TPO19背景知识补充

THE ROMAN ARMY’S IMPACT ON BRITAIN1. 原文in的部分是非主要成分，结构是军队呆在blabla，并且有影响，所以答案是A。

B将原文的非重要成分awake，C将原文的非主要成分fortification变成了主要部分，改变了句子结构，都错；D的economic strength原文没说，错2. 以area和most influence做关键词定位至第四句，说军队一直驻扎的地方，其影响最深远，所以答案是C，作为军事基地的地方。

B和D都明显不靠谱，A的conquer first最先占领并不一定是一直驻扎，军事基地才是3. 以local population做关键词定位至倒数第二句，说军事驻扎剥夺了当地人参加政府的权力，使发展停滞，种下仇恨的种子，然后又说这种仇恨使军事驻扎持续，所以正确答案是B。

A和C原文没说，D与原文相反4. suppress镇压，压制，所以stop by force是正确答案。

从单词本身看，press是压，前缀表示加强，所以这个单词一定跟压这个意思相关，A与压完全无关，所以不对。

原文说仇恨的种子种下，使得军队必须留下怎样反抗，B警告和C避免反抗明显不足，D强力停止，镇压是正确答案5. friction摩擦，所以正确答案是B冲突。

原文说当没有训练或者战事的时候，部队的人必须忙起来，否则就会成为什么的源头A反抗和D犯罪都太过了，军队不可能只要没事做就反抗或者犯罪，neglect完全不靠谱6. 修辞目的题，修辞点所在句子只是单纯说出例子，所以不是答案，往前看，前面这句话上题已经读过，说士兵必须有事做，否则就会闹事儿，紧接着就给出343名士兵做着做那，所以343名士兵做事是士兵必须有事做的一个例子，所以答案是B7. entitle赋予权力，授权，所以正确答案是A。

原句说当地人与军人之间有不正式的婚约，紧接着解释说直到AD 197法律才怎么样他们结婚，既然之前都是不正式的，也就是后来的应该是法律允许的，猜出允许之意，答案是A，B承担得起C鼓励D要求都不靠谱8. 以goods and services做关键词定位至第三句，说远方来的人满足了士兵对于商品和服务的需求，正确答案是D。

TPO19托福听力词汇及背景知识解析托福听力中有很多词大家明白，但是不明白具体含义，或者做TPO听力的时候听到一个“典故”却来不及查找背后的故事，老师下面来为大家梳理和解读：Conversation1博弈论(Game Theory)主要研究公式化了的激励结构(游戏或者博弈)间的相互作用，是研究具有斗争或竞争性质现象的数学理论和方法。

具有竞争或对抗性质的行为称为博弈行为。

在这类行为中，参加斗争或竞争的各方各自具有不同的目标或利益。

为了达到各自的目标和利益，各方必须考虑对手的各种可能的行动方案，并力图选取对自己最为有利或最为合理的方案。

生物学家使用博弈理论来理解和预测进化(论)的某些结果。

Lecture 1 Linguistics原始印欧语(Proto-Indo-European)是后世语言学家根据现时印欧语系诸语的特色，透过比较语言学的方法而所倒推出来的假想语言。

这种假想语言被认为是现时印欧语系诸语的共同祖先。

在1647年，荷兰语言学家Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn就曾提出过类似的概念。

直到十八世纪英国学者Sir William Jones在1786年的论文里对比拉丁语(Latin)、希腊语(Greek)、梵语(Sanskrit)和波斯语(Persian)后，重新提出原始印欧语的概念才受到后世语言学家的重视。

Lecture 2 Astronomy光污染(light pollution)是燥光对环境产生的污染。

在Lecture中提到的在城市中看不到银河系的主要原因就是光污染。

光污染问题最早于二十世纪三十年代由国际天文界提出，他们认为光污染是城市室外照明使天空发亮造成对天文观测的负面的影响。

2009年，澳大利亚《宇宙》杂志报道：据美国一份最新的调查研究显示，全球70%的人口生活在光污染中，夜晚的华灯造成的光污染已使世界上20%的人无法用肉眼看到银河系美景。

