英语语言知识学习学概论重难点提示记录文本

外语学习中的语法重点与难点语法在外语学习中扮演着至关重要的角色。

它是学习一个外语的基础和关键。

然而，对于许多学生来说，学习语法并不总是容易的。

在这篇文章中，我们将探讨外语学习中的语法重点和难点，以及如何克服这些难点。

一、语法重点1. 时态时态是语法的基石，因为它影响到一个句子所传达的意思。

学生应该掌握各种时态的基础知识，例如现在时、过去时、将来时、进行时等等。

此外，学生也应该了解如何正确使用各种时态的结构以及它们在不同情景下的用法。

2. 语态语态指句子所表达的动作或状态与主语的关系。

学生应该了解被动语态和主动语态之间的不同。

了解不同的语态结构以及在何种情况下使用它们，这对于学生掌握一门外语很重要。

3. 名词和代词名词和代词是基础语法。

名词指一般名称，而代词代表名词。

学生必须了解这些基础语法的概念，并且掌握各种形式的名词和代词，以及它们在不同情景下的使用。

4. 形容词和副词形容词和副词是用来形容其他词汇的。

学生应该了解这些词汇的基础知识，例如：它们可以用来形容什么、如何正确使用它们、如何将它们与其他词汇进行组合使用。

二、语法难点1. 冠词冠词在外语学习中很容易成为语法难点之一。

冠词在不同的语言中有自己独特的概念和使用方法，因此学生需要仔细琢磨它们的用法。

例如，特定冠词“the”在英语中用于特定的事物，但在其他语言中可能没有这样的概念。

因此，学生需要逐步学习它们的使用方法。

2. 句子结构句子结构是外语学习中的另一个难点。

在不同的语言中，句子结构和语法结构是不同的。

例如，在中文中，句子可以没有主语，但在英语中却不可以；在西班牙语中，定语通常放在名词前面，但在英语中定语却通常放在名词后面。

因此，学生需要透彻的了解不同语言的句子结构，才能更好地理解并学习外语。

3. 动词短语动词短语包括动词和它所需要的其他部分。

例如，在英语中，“wake up”是一个动词短语，由“wake”和“up”组成。

对学生来说，不同语言中也有许多的动词短语，而且很容易混淆。

美式英语中的连读和略读同化同化是两个音相互作用，导致最后产生另外一个音的现象，这样可以使句子显得更流畅。

1./s/+/j/→/ʃ/ 如：this year等(1)I guess you’re right. 我想你是对的。

(2)I miss you。

我想念你。

2./z/+/j/→/ʒ/(1)What brings you here？什么风把你刮到这儿来了？(2)I’m not gonna lose you again.3./t/+/j/→/ʧ/ 如:congratulation、last year等（1）Nice to meet you.很高兴见到你.（第二次见面就说Nice to see you.)（2）What you doing? 你在做什么？4./d/+/j/→/ʤ/ 如：education等（1）Pinned ya. 压在你身上了。

（《狮子王》中的一句台词，听起来是/ˈpinʤə/。

这两个单词包含的发音规则有弱读+同化。

）（2）How did you like it？你觉得怎样？连读1.词尾辅音+词首元音这种连读最常见也最简单，把相邻的两个单词想象成一个单词即可。

（1）I’m so fed up with him。

他让我烦透了.（2）I’ve already made up my mind. 我意已决。

（3）That is so gross ［ɡrəus].太俗了。

（4）Turn on the juice. 合上开关，恢复通电。

（juice也有电的意思）2.词尾元音+词首元音A：以/u/、/ʊ/、/au/、/o/结尾的单词与跟在后面的元音连读时，两个元音之间加上一个较轻的/w/，这样过渡就会很自然。

（1）Just do it. 尽管去做吧！（2）It’s snowing. 下雪了。

（3）Don't blow it。

别搞砸了。

（4）So easy. 太简单了。

B：如果单词结尾是/i/、/ai/、/e/结尾并与其后的元音连读,则两个元音见带上一个较弱的/j/。

Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《语言学概论》重、难点问与答注:这个文件是根据语言学教程修订版总结出来的要点问答,请同学们注意第四章(句法)与现行第三版的不同。

