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流体动力学fluid dynamics 连续介质力学mechanics of continuous media 介质medium 流体质点fluid particle无粘性流体nonviscous fluid, inviscid fluid 连续介质假设continuous medium hypothesis 流体运动学fluid kinematics 水静力学hydrostatics液体静力学hydrostatics 支配方程governing equation伯努利方程Bernoulli equation 伯努利定理Bernonlli theorem毕奥-萨伐尔定律Biot-Savart law 欧拉方程Euler equation亥姆霍兹定理Helmholtz theorem 开尔文定理Kelvin theorem涡片vortex sheet 库塔-茹可夫斯基条件Kutta-Zhoukowski condition 布拉休斯解Blasius solution 达朗贝尔佯廖d'Alembert paradox雷诺数Reynolds number 施特鲁哈尔数Strouhal number随体导数material derivative 不可压缩流体incompressible fluid质量守恒conservation of mass 动量守恒conservation of momentum能量守恒conservation of energy 动量方程momentum equation能量方程energy equation 控制体积control volume液体静压hydrostatic pressure 涡量拟能enstrophy压差differential pressure 流[动] flow流线stream line 流面stream surface流管stream tube 迹线path, path line流场flow field 流态flow regime流动参量flow parameter 流量flow rate, flow discharge涡旋vortex 涡量vorticity涡丝vortex filament 涡线vortex line涡面vortex surface 涡层vortex layer涡环vortex ring 涡对vortex pair涡管vortex tube 涡街vortex street卡门涡街Karman vortex street 马蹄涡horseshoe vortex对流涡胞convective cell 卷筒涡胞roll cell涡eddy 涡粘性eddy viscosity环流circulation 环量circulation速度环量velocity circulation 偶极子doublet, dipole驻点stagnation point 总压[力] total pressure总压头total head 静压头static head总焓total enthalpy 能量输运energy transport速度剖面velocity profile 库埃特流Couette flow单相流single phase flow 单组份流single-component flow均匀流uniform flow 非均匀流nonuniform flow二维流two-dimensional flow 三维流three-dimensional flow准定常流quasi-steady flow 非定常流unsteady flow, non-steady flow 暂态流transient flow 周期流periodic flow振荡流oscillatory flow 分层流stratified flow无旋流irrotational flow 有旋流rotational flow轴对称流axisymmetric flow 不可压缩性incompressibility不可压缩流[动] incompressible flow 浮体floating body定倾中心metacenter 阻力drag, resistance减阻drag reduction 表面力surface force表面张力surface tension 毛细[管]作用capillarity来流incoming flow 自由流free stream自由流线free stream line 外流external flow进口entrance, inlet 出口exit, outlet扰动disturbance, perturbation 分布distribution传播propagation 色散dispersion弥散dispersion 附加质量added mass ,associated mass收缩contraction 镜象法image method无量纲参数dimensionless parameter 几何相似geometric similarity运动相似kinematic similarity 动力相似[性] dynamic similarity平面流plane flow 势potential势流potential flow 速度势velocity potential复势complex potential 复速度complex velocity流函数stream function 源source汇sink 速度[水]头velocity head拐角流corner flow 空泡流cavity flow超空泡supercavity 超空泡流supercavity flow空气动力学aerodynamics低速空气动力学low-speed aerodynamics 高速空气动力学high-speed aerodynamics气动热力学aerothermodynamics 亚声速流[动] subsonic flow跨声速流[动] transonic flow 超声速流[动] supersonic flow锥形流conical flow 楔流wedge flow叶栅流cascade flow 非平衡流[动] non-equilibrium flow细长体slender body 细长度slenderness钝头体bluff body 钝体blunt body翼型airfoil 翼弦chord薄翼理论thin-airfoil theory 构型configuration后缘trailing edge 迎角angle of attack失速stall 脱体激波detached shock wave波阻wave drag 诱导阻力induced drag诱导速度induced velocity 临界雷诺数critical Reynolds number 前缘涡leading edge vortex 附着涡bound vortex约束涡confined vortex 气动中心aerodynamic center气动力aerodynamic force 气动噪声aerodynamic noise气动加热aerodynamic heating 离解dissociation地面效应ground effect 气体动力学gas dynamics稀疏波rarefaction wave 热状态方程thermal equation of state 喷管Nozzle 普朗特-迈耶流Prandtl-Meyer flow瑞利流Rayleigh flow 可压缩流[动] compressible flow可压缩流体compressible fluid 绝热流adiabatic flow非绝热流diabatic flow 未扰动流undisturbed flow等熵流isentropic flow 匀熵流homoentropic flow兰金-于戈尼奥条件Rankine-Hugoniot condition 状态方程equation of state量热状态方程caloric equation of state 完全气体perfect gas拉瓦尔喷管Laval nozzle 马赫角Mach angle马赫锥Mach cone 马赫线Mach line马赫数Mach number 马赫波Mach wave当地马赫数local Mach number 冲击波shock wave激波shock wave 正激波normal shock wave斜激波oblique shock wave 头波bow wave附体激波attached shock wave 激波阵面shock front激波层shock layer 压缩波compression wave反射reflection 折射refraction散射scattering 衍射diffraction绕射diffraction出口压力exit pressure 超压[强] over pressure反压back pressure 爆炸explosion爆轰detonation 缓燃deflagration水动力学hydrodynamics 液体动力学hydrodynamics泰勒不稳定性Taylor instability 盖斯特纳波Gerstner wave斯托克斯波Stokes wave 瑞利数Rayleigh number自由面free surface 波速wave speed, wave velocity波高wave height 波列wave train波群wave group 波能wave energy表面波surface wave 表面张力波capillary wave规则波regular wave 不规则波irregular wave浅水波shallow water wave深水波deep water wave 