射电天文学是天文学的一个分支，通过电磁波频谱以无线电频率研究天体。

TPO 19Task1Talk about a skill or ability that you consider especially important for a student to have. Use details and examples to explain your answer.One of the most important abilities I think a student should strive to obtain is the critical thinking ability. Now, we are encountering an explosion of information in our daily lives. Critical thinking could help us make right decisions. For example, one person may tell you that it should be compulsory to give away your seat to the elderly when traveling on the bus, another person may consider it to be discretionary. Everyone makes their own choices based on their unique backgrounds. With critical thinking skills, one can tell what's right from what's wrong and shape his or her value system.Task2More and more people are buying items on the Internet and from magazines or catalogs. Other people prefer shopping in a store. Which do you prefer and why?I would like to take a mixed way of shopping, which means that I may try different ways of shopping under specific circumstances. When I am trying to purchase a piece of clothing, I would choose to shop in a store. Because, in the stores, I can try on some of the clothes to see if they actually fit. in the meantime, I can see the color with naked eyes and feel its texure with my hands. If, however, I am trying to buy something whose information can be fully obtained from the internet or magazines, I wouldn’t take the trouble to go outside. For example, ordering an airline ticket online is very convenient and safe nowadays. All I need to do is to pay my bills online and offer my ID card number, and an electronic ticket is bought. I wouldn’t even have to hold a real ticket when boarding.Task3Fee Increase for Recreation Center UseThe university administration today announced a $25 increase in the student fee for using the campus recreation center. The higher fee, which all students are required to pay, will provide funds to upgrade the facility and provide newer, more modern exercise equipment at the center. “We expect the improvements to increase student use of the facility,” explained David Smith, director of the student activities office. Mr. Smith also noted that the decision was approved because “We feel that $25 is a reasonable increase that will be affordable for individual students.”The man expresses her opinion about the university’s plan. State his opinion and explain the reasons he gives for holding that opinion.TPO‐19 Question 3 sample answerThe university plans to increase the fee for using the campus recreation center in order to improve sports facilities and the increase is considered to be acceptable by the students. The man thinks that’s a good idea. He believes that upgrading the facilities can make more students go there and exercise, which is important for them. The purpose of the university’s plan can be realized. He also argues that the fee increase is not that much compared to the money thatstudents spend on CDs and movies. It is affordable for individual students to pay for.Task4Social LearningOne way people learn is by watching the behavior of others. Sometimes called social learning, this type of learning involves the process of learning to copy‐‐‐or not coy‐‐‐the action of another. By observing the results, or consequences, of another’s behavior, people tend to imitate the behavior of another when they see that it leads to a desirable consequence‐‐‐hoping to repeat it for themselves. Of course, the opposite is also true‐‐‐people tend to avoid imitating the behavior of another when they see it result in an undesirable consequence.Use the examples from the lecture to explain concept of social learning.TPO‐19 Question 4 sample answerThe professor provides an example to illustrate the concept of social learning, which suggests that people choose to or choose not to imitate other people’s behavior by observing the consequences resulting from that behavior. When a little boy observes that screaming and crying is helpful in helping her sister getting what she wants, he will probably do the same next time when he wants something. However, when the little boy sees that his sister gets punished because of her crying and screaming, he will probably not imitate that behavior to get what he wants. As he thinks if he did so, he would also get punished.TPO‐19 Question 5 sample answerThe problem the woman faces is that she has a conflict about time. Both her student teaching assignment and her Chinese history course happen to be on the same day. She has two options available: she could either take the Chinese history course in another semester or change her teaching assignment to a different day. Personally, I would prefer to take the course because as the woman suggested the course will be taught by an excellent visiting Chinese professor and it would be a real pity to miss this rare opportunity.TPO‐19 Question 6 sample answerThe professor talks about two special adaptations that seabirds have developed in order to find food. The first one concerns the length of wings and the other is an acute sense of smell. Firstly, he talks about the albatross. This kind of seabird has special long wings which enable them to glide or float on air instead of moving its wings up and down. In this way the albatross uses up a lot of energy. Another kind of seabird the professor mentions is the fulmar. Its food is difficult to see. However, this kind of seabird has a strong sense of smell that can help it find the food.。