《语言学概论》重、难点问与答 (1)Chapter 1 Invitation (4)1. What is language? (4)2. What are the design features of language? (4)3. What is arbitrariness? (4)4. What is duality? (4)5. What is productivity (creativity)? (5)6. What is displacement? (5)7. What is cultural transmission? (5)8. Why do linguists say language is human specific? (5)9 The origin of language (5)10. What functions does language have? (6)11 What is the informative function? (6)12 The Interpersonal function (6)13 The Emotive function (6)14. What is the phatic communion? (6)15. What is the performative function? (6)16. What is linguistics? (7)17. What makes linguistics a science? (7)18. What are the major branches of linguistics? (7)19 Important distinctions in linguistics (7)20. What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches (linguistics)? (7)21. What are synchronic and diachronic studies (linguistics)? (7)22. What is speech and what is writing? (8)23. What is the difference between langue and parole? (8)24. What is the difference between competence and performance? (8)25. The difference between sentence and utterance (8)26. What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior? (8)27. In what way do langue, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And theircounterparts? (9)Chapter 2 Speech Sound (9)28. What is phonetics? (9)29. How are the vocal organs formed? (9)30. What is place of articulation? (9)31. What is the manner of articulation? (9)32. What is a vowel? And a consonant? (9)33. How do phoneticians classify consonants? (10)34. How do phoneticians classify vowels? (10)35. What is IPA? When did it come into being? (10)36. What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription? (10)37. What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology? (10)38. What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone? (10)41. What is complementary distribution? (11)42. What is the assimilation rule? (11)43. What is suprasegmental (prosodic) phonology? What are suprasegmental features? (11)44. What is the syllable structure like? (11)Chapter 3 Lexicon (11)45. What is morphology? (12)46. What is inflection/inflexion? What is derivation? (12)47. What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph? (12)48. What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme? (12)49. What is a root? What is a stem? What is an affix? (12)50. What are open classes? What are closed classes? (12)51. What is lexicon? What is word? What is lexeme? What is vocabulary? (12)52. How words change through history? (13)53. What is affixatio n? And conversion? and compounding? (13)54. What is blending? And abbreviation? And back formation? (13)55. What is collocation? (14)Chapter 4 Syntax (14)56. What is syntax? (14)57. What is a sentence? (14)58. How is sentences classified? (14)59. What is category? (14)60. What is a subject? A predicate? An object? (14)61. What is number? What is gender? What is case? (15)62. What is concord? What is government? (15)63. What are syntactic relations? (15)64. What is immediate constituents (IC) analysis? What are immediate constituents (and ultimate constituents)? (15)65. What are endocentric constructions and exocentric constructions? (16)66. What is a phrase? What is a clause? (16)67. What is conjoining (coordination)? What is embedding (subordination)? What is recursiveness? (17)68. What is hypotactic relation? What is paratactic relation? (17)69. What are phrase structure rules? (17)70. X-bar theory---a more abstract description of phrasal structure rules (17)71. What are kernel sentences? What are transforms? (17)72. What are deep structures? What are surface structures? (18)73. What is the Functional Sentence Perspective? (18)74. What is communicative dynamism? (19)75. What is the ideational function? And the interpersonal function? And the textual function? (19)76. What is systemic-functio nal grammar’s view on sentence? (19)Chapter 5 Meaning (19)77. What is semantics? (20)78. What is meaning? (20)79. What is the difference s between meaning, concept, connotation, sense, implication, denotation, notation,reference, implicature and signification? (20)80. What is the referential theory? (20)83. What is synonymy? (21)84. What is Antonymy? How many kinds of antonyms are there? (21)85. What is hyponymy? What is a hyponym? What is superordinate? (22)86. What is polysemy? What is homonymy? (22)87. What is semantic component (feature)? What is componential analysis? (22)88. How to decide a sentence meaning? (22)89. What is the principle of compositionality? (22)90. What is the integrated theory? (22)91. What is propositional logic? What is a proposition? (23)92. What is predication analysis? What is a one-place predicate? What is a two-place predicate? What is ano-place predicate? What are down-graded predications? (23)93. What is entailment(蕴含)? (23)94. What is presupposition（预设）? (23)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind (24)95. What is psychology? (24)96. What is language acquisition? (24)97. What is linguistic acquisition device (LAD)? (24)98. What is the critical period hypothesis (CPH)? (24)Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society (24)99. What is sociolinguistics? (24)100. What is culture? (24)101. What is communicative competence? (24)102. What is linguistic determinism? What is linguistic relativity? What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? (24)103．What is speech community? (24)104. What is speech variety? (25)105. What is registers? (25)Chapter 8 Language in Use (25)106. What is pragmatics? (25)107. What is context? (25)108. What is sentence meaning? And utterance meaning? (25)109. What is speech act theory? What are locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act? (25)120. What is the cooperative principle (CP)? (25)121. What is conversational implicature(CI)? (26)Chapter 1 Invitation1. What is language?“L anguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by the members of a speech community for human communication, social interaction, cultural transmission, and cognition.It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Language elements are arranged according to grammar rules.It is arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a word (like “book”) and what it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, 书in Chinese.It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific. Animals do not have this honor that we call language.(For more information, see P.3)2. What are the design features of language?“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission, interchangeability, etc. (For more information, see P.3-9)3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). This results in the different words which can refer to the same thing in the natural world such as book, livre,书.Language is almost entirely arbitrary at the sound level. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type”and “write”are unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree. At the sound level, language is arbitrary except for a very small number of words such as onomatopoeia which bear less arbitrary connection. At the syntactic level, language is not arbitrary because if we change the word order of a sentence, the meaning will be changed. It is conventionality that makes sound and meaning combined together.(For more information, see P.4-5)4. What is duality?“By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two level s has its own principles of organization”(Lyons). Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning, namely, phonemes or sound segments. According to Hu Zhuanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words) and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!).“Stratification”, “I nfinite use of finite means”Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication systemenjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.