重力波gravity wave椭圆余弦波cnoidal wave 潮波tidal wave涌波surge wave 破碎波breaking wave船波ship wave 非线性波nonlinear wave孤立子soliton 水动[力]噪声hydrodynamic noise 水击water hammer 空化cavitation空化数cavitation number 空蚀cavitation damage超空化流supercavitating flow 水翼hydrofoil水力学hydraulics 洪水波flood wave涟漪ripple 消能energy dissipation海洋水动力学marine hydrodynamics 谢齐公式Chezy formula欧拉数Euler number 弗劳德数Froude number水力半径hydraulic radius 水力坡度hvdraulic slope高度水头elevating head 水头损失head loss水位water level 水跃hydraulic jump含水层aquifer 排水drainage排放量discharge 壅水曲线back water curve压[强水]头pressure head 过水断面flow cross-section明槽流open channel flow 孔流orifice flow无压流free surface flow 有压流pressure flow缓流subcritical flow 急流supercritical flow渐变流gradually varied flow 急变流rapidly varied flow临界流critical flow 异重流density current, gravity flow堰流weir flow 掺气流aerated flow含沙流sediment-laden stream 降水曲线dropdown curve沉积物sediment, deposit 沉[降堆]积sedimentation, deposition沉降速度settling velocity 流动稳定性flow stability不稳定性instability 奥尔-索末菲方程Orr-Sommerfeld equation 涡量方程vorticity equation 泊肃叶流Poiseuille flow奥辛流Oseen flow 剪切流shear flow粘性流[动] viscous flow 层流laminar flow分离流separated flow 二次流secondary flow近场流near field flow 远场流far field flow滞止流stagnation flow 尾流wake [flow]回流back flow 反流reverse flow射流jet 自由射流free jet管流pipe flow, tube flow 内流internal flow拟序结构coherent structure 猝发过程bursting process表观粘度apparent viscosity 运动粘性kinematic viscosity动力粘性dynamic viscosity 泊poise厘泊centipoise 厘沱centistoke剪切层shear layer 次层sublayer流动分离flow separation 层流分离laminar separation湍流分离turbulent separation 分离点separation point附着点attachment point 再附reattachment再层流化relaminarization 起动涡starting vortex驻涡standing vortex 涡旋破碎vortex breakdown涡旋脱落vortex shedding 压[力]降pressure drop压差阻力pressure drag 压力能pressure energy型阻profile drag 滑移速度slip velocity无滑移条件non-slip condition 壁剪应力skin friction, frictional drag 壁剪切速度friction velocity 磨擦损失friction loss磨擦因子friction factor 耗散dissipation滞后lag 相似性解similar solution局域相似local similarity 气体润滑gas lubrication液体动力润滑hydrodynamic lubrication 浆体slurry泰勒数Taylor number 纳维-斯托克斯方程Navier-Stokes equation 牛顿流体Newtonian fluid 边界层理论boundary later theory边界层方程boundary layer equation 边界层boundary layer附面层boundary layer 层流边界层laminar boundary layer湍流边界层turbulent boundary layer 温度边界层thermal boundary layer边界层转捩boundary layer transition 边界层分离boundary layer separation边界层厚度boundary layer thickness 位移厚度displacement thickness动量厚度momentum thickness 能量厚度energy thickness焓厚度enthalpy thickness 注入injection吸出suction 泰勒涡Taylor vortex速度亏损律velocity defect law 形状因子shape factor测速法anemometry 粘度测定法visco[si] metry流动显示flow visualization 油烟显示oil smoke visualization孔板流量计orifice meter 频率响应frequency response油膜显示oil film visualization 阴影法shadow method纹影法schlieren method 烟丝法smoke wire method丝线法tuft method 氢泡法nydrogen bubble method相似理论similarity theory 相似律similarity law部分相似partial similarity 定理pi theorem, Buckingham theorem 静[态]校准static calibration 动态校准dynamic calibration风洞wind tunnel 激波管shock tube激波管风洞shock tube wind tunnel 水洞water tunnel拖曳水池towing tank 旋臂水池rotating arm basin扩散段diffuser 测压孔pressure tap皮托管pitot tube 普雷斯顿管preston tube斯坦顿管Stanton tube 文丘里管Venturi tubeU形管U-tube 压强计manometer微压计micromanometer 多管压强计multiple manometer静压管static [pressure]tube 流速计anemometer风速管Pitot- static tube 激光多普勒测速计laser Doppler anemometer, laser Doppler velocimeter 热线流速计hot-wire anemometer热膜流速计hot- film anemometer 流量计flow meter粘度计visco[si] meter 涡量计vorticity meter传感器transducer, sensor 压强传感器pressure transducer热敏电阻thermistor 示踪物tracer时间线time line 脉线streak line尺度效应scale effect 壁效应wall effect堵塞blockage 堵寒效应blockage effect动态响应dynamic response 响应频率response frequency底压base pressure 菲克定律Fick law巴塞特力Basset force 埃克特数Eckert number格拉斯霍夫数Grashof number 努塞特数Nusselt number普朗特数prandtl number 雷诺比拟Reynolds analogy施密特数schmidt number 斯坦顿数Stanton number对流convection 自由对流natural convection, free convec-tion强迫对流forced convection 热对流heat convection质量传递mass transfer 传质系数mass transfer coefficient热量传递heat transfer 传热系数heat transfer coefficient对流传热convective heat transfer 辐射传热radiative heat transfer动量交换momentum transfer 能量传递energy transfer传导conduction 热传导conductive heat transfer热交换heat exchange 临界热通量critical heat flux浓度concentration 扩散diffusion扩散性diffusivity 扩散率diffusivity扩散速度diffusion velocity 分子扩散molecular diffusion沸腾boiling 