current challenges in their clinical application. We will also discuss recent breakthroughs in tissue engineering and organ transplantation.Lesson 5: Drug Discovery and DevelopmentDeveloping new drugs is a complex and rigorous process. In this lesson, we will explore the steps involved in drug discovery, from target identification to preclinical and clinical trials. We will also discuss the role of animal models in drug testing and the importance of drug safety and efficacy.Lesson 6: Biomedical ImagingImaging techniques play a vital role in diagnosing diseases and monitoring treatment efficacy. This lesson will provide an overview of various imaging modalities used in biomedical research, such as X-ray, MRI, and PET. We will also discuss the advancements in imaging technology and their application in precision medicine.Lesson 7: Biomedical EthicsEthical considerations are essential in biomedical research to ensure the welfare of human and animal subjects. This lesson will discuss the ethical principles and guidelines governing biomedicalresearch. We will also explore the ethical dilemmas associated with emerging technologies, such as gene editing and artificial intelligence in healthcare.By the end of this tutorial, you will have a comprehensive understanding of key concepts and advancements in the field of biomedical sciences. This knowledge will enable you to actively engage in discussions and contribute to the ever-evolving field of medical research.。

Unit OneText A： Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal1.Perhaps the most enduring --- certainly the most quoted --- tradition in thehistory of medicine is the Hippocratic Oath. Named after the famous Greek physicianHippocrates, this oath was written as a guideline for the medical ethics of doctors.Although the exact words have changed over time, the general content is the same- an oath to respect those who have imparted their knowledge upon the science ofmedicine, and respect to the patients as well as the promise to treat them to thebest of the physicians' ability.或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人，尊重病人，尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。

Who was Hippocrates, and Did he Write the Oath?2.For a man considered by many to be the 'Father of Medicine', little is known aboutHippocrates of Cos. He lived circa 460-380 BC, and was the contemporary of Socratesas well as a practising physician. He was certainly held to be the most famousphysician and teacher of medicine in his time. Over 60 treatises of medicine, calledthe Hippocratic Corpus have been attributed to him; however, these treatises hadconflicting contents and were written some time between 510 and 300 BC, and thereforecould not all have been written by him.作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.3.The Oath was named after Hippocrates, certainly, although its penmanship is stillin question. According to authorities in medical history, the contents of the oath suggest that it was penned during the 4th Century BC, whichmakes it possible that Hippocrates had himself written it. Anyway, regardless ofwhether or not Hippocrates himself had written the Hippocratic Oath, the contentsof the oath reflect his views on medical ethics.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的，虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。

大学英语2医学院校版课文翻译我最初听到这个故事是在印度.那儿的人们今天讲起它来仍好像确有其事似的一尽管任何一位博物学家都知道这不可能是真的。

后来有人告诉我，在第一次世界大战之前不久，-家杂志曾刊登过这个故事。

但登在杂志上的那篇故事以及写那篇故事的人，我却一直未能找到。

故事发生在印度。

某殖民地官员和他的夫人正举行盛大的晚宴。

筵席设在他们家宽敞的餐室里，室内大理石地板上没有铺地毯;屋顶明椽裸露，宽大的玻璃i ]外便是走廊。

跟他们一起就做的客人有军官和他们的夫人，另外还有一位来访的美国博物学家。

席间，-位年轻的女士同-.位少校展开了热烈的讨论。

年轻的女士认为妇女已经有所进步，不再像过去那样--见到老鼠就吓得跳到椅子上，少校则不以为然。

他说:“一遇到危急情况，女人的反应便是尖叫。

而男人虽然也可能想叫，但比起女人来，自制力却略胜一.筹。

这多出来的一点自制力正是真正起作用的东西。

”那个美国人没有参加这场争论，他只是注视着在座的其他客人。

在他这样观察时，他发现女主人的脸上显出一种奇异的表情。

她两眼盯着正前方，脸部肌肉在微微抽搐。

她向站在座椅后面的印度男仆做了个手势，对他耳语了几句。

男仆两眼睁得大大的，迅速地离开了餐室。

在座的客人中除广那位美国人以外谁也没注意到这一幕, 也没有石到那个男仆把一-碗牛奶放在紧靠门边的走廊5\ Ndorin那个美国人突然醒悟过来。

在印度，碗中的牛奶只有一个意思一引蛇的诱饵。

他意识到餐室甲-定有条眼镜蛇。

他抬头看了看屋顶.上的椽子一那是最可能有蛇藏身的地方一但那上:面空荡荡的。

室内的三个角落里也是空的，而在第四个角落里，仆人们正在等着上下一道菜。

这样，剩下的就只有一个地方了一餐桌下面。

他首先想到的是往后- -跳，并向其他人发出警告。

但他知道这样会引起骚乱，致使眼镜蛇受惊咬人。

于是他很快讲了一道话，其语气非常威严，竞使得所有的人都安静了下米。

“我想了解-.下在座的诸位到底有多大的克制能力,我数三百下一也就是五分钟一你们谁都不许动-动。

Unit 2 Text A再现疾病：今天遁形无踪，明日卷土重来？桑塔亚纳有句格言：“不能铭记过去的人注定要重蹈覆辙”，这句话用在生物学上就有这样一个推论：人们相信我们已经征服了古老的微生物这个敌人，这种信念让我们惊人地脆弱，很易受他们的攻击。