(For more information, see P.6-7)5. What is productivity (creativity)?Productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).(For more information, see P.7-8)6. What is displacement?Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events, and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Thus we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2000 years and the second is situated far away from us.Or: “Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for s ome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.(For more information, see P.8-9)7. What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.8. Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has the “design features” such as arbitrariness, duality, displacement, creativity, and cultural transmission, which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taugh t “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child” in the above item 7.)9 The origin of languageThere are many speculations about the origin of language. A combination of the following theories can describe the origin of language.God created Adam and speech simultaneously, for God spoke with Adam and Adam answered him. The language they were said to have spoken was Hebrew. The bow-wow (摹声说) The pooh-pooh theory (感叹说): The dingdong theory (本能论): Just as in nature every object, when struck by a solid body, gave off its own peculiar sound like a be;; when it is struck), so man’s mind gave off a particular response to the various impact which the would made upon it. The yo-he-ho theory(劳动喊声说): The ta-ta theory or the gesture theory (手势说): The sing-song theory or the music theory (唱歌说): The contact theory(接触说): To sum up, the origin of language still remains a mystery. But the origin oflanguage does involve sociological, psychological and biological factors related to human’s evolution.(For more information, see P.9-10)10. What functions does language have?For Jacobson, language has six functions: referential (to convey massage and information), poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake), emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions), conative (to persuade and influence others though commands and entreaties), phatic (to establish communion with others) and metalingual function (to clear you intentions, words and meanings).M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.HU Zhuanglin et al, in his book, have listed seven functions: informative, interpersonal, performative, emotive, phatic communion, recreational, and metalingual functions.Maybe the most important functions are informative, interpersonal and emotive functions.(For more information, see P.10-16)11 What is the informative function?For most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud as when they are working on a math problem. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. This is indeed an important function of language. Or: ideational function (Halliday): language serves for the expression of ‘content’: that is, of the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness. In serving this function, language also gives structure to experiences and helps to determine our way of looking at things, so that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us.”12 The Interpersonal functionPeople have the purpose of maintaining social relationships with one another by means of communication. So, language is used as a means of constructing and maintaining social relationships within a community. Without language, it is hard to imagine that people can live and work together and cooperate to achieve their different purposes.13 The Emotive functionAccording to some investigation, though the conveying of some information occurs in most uses of language, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal communication (Nida, 1998: 17). People have emotions when they convey information.Or: The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.14. What is the phatic communion?The “phatic communion” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?”, “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literal ly, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.15. What is the performative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions or change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. Thejudge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives as well.(See Hu Zhuanglin, et. al., P247-249).16. What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities(See Hu Zhuanglin et al., P16-17)17. What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.18. What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988).But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: Phonetics, phonology, morphology, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics, applied linguistics, computational linguistics, stylistics, etc.(For definitions, see Hu Zhuanglin et al P.17-22)19 Important distinctions in linguisticsThey are: descriptive vs. prescriptive linguistics, synchronic vs. diachronic description of language, speech and writing, langue and parole, competence and performance, linguistic potential and linguistic behavior, sentence and utterance, etic and emic(For more information, see P.23-27)20. What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches (linguistics)?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also. (For more information, see P.23-24)21. What are synchronic and diachronic studies (linguistics)?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through the course of its history is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE; and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., P24).22. What is speech and what is writing?Language has two basic forms, speech and writing. Speech is the spoken form of language and writing is the written form of language. Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken form of language—speech for the following reasons: firstly, Speech is primary because it existed long before writing systems came into being; Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or are just a record of speech; Thirdly, speech, in terms of function, is used for a wider range of purposes than writing and carries a larger load of communication than writing; Fourthly, Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.23. What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual use of language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the speaking situation; langue is not actually spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event; langue is relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.(For more information, see P.24-25)24. What is the difference between competence and performance?According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while hi s performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycho linguistically.(For more information, see P.25-26)25. The difference between sentence and utteranceSentence is a grammatical unit which is considered as a self-contained or independent unit in isolation. The meaning of a sentence is abstract or decontextualized (free from context). Linguists analyze a sentence in terms of its grammatical structure and meaning in itself regardless of the context.Utterance is the unit that people utter in the course of communication. It is what a speaker says in a certain situation with a certain purpose. The meaning of and utterance is decided by both its conceptual meaning and its contextual meaning. For example, an utterance can be a full sentence, an incomplete sentence, sentence fragment, or none of them, such as “Good morning, Hi, Ouch, etc. so the meaning of an utterance is determined by the context of use.26. What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?。