蒸发evaporation气化gasification 凝结condensation成核nucleation 计算流体力学computational fluid mechanics 多重尺度问题multiple scale problem 伯格斯方程Burgers equation对流扩散方程convection diffusion equation KDU方程KDV equation修正微分方程modified differential equation 拉克斯等价定理Lax equivalence theorem 数值模拟numerical simulation 大涡模拟large eddy simulation数值粘性numerical viscosity 非线性不稳定性nonlinear instability希尔特稳定性分析Hirt stability analysis 相容条件consistency conditionCFL条件Courant- Friedrichs- Lewy condition ,CFL condition狄里克雷边界条件Dirichlet boundarycondition熵条件entropy condition 远场边界条件far field boundary condition流入边界条件inflow boundary condition无反射边界条件nonreflecting boundary condition数值边界条件numerical boundary condition流出边界条件outflow boundary condition冯.诺伊曼条件von Neumann condition 近似因子分解法approximate factorization method 人工压缩artificial compression 人工粘性artificial viscosity边界元法boundary element method 配置方法collocation method能量法energy method 有限体积法finite volume method流体网格法fluid in cell method, FLIC method通量校正传输法flux-corrected transport method通量矢量分解法flux vector splitting method 伽辽金法Galerkin method积分方法integral method 标记网格法marker and cell method, MAC method 特征线法method of characteristics 直线法method of lines矩量法moment method 多重网格法multi- grid method板块法panel method 质点网格法particle in cell method, PIC method 质点法particle method 预估校正法predictor-corrector method投影法projection method 准谱法pseudo-spectral method随机选取法random choice method 激波捕捉法shock-capturing method激波拟合法shock-fitting method 谱方法spectral method稀疏矩阵分解法split coefficient matrix method 不定常法time-dependent method时间分步法time splitting method 变分法variational method涡方法vortex method 隐格式implicit scheme显格式explicit scheme 交替方向隐格式alternating direction implicit scheme, ADI scheme 反扩散差分格式anti-diffusion difference scheme紧差分格式compact difference scheme 守恒差分格式conservation difference scheme 克兰克-尼科尔森格式Crank-Nicolson scheme杜福特-弗兰克尔格式Dufort-Frankel scheme指数格式exponential scheme 戈本诺夫格式Godunov scheme高分辨率格式high resolution scheme 拉克斯-温德罗夫格式Lax-Wendroff scheme 蛙跳格式leap-frog scheme 单调差分格式monotone difference scheme保单调差分格式monotonicity preserving diffe-rence scheme穆曼-科尔格式Murman-Cole scheme 半隐格式semi-implicit scheme斜迎风格式skew-upstream scheme全变差下降格式total variation decreasing scheme TVD scheme迎风格式upstream scheme , upwind scheme计算区域computational domain 物理区域physical domain影响域domain of influence 依赖域domain of dependence区域分解domain decomposition 维数分解dimensional split物理解physical solution 弱解weak solution黎曼解算子Riemann solver 守恒型conservation form弱守恒型weak conservation form 强守恒型strong conservation form散度型divergence form 贴体曲线坐标body- fitted curvilinear coordi-nates [自]适应网格[self-] adaptive mesh 适应网格生成adaptive grid generation自动网格生成automatic grid generation 数值网格生成numerical grid generation交错网格staggered mesh 网格雷诺数cell Reynolds number数植扩散numerical diffusion 数值耗散numerical dissipation数值色散numerical dispersion 数值通量numerical flux放大因子amplification factor 放大矩阵amplification matrix阻尼误差damping error 离散涡discrete vortex熵通量entropy flux 熵函数entropy function分步法fractional step method。
大脑及发育的词汇中英对照小编为大家整理了大脑及发育的词汇中英对照，希望对你有帮助哦!大脑及发育的词汇中英对照：dorsal root 背根nerve 神经ventricle 脑室cerebellum 小脑cortex 皮质又称“皮层”。
cerebral cortex 大脑皮质neocortex 新皮质white matter 白质gray matter 灰质frontal lobe 额叶prefrontal cortex 前额皮质premotor area 运动前区motor area 运动区Broca's area 布罗卡区temporal lobe 颞叶auditory area 听觉区auditory center 听觉中枢parietal lobe 顶叶central sulcus 中央沟occipital lobe 枕叶visual area 视觉区visual cortex 视觉皮质association area of cerebral cortex 大脑皮质联合区association fiber 联合纤维limbic system 边缘系统hippocampal formation 海马结构hippocampus 海马olfactory area 嗅觉区cingulate gyrus 扣带回amygdala 杏仁核septal area 隔区medial forebrain bundle 内侧前脑束olfactory tract 嗅束commissural fiber 连合纤维corpus callosum 胼胝体basal ganglia 基底神经节diencephalon 间脑thalamus 丘脑hypothalamus 下丘脑suprachiasmatic nucleus 视交叉上核lateral hypothalamus area, LHA 外侧下丘脑区ventromedial hypothalamus, VMH 腹内侧下丘脑pineal body 松果体pituitary gland 脑垂体pyramidal system 锥体系统extrapyramidal system 锥体外系统specific thalamo-cortical projection system 丘脑-皮质特异投射系统nonspecific thalamo-cortical projection system 丘脑-皮质非特异投射系统brain stem 脑干corpora quadrigemina 四叠体lateral geniculate nucleus 外侧膝状体核medial geniculate nucleus 内侧膝状体核formatic reticularis 网状结构cochlear nucleus 耳蜗神经核nerve cell 神经细胞nerve fiber 神经纤维nerve degeneration 神经退变neural regeneration 神经再生autonomic nervous system, ANS 自主神经系统cranial nerve 脑神经myelin sheath 髓鞘nervi olfactory 嗅神经nervi statoacusticus 听神经又称“位听神经”。