TPO19 综合写作与详析首先来看综合写作的阅读材料：Many consumers ignore commercial advertisements. In response, advertising companies have started using a new tactic, calling “buzzing.”The advertisers hire people –buzzers –who personally promote (buzz) products to people they know or meet. The key part is that the buzzers do not reveal that they are being paid to promote anything. They behave as though they were just spontaneously praising a product during normal conversation. Buzzing has generated a lot of controversy, and many critics would like to see it banned.中文：很多消费者都无视商业广告。

为了应对这种情况，广告公司开始采取一种名为“托儿”的新策略。

广告公司雇佣托儿，让他们向他们认识的或者遇见的人推荐产品。

这种策略的关键是托儿是会隐藏他们受雇佣来推荐产品这一事实的。

他们表现出他们只是在日常的交流中无意地推荐某种产品。

这种营销方式引来了很多争议，而许多批评家希望能够禁止这种方式。

First, the critics complain that consumers should know whether a person praising a product is being paid to praise the product. Knowing this makes a big difference: we expect the truth from people who we believe do not have any motive for misleading us. But with buzzing what you hear is just paid advertising, which may well give a person incorrect information about the buzzed product.中文：首先，批评家认为消费者有权利知道向他推荐产品的人是否是有报酬的。

TPO 19 解析Conversation 1（场景分类——询问论文）Narrow: Listen to a conversation between a student and the professor.StudentHi, professor Handerson. （1）That was a really interesting lecture in class today.ProfessorThanks, Tom. Yeah, animals’ use of deception, ways they play tricks on other animals, that’s a fascinating area. One we are really just starting to understand.StudentYeah, you know, selective adaptations over time are one thing. Oh, like non-poisonous butterflies that have come to look like poisonous ones. （2）But the idea that animals of the same species intentionally deceive each other, I have never heard that before.ProfessorRight, like, there are male frogs who lower their voices and end up sounding bigger than they really are.StudentSo they do that to keep other frogs from invading their territory?ProfessorRight, bigger frogs have deeper voices, so if a smaller frog can imitate that deep voice. Well...StudentYeah, I can see how that might do the trick. （3）But, anyway, what I wanted to ask was, when you started talking about game theory. Well, I know a little bit about it, but I am not clear about its use in biology.ProfessorYeah, it is fairly new to biology. Basically, it uses math to predict what an individual would do under certain circumstances. But for example, a business sells, oh computer, say, and they want to sell their computers to a big university. But there is another company bidding too. So, what should they do?StudentWell, try to offer the lowest price so they can compete, but still make money.ProfessorRight, they are competing, like a game, like the frogs. There are risks with pricing too high, the company might get the sale, there is also the number and type of computers to consider. Each company has to find a balance between the cost and benefits. Well, game theory creates mathematical models that analyze different conditions like this to predict outcomes.StudentOk, I get that. But how does it apply to animals?Professor（4）Well, you know, if you are interested in this topic, it would be perfect for your term paper. StudentThe literature review?ProfessorYeah, find three journal articles about this or another topic that interests you and discuss them. If there is a conflict in the conclusions or something, that would be important to discuss.Student（5）Well, from what I have looked at dealing with game theory, I can’t say I understand much of the statistics end.ProfessorWell, I can point you to some that presents fairly basic studies, that don’t assume much background knowledge. You’ll just need to answer a few specific questions: What was the researchers’ hypothesis? What did they want to find out? And how did they conduct their research? And then the conclusions they came to. Learning to interpret these statistics will come later.词汇：deception n. 欺骗selective adj. 选择性的deceive v. 欺骗invade v. 侵略territory n. 领土imitate v. 模仿bid v. 投标；出价hypothesis n. 假设题目：1. Why does the man go to see the professor?解析：主旨题，文中学生开头说教授今天课上的演讲很有趣，接着讨论了课上的内容。