英语学习中的语法重难点解析English Grammar: Analyzing the Key Difficulties and Complexities in English Language LearningI. IntroductionIn the process of learning English, many language learners often find themselves grappling with various aspects of grammar. Understanding grammar plays a fundamental role in achieving fluency and accuracy in English communication. This article aims to analyze and explain some of the most challenging grammar points encountered by English learners.II. Verb TensesOne of the most significant obstacles in English grammar is the usage of verb tenses. Understanding when to use each tense correctly can be perplexing. The main tenses that learners struggle with include present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. However, through targeted practice and exposure to authentic contexts, learners can gradually acquire a solid grasp of English verb tenses.III. ArticlesThe usage of articles (a, an, the) is another common difficulty encountered by English learners. Determining when to use "a" or "an" before a noun, or when to use "the" or no article at all, can be quite challenging. This confusion arises from differences between English and other languages that may not have distinct article systems. To overcome this challenge, learners should focus on exposure to English texts, listening to authenticEnglish conversations, and engaging in speaking activities that provide opportunities to practice proper article usage.IV. PrepositionsPrepositions are notorious for causing difficulties in English. Determining the correct preposition to use in a given context can be a perplexing task. The complexities arise from the extensive list of prepositions, as well as the fact that preposition usage is often idiomatic. To tackle this issue, learners should engage in activities that actively practice prepositions, such as filling in the blanks or participating in preposition-focused exercises. Additionally, learners should pay attention to preposition collocations and idiomatic expressions to develop a natural understanding of preposition usage.V. Conditional SentencesConditional sentences, often used to express hypothetical situations or consequences, frequently pose challenges for English learners. Complex sentence structures and a variety of verb forms within conditional sentences can lead to confusion. To overcome this difficulty, learners should focus on understanding the different types of conditional sentences (zero, first, second, third, mixed) and practice constructing such sentences in both oral and written contexts.VI. Relative ClausesRelative clauses, used to provide additional information about nouns, can be particularly challenging for English learners, mainly due to the variety of structures and pronouns used. Distinguishing between definingand non-defining relative clauses, understanding pronouns such as "who," "that," and "which," and knowing when to use commas are all important aspects to consider. To enhance proficiency in using relative clauses, learners should engage in activities that involve expanding sentences with relative clauses or provide extensive reading practice.VII. ConclusionWhile learning English grammar may be challenging, understanding and mastering the key difficulties and complexities will significantly contribute to overall language proficiency. By actively engaging in targeted practice, seeking clarification, and immersing oneself in authentic English language contexts, learners can overcome these hurdles and gain confidence in their grammatical competence. Remember, persistence and consistent effort are key to successful language acquisition.。