外来物种的英语阅读理解Here is an English essay on the topic of "Invasive Species" with a word count over 1000 words, as per your instructions. The essay is written in English without any additional title or punctuation marks.Invasive SpeciesThe global ecosystem is a delicate balance of diverse flora and fauna that have coexisted for centuries, adapting to the unique characteristics of their native environments. However, this equilibrium is increasingly being disrupted by the introduction of non-native or "invasive" species - organisms that are brought, either intentionally or unintentionally, to regions outside of their natural habitats. These invasive species can have devastating consequences on local ecosystems, posing a significant threat to native wildlife, agricultural productivity, and even human health.One of the primary drivers of invasive species introduction is human activity. As globalization has accelerated, the movement of people, goods, and materials across international borders has increased exponentially. This has led to the unintentional transport of non-native organisms, which can stow away in shipping containers, onvehicles, or even in the soil of imported plants. Additionally, the deliberate introduction of certain species for agricultural, horticultural, or recreational purposes has sometimes resulted in those organisms escaping or being released into the wild, where they can thrive and outcompete indigenous species.The impacts of invasive species can be far-reaching and profound. These non-native organisms often lack natural predators or competitors in their new environments, allowing them to rapidly multiply and spread unchecked. This can disrupt the delicate food webs and ecological niches that support native species, leading to the decline or even extinction of indigenous flora and fauna. Invasive plants, for example, can aggressively outcompete native vegetation, altering the composition of natural habitats and depriving native animals of essential resources.The economic consequences of invasive species can also be significant. Invasive pests and pathogens can wreak havoc on agricultural crops, forests, and other valuable resources, resulting in substantial financial losses for farmers, foresters, and resource managers. The control and eradication of invasive species can also be extremely costly, often requiring intensive and sustained efforts over many years.Moreover, the introduction of non-native species can have seriousimplications for human health. Certain invasive organisms, such as disease-carrying insects or toxic plants, can pose direct threats to human well-being, leading to the spread of infectious diseases or the accidental poisoning of individuals. In some cases, the impacts of invasive species on ecosystems can also indirectly impact human communities, disrupting the availability of essential resources or the integrity of natural landscapes that provide valuable ecosystem services.In response to the growing threat of invasive species, governments, conservation organizations, and scientific communities have developed a range of strategies and policies aimed at prevention, early detection, and rapid response. Border control measures, such as inspections and quarantine procedures, can help to intercept and prevent the introduction of non-native organisms. Robust monitoring and surveillance systems can also aid in the early identification of invasive species, allowing for more effective intervention before they become firmly established.Once an invasive species has become established, the options for management and control can be more challenging. Eradication efforts may involve the use of targeted pesticides, biological control agents, or even manual removal of the invasive organisms. In some cases, the relocation or reintroduction of native predators or competitors can help to restore the ecological balance. However,these approaches require careful planning, extensive resources, and long-term commitment to ensure their effectiveness.Ultimately, the prevention and management of invasive species will require a multifaceted approach that combines scientific research, policy development, public education, and international cooperation. By raising awareness about the threats posed by non-native organisms and implementing robust biosecurity measures, we can work to protect the integrity of our natural ecosystems and safeguard the long-term sustainability of our shared environment.。