TPO 19-3 Discovering the ice age1. In all these diverse regions, Agassiz saw signs of glacial erosion and sedimentation. In flat plains country, he saw moraines (accumulations of earth and loose rock that form at the edges of glaciers) that reminded him of the terminal moraines found at the end of valley glaciers in the Alps.解析：括号中的内容是对前面moraines的解释，阅读中遇到一般可以略过。

后面的that 引导定语从句修饰前面的moraines. 后半句中的moraines found at the end of...可看成moraines(that were) found...隐含的定语从句。

Remind sb of sth提醒某人某事，此处语义是令某人想到某事的意思。

翻译：在所有这些多元的地区，Agassiz看见冰川侵蚀和沉淀的迹象。

在平原国家，他看到冰碛石（在冰川边缘的泥土和松石的积累）。

这使他想起了在阿尔卑斯山谷末端发现的终碛。

2. The heterogeneous material of the drift (sand, clay, and rocks deposited there) convinced him of its glacial origin.解析：heterogeneous多样化的，异种的。

括号中内容是对前面的解释。

Convince sb of sth 使某人相信某事翻译：漂流物（沉淀的沙子、粘土和岩石）的混杂异质材料使他相信这是冰山起源。

TPO19： THE ROMAN ARMYS IMPACT ON BRITAINThe Roman Army’s Impact on Britain1.遗漏精华信息。

改变重要含义或者遗漏精华信息以下哪⼀项能表达出⾼亮句⼦的精华核⼼精华核⼼含义？错误选项改变重要含义In the wake of the Roman Empire’s conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy.罗马帝国在公元⼀世纪征服了⼤不列颠后，有⼤量的驻军留在的新的省份，这些驻军的营地、城防以及对当地经济的参与对⼤不列颠有很⼤的影响。

a)许多罗马⼠兵在征服了⼤不列颠之后留在了那⾥，他们留在那⼉有很强的影响⼒。

b)新的罗马⼤不列颠省份随着经济的改善，在公元⼀世纪苏醒。

c)营地、城防和经济变化帮助罗马征服了⼤不列颠。

d)随着罗马军队征服⼤不列颠，罗马帝国也获得⼤量的经济增长。

2.根据第⼀段，罗马军队对⼤不列颠哪些地⽅影响最⼤？（Factual Information Question）a)最先被征服的地区b)⼈⼝中⼼附近地区c)⽤作军事基地地区d)迅速并⼊帝国的地区解析：段落第四句“Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential.”意思是：在军队驻扎的地⽅，军队对当地的影响更⼤。

第五句“The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise he soldiers’ animals.”意思是：军事基地强迫征收当地⼟地⽤来建造城堡以及喂养训练⼠兵的动物。

托福阅读答案1.回到原文“accumulations of earth and loose rock …” 文中的意思是指的泥土的积累，形成叫moraines的物质，而泥土的积累其实就可以看做是沉淀，比如三角洲就是泥土的积累或者说是沉淀出来的，所以选D。

2.根据“A heterogeneous group consists of many different types of things or people.” 所以答案选B。

3.第二句“Agassiz visited many places …”第三句“In all these diverse regions, …”第四句“In flatplains country, he saw moraines…that remained him of the terminal moraines found at the endof valley glaciers in the Alps.”意思是：在平原乡村，他看到的moraines让他想起了在阿尔卑斯冰山谷末端找到的terminal moraines。

首先他去过很多地方，都发现了冰川侵蚀和沉淀的迹象，然后他在flat plains 发现的moraines让他想起了在Alps发现的moraines，这证明在不同地方发现了类似甚至同样的物质，所以只有B符合。