高中英语必背实用知识难点总结归纳高中英语必背实用知识难点总结归纳英语作为全球通用的语言，是学生必须掌握的一门语言。

在高中阶段，英语学习的难度和要求逐渐提高，需要学生掌握一些实用知识和难点。

本文将围绕这些难点展开总结和归纳。

一、语音1.元音和辅音音标的掌握：学生在英语学习的初期应该重点学习元音和辅音的音标，从而能够正确发音。

元音有长音和短音之分，辅音也有浊音和清音之分。

例如：/i:/ /ɪ/ /e/ /æ//ɜ:/等元音；/d/ /t/ /b/ /p/ /g/ /k/ /v/ /f/ /θ/ /ð/ /s/ /z/ /m/ /n//ŋ/ /h/ 等辅音。

2.连读和重读：英语中的连读和重读是比较重要的发音知识点，如果掌握不好，就会影响听力和口语。

例如：I am going to the park.连读后变成I'm going to the park. 第一个词I的发音和m连读在一起了，第二个词am的a音发成了短元音，第三个词to的o音发成了弱读音。

二、语法1.名词搭配：在英语中，名词常与其他词搭配使用，例如：前置定语、后置定语、谓语动词等。

不同的搭配形式有不同的含义和用法。

例如：name和surname的搭配，school和college 的搭配等。

2.代词的使用：代词是英语中很重要的语法知识，它可以替代名词，方便又简洁。

但是在使用代词时，需要注意代词与名词的一致性和不一致性问题。

例如：When he saw her, he gave her a present.这句话中he和her指代的是不同的人，需要注意区分。

三、阅读1.单词的理解：阅读中涉及到的单词有很多，如果对单词的理解不够深入、准确，会影响整个阅读的理解。

因此，学生在学习英语时，要学好单词的意思、用法、拼写和发音等。

2.阅读技巧：在阅读英文文章时，需要掌握一些阅读技巧，如先看标题、熟悉文章结构、学会解决生词等。

《语言学概论》课程重难点分析（4）一、怎样认识语法意义？语法意义是同词汇意义相对而言的，是语法单位在组合中所产生的关系意义。

语法意义只有在相关的语法单位进入某个组合结构以后才会产生，比如一个词，孤零零地是很难说明它具有什么样的语法意义。

比如英语单词work，单独看很难说它有什么语法意义，可是它与别的单位组合，进入具体的结构，就产生了相应的语法意义。

又如：“大高楼”和“高楼大”，前者是偏正结构，表示修饰关系，大修饰高楼，说明是什么样的高楼，后者是主谓结构，表示陈述关系，是陈述高楼，说明高楼具有大的属性。

这些关系，都是在语法单位的组合中产生的关系意义，像“大”、“高楼”，在独立存在时，无所谓修饰，也无所谓陈述，就说不上有什么样的语法意义。

所以，语法意义是和一定的语法结构紧密联系在一起的。

分析句子，说这个词是主语，那个词是谓语，这个词是定语，那个词是状语，等等，这些意义都是在组合结构中产生的语法意义。

而反过来说，词与词之间的关系，也要通过词的语法意义表现出来，如果一个词在语句结构种没有相应的语法意义，那么这个词在结构中是站不住脚的。

例如“She read a book”中的read，在这里是中性的，没有体现出人称的差异来，因而是不正确的。

二、什么是语法形式？同语法意义是什么关系？任何意义，都需要一定的形式才能表现出来，表现语法意义的形式就是语法形式。

语法形式是语法意义在语言中的外部表现，是语法意义的外部标志，是表达语法意义的物质外壳或外部的标志部分。

例如英语表示复数的语法意义，就是通过在词干后面附加上词尾s表示出来的，这里的词尾s就是复数这个语法意义的语法形式。

下列句子中be的不同语法形式，体现了不同的语法意义。

I am a teacher.（普通体、现在时、第一人称单数）He is a worker.（普通体、现在时、第三人称单数）We are readers.（普通体、现在时、第一人称复数）She was a peasent.（普通体、过去时、单数）They were teachers.（普通体、过去时、复数）She has been a peasent.（完成体、现在时）The book is being read by him.（进行体、现在时）语法意义和语法形式是互相依存的关系，二者各以对方为存在的条件。