Two-sided Heterogeneity and Trade∗Andrew B.Bernard†Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth,CEPR&NBERAndreas Moxnes‡University of Oslo,CEPR&NBERKaren Helene Ulltveit-Moe§University of Oslo&CEPRMay2015AbstractThis paper develops a multi-country model of international trade that provides a simple micro-foundation for buyer-seller relationships in trade.We explore a rich dataset that identi-fies buyers and sellers in trade and establish a set of basic facts that guide the development of thetheoretical model.We use predictions of the model to examine the role of buyer heterogeneityin a market for the response offirm-level exports to demand shocks,as well as to quantitativelyevaluate howfirms’marginal costs depend on access to suppliers in foreign markets.Keywords:Heterogeneousfirms,exporters,importers,sourcing costs,trade elasticityJEL codes:F10,F12,F14.∗Thanks go to Richard Baldwin,Arnaud Costinot,Dave Donaldson,Adam Kleinbaum,Ben Mandel,Kjetil Storesletten,and Tony Venables as well as seminar participants at Columbia,DINR,ERWIT2013,Michigan,MIT, NBER,NY Fed,Princeton and Stanford for helpful comments.We thank Angela Gu for excellent research assis-tance.A special thanks to the efforts of Statistics Norway for undertaking the identification of buyers and linking the transactions.Moxnes is grateful forfinancial support from The Nelson A.Rockefeller Center for Public Policy and the Social Sciences at Dartmouth College.†100Tuck Hall,Hanover,NH03755,USA,tel:+16036460302,email:andrew.b.bernard@ ‡PO Box1095Blindern,0317Oslo,Norway,tel:+4722857048,email:andreamo@econ.uio.no§PO Box1095Blindern0317Oslo Norway tel:+4722857240,email:k.h.ulltveit-moe@econ.uio.no1IntroductionGlobal trade is the sum of millions of transactions between individual buyers(importers)and sellers (exporters).Micro-level data has traditionally revealed exports of individualfirms,summed across all buyers;or conversely,imports of individualfirms,summed across all sellers.Naturally,theories of international trade have also focused onfirms on either side of the market,exporters in Melitz (2003)or importers in Antràs et al.(2014).In this paper,we explore empirically and theoretically individual matches between exporters and importers and examine the consequences of this micro-structure onfirm-level and aggregate outcomes.In doing so,we build a model of international trade where exporters and importers are put on an equal footing.In our data,the identities of both the exporter and the importer are known.We can link a Norwegianfirm’s annual export transactions to specific buyers in every destination country and, at the same time,examine all of an importer’s transactions with those Norwegian exportingfirms. Moreover,we can link Norwegianfirms’annual import transactions to specific suppliers in every source country.This allows us to establish a set of basic facts about sellers and buyers across markets which guide the development of a parsimonious multi-country theoretical model with two-sided heterogeneity.In the model,exporters vary in their efficiency in producing differentiated intermediate goods and pay a relation-specificfixed cost to match with each buyer.Thesefixed costs can be related to bureaucratic procedures,contract agreements and the customization of output to the requirements of particular buyers.Importers bundle inputs into afinal product with heterogeneity in efficiency. Due to the presence of the relation-specific cost,not every exporter sells to every buyer in a market. Highly productive exporters reach many customers and their marginal customer is small;highly productive importers purchase from many sellers and their marginal supplier is small.This setup delivers parsimonious expressions for both upstreamfirms’exports and downstreamfirms’imports, which in equilibrium may differ because a seller can match to multiple buyers and a buyer can match to multiple suppliers.Buyer-seller matches are therefore entirely explained by selection based on heterogeneity andfixed costs.In our view,these are the simplest possible ingredients of a model that are needed in order to explain broad features of the buyer-seller data.In addition to being able to match the micro facts of trade,modeling the two-sided nature of trade brings several new insights.At thefirm-level,trade integration lowers marginal costs among downstreamfirms by reducing the cost of inputs and by facilitating more matches between input suppliers andfinal goods producers.The importance of intermediate inputs for productivity growth has strong empirical support;Amiti and Konings(2007),Goldberg et al.(2010)and Khandelwal and Topalova(2011)allfind that declines in input tariffs are associated with sizable measured productivity gains.The model can generatefirm-level responses to trade cost shocks that areconsistent with the empirical evidence.Our work highlights that measuredfirm-level productivity gains not only arise from falling costs or access to higher quality inputs,but also from gaining access to new suppliers.At the macro level,global trade will depend on the magnitude of relation-specific costs:lower relation-specific costs facilitate more matches between buyers and sellers,therefore generating more trade between nations as well as improving consumer welfare.In the aggregate,the model also retains the properties of one-sided models,as it gives us a simple gravity equation of bilateral trade flows as well as the same welfare results as in Arkolakis et al.(2012).In that sense,our model nests previous work while featuring a richer micro foundation.We explore various empirical applications of the model starting with predictions forfirm-level exports.For an exporter,a demand(or trade cost)shock in a destination country will lead to higher export growth when buyers in that market are less dispersed in terms of their productivity.When buyers are more similar,an exporter willfind many new profitable matches,whereas if buyers are dispersed,only a few more matches will become profitable.In other words,the customer extensive margin response will be strong when buyer heterogeneity is low.We test this prediction by exploiting variation in demand across products and countries over time.Wefind strong empirical support for the prediction from the model.An implication of our work is therefore that characteristics on the importer side(such as buyer heterogeneity)matter for the exporter side(such as thefirm-level trade elasticity).Thefirm-level export response after a change to trade policy,exchange rate movements or other kinds of shocks,will vary across countries depending on characteristics of the importers.Second,based on the predictions of the model we develop an empirical methodology to evaluate downstreamfirms’marginal cost response when foreign market access is changing due to a fall in trade barriers or a reduction in the pool of potential suppliers.We show that a sufficient statistic for afirm’s change in marginal costs is the level of,and the change in,intermediate import shares and the trade elasticity.Evaluating the impact of the2008-2009trade collapse onfirms’production costs, wefind that worsened market access during the trade collapse had a substantial negative impact on production costs,especially for downstreamfirms with high ex-ante exposure to international markets.The exercise also allows us to assess thefit of the model and to evaluate the importance of the supplier margin.Overall,the model does well in matching the fall in the number of buyer-seller connections during the trade collapse.This paper is related to several new streams of research onfirms in international trade.Importing firms have been the subject of work documenting their performance and characteristics.Bernard et al.(2009),Castellani et al.(2010)and Muuls and Pisu(2009)show that the heterogeneity of importingfirms rivals that of exporters for the US,Italy and Belgium respectively.Amiti and Konings(2007),Halpern et al.(2011)and Boler et al.