选项A错，地质差异比较扯；选项C错，肯定不是Alps的地质研究；选项D错，并没有什么regionaldifference,这是原文并没有提到的，所以不能选。

4.回原文“…regions that enjoy temperate climates…”直译过来应该是：享受温带气候的地区。

Resemble 肯定不对，因为确实就是温带气候，不用类似于。

Expect 期望也不对，本来就是何必期望呢？dominate支配也不对，支配温带气候实在是从语义上说不过去，最后只有experience经历是可以说的过去的，一个享受温带气候的地区当然就经历这么一个温带的气候，所以选A。

Succession, Climax, and EcosystemsIn the late nineteenth century, ecology began to grow into an independent science from its roots in natural history and plant geography. The emphasis of this new "community ecology" was on the composition and structure of communities consisting of different species. In the early twentieth century, the American ecologist Frederic Clements pointed out that a succession of plant communities would develop after a disturbance such as a volcanic eruption, heavy flood, or forest fire. An abandoned field, for instance, will be invaded successively by herbaceous plants (plants with little or no woody tissue), shrubs, and trees, eventually becoming a forest. Light-loving species are always among the first invaders, while shade-tolerant species appear later in the succession.Clements and other early ecologists saw almost lawlike regularity in the order of succession, but that has not been substantiated. A general trend can be recognized, but the details are usually unpredictable. Succession is influenced by many factors: the nature of the soil, exposure to sun and wind, regularity of precipitation, chance colonizations, and many other random processes.The final stage of a succession, called the climax by Clements and early ecologists, is likewise not predictable or of uniform composition. There is usually a good deal of turnover in species composition, even in a mature community. The nature of the climax is influenced by the same factors that influenced succession. Nevertheless, mature natural environments are usually in equilibrium. They change relatively little through time unless the environment itself changes.For Clements, the climax was a "superorganism," an organic entity. Even some authors who accepted the climax concept rejected Clements' characterization of it as a superorganism, and it is indeed a misleading metaphor. An ant colony may be legitimately called a superorganism because its communication system is so highly organized that the colony always works as a whole and appropriately according to the circumstances. But there is no evidence for such an interacting communicative network in a climax plant formation. Many authors prefer the term "association" to the term "community" in order to stress the looseness of the interaction.Even less fortunate was the extension of this type of thinking to include animals as well as plants. This resulted in the "biome," a combination of coexisting flora and fauna. Though it is true that many animals are strictly associated with certain plants, it is misleading to speak of a "spruce-moose biome," for example, because there is no internal cohesion to their association as in an organism. The spruce community is not substantially affected by either the presence or absence of moose. Indeed, there are vast areas of spruce forest without moose. The opposition to the Clementsian concept of plant ecology was initiated by Herbert Gleason, soon joined by various other ecologists. Their major point was that the distribution of a given species was controlled by the habitat requirements of that species and that therefore the vegetation types were a simple consequence of the ecologies of individual plant species.With "climax," "biome," "superorganism," and various other technical terms for the association of animals and plants at a given locality being criticized, the term "ecosystem" was more and more widely adopted forthe whole system of associated organisms together with the physical factors of their environment. Eventually, the energy-transforming role of such a system was emphasized. Ecosystems thus involve the circulation, transformation, and accumulation of energy and matter through the medium of living things and their activities. The ecologist is concerned primarily with the quantities of matter and energy that pass through a given ecosystem, and with the rates at which they do so.Although the ecosystem concept was very popular in the 1950s and 1960s, it is no longer the dominant paradigm. Gleason's arguments against climax and biome are largely valid against ecosystems as well. Furthermore, the number of interactions is so great that they are difficult to analyze, even with the help of large computers. Finally, younger ecologists have found ecological problems involving behavior and life-history adaptations more attractive than measuring physical constants. Nevertheless, one still speaks of the ecosystem when referring to a local association of animals and plants, usually without paying much attention to the energy aspects.Paragraph 2: Clements and other early ecologists saw almost lawlike regularity in the order of succession,but that has not been A general can be recognized, but the details are usually unpredictable. Succession is influenced by many factors: the nature of the soil, exposure to sun and wind, regularity of precipitation, chance colonizations, and many other random processes.1. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is a criticism of Clements’ view of succession?O The principles of succession are more lawlike than Clements thought they are.O More evidence is needed to establish Clements’ predictions about succession.O The details of succession are affected by random processes.O Many of the factors that determine which plants will grow in an environment, such as the nature of the soil and the exposure to sun, do not change at all.2.st in meaning toO confirmedO noticedO definedO publicized3.O probabilityO pictureO lawlike regularityO tendencyParagraph 3: The final stage of a succession, called the climax by Clements and early ecologists, isnot predictable or of uniform composition. There is usually a good deal of turnover in species composition, even in a mature community. The nature of the climax is influenced by the same factors that influenced succession. Nevertheless, mature natural environments are usually in equilibrium. They change relatively little through time unless the environment itself changes.4.the passage is closest in meaning toO sometimesO similarlyO apparentlyO consequentlyParagraph 4: For Clements, the climax was a "superorganism," an organic entity. Even some authors who accepted the climax concept rejected Clements' characterization of it as a superorganism, and it is indeed asystem is so highly organized that the colony always works as a whole and appropriately according to the circumstances. But there is no evidence for such an interacting communicative network in a climax plant formation. Many authors prefer the term "association" to the term "community" in order to stress the looseness of the interaction.5.O commonlyO broadlyO properlyO officially6.According to paragraph 4, why do many authors prefer the term “association” to “community” whendescribing a climax plant formation?O Because the term “association” does not suggest the presence of a tight network involving interactive communication.O Because the term “association” indicates that the grouping is not necessarily beneficial to all members.O Because the term “community” indicates continuing dynamic development that a climax formation does not have.O Because the term “community” suggests an organization that has been designed for a specific purpose.Paragraph 5: Even less fortunate was the extension of this type of thinking to include animals as well as plants. This resulted in the "biome," a combination of coexisting flora and fauna. Though it is true that many animals are strictly associated with certain plants, it is misleading to speak of a "spruce-moose biome," for example, because there is no internal cohesion to their association as in an organism. The spruce communityeither the presence or absence ofHerbert Gleason, soon joined by various other ecologists. Their major point was that the distribution of a given species was controlled by the habitat requirements of that species and that therefore the vegetation types were a simple consequence of the ecologies of individual plant species.7.In paragraph 5, the author challenges the idea of a “biome” by noting thatO there are usually no very strong connections among the plants and animals living in a placeO plants and animals respond in the same way to the same circumstancesO particular combinations of flora and fauna do not generally come about purely by chanceO some animals are dependent on specific kinds of plants for food8.Why does the author make theO To highlight a fact whose significance the ecologist Herbert Gleason had missedO To propose the idea that a spruce forest is by itself a superorganismO To emphasize that moose are not limited to a single kind of environmentO To criticize the idea of a spruce-moose biome9.OO identifiedO startedO foreseen10.According to paragraph 5, Gleason’s opposition t o the Clementsian views of plant ecology was basedon the claim that plant species grow in places whereO they can enter into mutually beneficial relationships with other speciesO conditions suit them, regardless of whether particular other species are presentO habitats are available for a wide variety of plant and animal speciesO their requirements are met, and those of most other species are notinvolve the circulation, transformation, and accumulation of energy and matter through the medium of living things and their activities. The ecologist is concerned primarily with the quantities of matter and energy that pass through a given ecosystem, and with the rates at which they do so.11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence inthe passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.O Unlike the terms “climax”, “biome,” and “superorganism,” which refer to the particular association of plants and animals at a given location, the term “ecosystem” refers specifically tothe physical factors within an environment.O The terms “climax,” “biome,” “superorganism,” and “ecosystem” all refer to the system of plants and animals in an associated environment, but some are more controversial than others.O When the older terms of ecology became too technical, they were replaced by the more popular an d more widely used term “ecosystem.”O The term “ecosystem” gradually replaced discredited terms for the combination of a physical environment and the plants and animals living together in it.12.According to paragraph 6, what did ecologists mainly study when the ecosystem concept was thedominant paradigm?O The physical factors present in different environmentsO The typical activities of animals and the effect of those activities on plantsO The rates at which ecosystems changed from one kind to anotherO The flow of energy and matter through ecosystemsParagraph 7: Although the ecosystem concept was very popular in the 1950s and 1960s, it is no longer the dominant paradigm. ■ Gleason's arguments against climax and biome are largely valid against ecosyste ms as well. ■ Furthermore, the number of interactions is so great that they are difficult to analyze, even with the help of large computers. Finally, younger ecologists have found ecological problems involving behavior and life-history adaptations more att ractive than measuring physical constants. ■ Nevertheless, one still speaks of the ecosystem when referring to a local association of animals and plants, usually without paying much attention to the energy aspects. ■13.Look at the four squares [■] that in dicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.They may be more interested in researching, for example, the adaptations that some aquatic animals undergo to survive in dry desert environments.Where would the sentence best fit ?14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provied below. Completethe summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.The study of the combination of plant species that inhabit a particular locality became a scientific discipline toward the end of the nineteenth century.●●.●Answer ChoicesO Areas that are recovering from serious disturbances like volcanic eruptions and heavy floods provide special opportunities to observe the development of plant communities.O Whether a given species will be found in a given ecosystem strongly depends on what other species it would interact with in that ecosystem.O Computer-aided studies of entire system of associated organisms together with their environment provide a solid basis for current studies of specific ecological problems.O According to the earliest theories of ecology, the development of plant communities proceeds in lawlike fashion and results in stable climax communities.O The idea of associations of pl ants and animals that function as “superorganisms” was later rejected by biologists who saw no strong evidence in support of that idea.O The once popular idea of communities as integrated ecosystems has been largely rejected by modern ecologists, who are more interested in problems involving behavior and adaptations.参考答案：1. 32. 13. 44. 25. 36. 17. 18. 49. 310. 211. 412. 413. 3rd square14. According to the...The idea of....The once popular...。