语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defin ing properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1).A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fac t that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed wi th an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‟t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee‟s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‟s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‟s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can h ardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems donot have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let‟s borrow C. F. Hocket‟s Chart that compares human language with some animals‟ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8). Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don‟t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle‟s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice‟s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is use d to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I‟d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demandno answer, at least not the reader‟s/listener‟s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use o f language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I‟m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‟s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‟s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Y angtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence, the president‟s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin‟s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant tothe study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexic ology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The des cription of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The des cription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the des criptive and the pres criptive approaches?A linguistic study is “des criptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “pres criptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly des criptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs innatural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize gr ammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribu te of each ideal speaker‟s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, andlinguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the heare r‟s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,];(4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow trans cription and what is broad trans cription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet m ade a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” trans criptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or trans cription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‟s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]‟s, readily making possible the “narrow trans cription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme ar e called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]‟s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these wordstogether constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may no t be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring i n different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[…imput](bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features? “Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.。

重庆三峡学院外国语学院《英语语言学》课程教学重点、难点及安排第一章语言本章是语言的导论，通过学习了解语言的本质，掌握其定义和功能，促使学生产生对语言及语言研究的兴趣。

一、教学要点语言概述及语言的起源二、教学重点和难点1. 语言的功能2. 语言的结构特征三、教学重点和难点指导1.课外查阅: 比较不同的语言学家对“语言” 所下的定义, 并结合课堂所学内容加以比较、分析、讨论2.课堂讨论：人类语言和动物交流之间的区别3.通过语言实例领悟语言的功能第二章语言学本章是语言学概述，要求学生掌握语言学的定义和语言学研究的微观框架和宏观框架,初步了解语言学各分支的研究内容，熟悉并掌握语言学的重要基本概念的区分。

一、教学要点语言学的分支及其主要研究内容; 宏观语言学;二、教学重点和难点1. 语言学的定义2. 语言学里的一些重要的基本概念的区分:描写与规定、共时与历时、语言和言语、语言能力与语言应用三、教学重点和难点指导1．课堂知识扩展: 通过介绍语言科学研究的步骤和原则使学生理解语言作为一门科学所具有的一些基本特征；2．基于语言主要要素即语音、符号形式和语义，概括引出语言学的分支，并利用多媒体手段和借用实例对语言学的分支做形象地介绍。

3．课下查阅+课堂讨论：现代语言学和传统语法的区别4．重要的基本概念课下导读：索绪尔和乔姆斯基的语言观及比较第三章语音学本章探讨语言学的分支——语音学，重点学习语音学的一个重要分支：发声语音学。

要求学生掌握人类语音共有的一些物理属性和生理属性，如发音部位和发音方式，同时也要掌握元音和辅音的特点及区别。

学生要熟悉语音学里的很多基本术语，达到能熟练地对英语里的发音进行准确地描述，并知道国际音标、严式标音、宽式标音和运用一些常见的严式标音的附加符号。

一、教学要点“语音学”的界定及其三大分支; 发声器官; 元音和辅音;二、教学重点和难点1. 语音学的定义2. 发音部位和发音方式3. 元音和辅音的特点、区别及描述4.严式标音、宽式标音和协同发音三、教学重点和难点指导1．利用教学图片对人体的发声部位进行介绍和归类，让学生找出自己的发音问题；2．课堂上要加强学生对术语的理解和记忆；多进行语音的实例描述；3．课下导读Jones D. 1956, An Outline of English Phonetics, Cambridge: W. Heffer & sons Ltd. 一书中的部分章节内容第四章音系学本章主要学习语言的音位系统的基本知识，包括音位、音位变体、音位过程、区别性特征理论、超音段特征。