“宿敌不死。

”我们有两个选择。

按照第一种选择去做，10年之后头条新闻要么报道国会里你死我活的争吵，要么报道哪位运动员签了几百万的合约。

而另一方面，第二种选择的结果是出现这样的标题：“新型流感变种在蔓延：死亡人数已达五十万”1969年，美国卫生局局长威廉·斯图尔特在国会听证时说，我们可以“给传染病画上句号了。

”抗生素和疫苗带来了一个接一个了不起的胜利，从青霉素的发现到脊髓灰质炎的防治等凡此种种，让医学界欣喜不已。

他们认为这场战争几乎结束了。

今天，当我们面对各种已经被称为新现疾病和再现疾病时，我们认识更加透彻。

在《美国医学协会杂志》传染病的一期特刊中，诺贝尔奖得主，哥伦比亚生物学家约书亚·莱德伯格写道：“‘出现’其实是回归，回到上个世纪普遍盛行的水平。

”就在这期特刊中，有个报告对日益严重的传染病构成的威胁进行了量化： 1980年到1992年间，美国传染病的死亡率增加了58％，其中艾滋病占了一半略多一点，而其他一些疾病，特别是呼吸道感染，也有显著贡献。

宣布胜利的日子里，人们飘飘然起来，然而后来突然出现了像艾滋病和埃博拉之类的各种新型疾病，虽然人们认为那些已有的病魔已经被降服，但是他们已经再次暴发。

白喉在前苏联正卷土重来。

虽然上层社会的歌剧迷们也许觉得结核病只是歌剧《波西米亚人》中的创作，而事实上，结核病就从来没有消失过，再次成为包括纽约市在内的城市中心的威胁。

甲型链球菌传染病正在增多，这意味着猩红热可能再次为大家熟知。

每一位在传染病领域的工作者都害怕，终有一日一种强大的新型流感菌株会席卷全球。

“战争胜利了，” 最近有位科学家嘲弄道，“是对方（传染病）获胜。

医学中英文对照文章随着信息化社会的高速发展,国民的健康意识不断提高,我国借鉴发达国家先进的健康管理经验,初步形成了具有一定中国国情的健康管理模式,国民参与健康管理的意识大大增强。

下面是小编带来的医学中英文对照文章，欢迎阅读!医学中英文对照文章1美国科学家研究起死回生术A groundbreaking trial to see if it is possible to regenerate the brains of dead people, has won approval from health watchdogs.探究死者大脑能否重获新生的开创性实验已获卫生监管部门批准可以开展。

A biotech company in the US has been granted ethical permission to recruit 20 patients who have been declared clinically dead from a traumatic brain injury, to test whether parts of their central nervous system can be brought back to life.美国一家生物科技公司获得伦理许可，将招募20位因脑创伤被宣布临床死亡的病人，用于测试他们的部分中枢神经系统能否被复苏。

Scientists will use a combination of therapies, whichinclude injecting the brain with stem cells and a cocktail of peptides, as well as deploying lasers and nerve stimulation techniques which have been shown to bring patients out of comas.科学家们将合用多种治疗方法，包括给大脑注入干细胞和混合多肽，以及利用激光和神经刺激技术等等。

医学英语文章带翻译医学英语文章带翻译1椎间盘突出Unit 2 Text A Herniated Disc (Disc Herniation of the Spine)第二单元主题A 椎间盘突出症Many patients with back pain, leg pain, or weakness of the lower extremity muscles arediagnosed with a herniated disc.许多患腰腿疼痛，下肢肌端乏力的病患均为椎间盘突出症。

When a disc herniation occurs, the cushion that sits between the spinal vertebra is pushedoutside its normal position.椎间盘突出发生时，脊柱间的缓冲带将发生侧突。

A hrniated disc would not be a problem if it werent for the spinal nerves that are very close tothe edge of these spinal discs.如果脊神经不是离椎间盘特别近的话，椎间盘突出就不是什么大问题了。

HOW ARE THE SPINE AND ITS DISCS *****D脊柱与椎间盘The vertebras are the bony building blocks of the spine.脊椎是建造脊柱的构件。

Between each of the largest parts (bodies) of the vertebrae are the discs.各椎骨之间为椎间盘。

Ligaments are situated around the spine and discs.脊椎和椎间盘周围散布着韧带。

The spine has seven vertebrae in the neck (cervical vertebrae), 12 vertebrae in the mid-back(thoracic vertebrae) , and five vertebrae in the low back (lumbar vertebrae).颈部有7条椎骨，胸部为12条，腰部有5条。