关键词：Parchment羊皮纸, Palimpsest重写本羊皮纸是制作书本或提供书写的一种材料。

最好的羊皮纸称做犊皮纸vellum，往往被拿来用在最重要的书籍抄写上。

羊皮纸（Parchment）一词来自希腊化时期文化中心之一的帕珈马（pergamon，今日土耳其之Bergama）。

埃及托勒密王朝为了阻碍帕珈马在文化事业上与其竞争，严禁向帕珈马输出埃及的纸莎草纸。

于是帕珈马人就发明了羊皮纸。

事实上羊皮纸并不仅由小羊皮做成，有时也用小牛皮来做。

羊皮纸两面光滑，都能书写,且书写方便，能够让鹅毛笔的书写呈现饱满的色彩，拿来摺成书本也没有问题。

比纸莎草纸更加适用，但价格昂贵，帕珈马图书馆的一些藏书就是羊皮纸作的。

羊皮纸的墨迹擦除：1.中世纪早期，羊皮纸上的墨迹通常是用牛奶来进行擦除，这能够移除羊皮纸上的墨迹，但是字迹过一段时间会显现出来。

2.中世纪晚期，人们习惯用研磨料abrasive对羊皮纸表面进行擦拭，这种方式能够完全擦掉羊皮纸表面的信息。

“重写本”的英文原文为palimpsest，此处的译法主要参考的是《美国传统词典》第一条：A manuscript, typically of papyrus or parchment, that has been written on more than once, with the earlier writing incompletely erased and often legible.重写本：尤指纸莎草纸或羊皮纸的底稿，已被写了不止一次，以前写的东西已被不完全擦掉，通常是清晰易读的。

阿基米德：阿基米德（公元前287年—公元前212年），伟大的古希腊哲学家、百科式科学家、数学家、物理学家、力学家，静态力学和流体静力学的奠基人，并且享有“力学之父”的美称，阿基米德和高斯、牛顿并列为世界三大数学家。

阿基米德曾说过：“给我一个支点，我就能撬起整个地球。

”阿基米德确立了静力学和流体静力学的基本原理。