现代英语语法教材的重点与难点归纳Chapter 1 The Structure of the English Sentence (第一章绪论)本章节在2001-2008年的考试中只考过一次（列举至少5种构词法并举例说明）一、难点、重点1. Present the grammatical units that form a hierarchical order.(指出构成层次结构的语法单位.)2．Morphemes词素(Terms: morpheme, morph, allomorph, free morpheme and bound morpheme)什么是词素(morpheme)?3.Finite clauses and infinite clauses (限定性分句与非限定性分句,定义参见下面的简答题部分) Finite Clauses(1)名词性分句：What he said was incredible.(2)关系分句This is one of the best books I’ve ever read.(3)状语分句If I were in your shoes, I wouldn’t quit.Non-finite clauses：(1) 非限定性名词性分句：She didn’t know what to say．(2)非限定性关系分句：The man standing by the window is her brother.(3) 非限定性状语分句：Published ten years ago，this is still the best dictionary．二、重要概念1. morpheme2. Define the complex sentenceThe complex sentence is a sentence that contains more than one clause that are joined together by subordinating one to another．[复杂句是用从属连词(如if, when, though等)连接的一个以上分句的句子.]三、典型考题I.选择题1. There are ( ) morp hemes in “gunfighter”.A. twoB. threeC. fourD. one2. In “He downed his beer and punched me on the nose.” “downed” belongs to ( ) . (P13)A. backformationB. clippingC. conversionD. blending3. Suffixes basically change ( ) .A. word meaningB. word classC. nothingD. word formation4. The prefix “uni-” means ( ) .A. withoutB. selfC. falseD. oneKey: 1. B 2. C 3. B 4. DII. 简答题1. In terms of which three factors are words classified?The three factors are: the environment where words occur, their internal structure and their meaning.2. Define the finite clauses and the non-finite clauses.The finite clauses are the ones that have subjects and finite verbs as predicates．The non-finite clauses are the ones that leave subjects unsaid and verbs in non-finite forms．(限定分句是主语加限定动词作谓语的分句。

高二英语难点的知识点归纳总结高二英语是学生们的重要学习阶段，也是他们渐渐迈向高考的过程中的关键一步。

在这个阶段，学生们经常会遇到一些难点，这些难点可能是语法、词汇、阅读理解等方面的。

在本文中，我将对高二英语的难点进行归纳总结，并为大家提供一些有效的学习方法。

一、语法难点1. 时态问题英语时态是高二学生们经常容易混淆的一个难点，特别是对于过去时态和现在完成时的区分。

许多学生经常把两者混淆，造成语句的错误。

解决这个问题的关键是要多做习题，并注意在实际应用中进行实践。

2. 主谓一致主谓一致是另一个常见的语法难点。

学生们需要仔细注意主语和谓语动词的数的一致性。

为了避免错误，学生们可以通过多读多练习，特别是注意练习一些较为复杂的句子。

3. 从句使用从句的使用也是高二英语学习中的难点之一。

学生们需要学会辨别主句和从句之间的关系，并正确使用从句连接词。

为了更好地掌握从句的使用，学生们可以多阅读英文文章，并进行相关的语法练习。

二、词汇难点1. 词义辨析在英语学习中，许多单词的词义是相似的，这就给学生们的词汇记忆带来了困难。

为了正确地使用单词，学生们需要仔细阅读单词的例句，并对其词义进行准确理解。

2. 习惯用语和固定搭配习惯用语和固定搭配也是学生们容易混淆的词汇难点。

为了正确地运用这些词组，学生们可以通过背诵例句和进行语境练习来加深记忆。

三、阅读难点1. 理解长篇文章和理解推理题在高二英语阅读理解中，学生们常常会遇到一些较长的文章，这些文章常常涉及较复杂的内容和推理题。

为了更好地理解这些文章，学生们可以通过培养阅读的习惯来提高阅读速度和理解度。

2. 推理题的答题技巧推理题是阅读理解中常见的一个难点，它需要学生们运用上下文的信息进行思考并进行推理。

为了解决这个问题，学生们可以通过多做阅读理解题并进行分析，提高推理题的解题技巧。

四、学习方法1. 多做习题通过多做习题，学生们可以加深对知识点的理解，并巩固所学内容。

同时，习题还可以帮助学生们发现并解决自己的问题。