(2012)relate the importing activity of manufacturingfirms to increases in productivity.In recent work,Blaum et al.(2015)develop amodel offirm-level imports and show,as we do,that afirm’s marginal costs depend on the share of intermediates sourced domestically as well as the trade elasticity.They generalize this result and show that this holds for a wide class of models,while our framework emphasizes the two-sided nature of trade,i.e.that onefirm’s exports is anotherfirm’s imports.Papers by Rauch(1999),Rauch and Watson(2004),Antràs and Costinot(2011)and Petropoulou (2011)consider exporter-importer linkages.Chaney(2014)also has a search-based model of trade wherefirms must match with a contact in order to export to a destination.These papers adopt a search and matching approach to linking importers and exporters,while in this paper we abstract from these mechanisms and instead focus on the implications of buyer heterogeneity for international trade.Our work is also related to the literature on exports and heterogeneous trade costs initiated by Arkolakis(2010,2011).In these papers,the exporter faces a rising marginal cost of reaching additional(homogeneous)customers.In our framework,buyers themselves are heterogeneous in their expenditures,but in equilibrium,exportingfirms face rising costs per unit of exports as they reach smaller importers.Our paper is most closely related to the nascent literature using matched importer-exporter data.Blum et al.(2010)and Blum et al.(2012)examine characteristics of trade transactions for the exporter-importer pairs of Chile-Colombia and Argentina-Chile while Eaton et al.(2012)consider exports of Colombianfirms to specific importingfirms in the United States.Blum et al.(2010)and Blum et al.(2012)find,as we do,that small exporters typically sell to large importers and small importers buy from large exporters.Their focus is on the role of import intermediaries in linking small exporters and small customers.Eaton et al.(2012)develop a model of search and learning to explain the dynamic pattern of entry and survival by Colombian exporters and to differentiate between the costs offinding new buyers and to maintaining relationships with existing ones.In contrast to those papers but similar to Carballo et al.(2013),we focus on the role of importer heterogeneity across destinations.Carballo et al.(2013)focus on export margins across goods, countries and buyers,while we study the implications of importer heterogeneity on exportingfirms’responses to exogenous shocks to trade barriers and demand.Monarch(2013)estimates switching costs using a panel of U.S importers and Chinese exporters and Dragusanu(2014)explores how the matching process varies across the supply chain using U.S.-Indian data.Sugita et al.(2014)study matching patterns in U.S.-Mexico trade while Benguria(2014)estimates a trade model with search costs using matched French-Colombian data.The rest of the paper is structured as follows.In Section2we describe our main data source, while in Section3we document a set of facts on the role of buyers in trade,the heterogeneity of buyers and sellers,and their bilateral relationships which will guide our theoretical model and subsequent empirical specification.In Section4we develop a multi-country trade model withheterogeneous sellers and buyers.Section5testsfirm-level empirical predictions of the model with respect to the impact of demand shocks and the role of importer heterogeneity.Section5.2develops the empirical methodology to quantify the impact of supply shocks on downstreamfirms’marginal cost,while Section6concludes.2DataThe main data set employed in this paper is based on Norwegian transaction-level customs data from 2005-2010.The data have the usual features of transaction-level trade data in that it is possible to create annualflows of exports by product,destination and year for all Norwegian exporters. In addition,this data has information on the identity of the buyer for every transaction in every destination market.As a result we are able to see exports of each seller at the level of the buyer-product-destination-year.1Our data include the universe of Norwegian non-oil merchandise exports, and we observe export value and quantity.In2005total Norwegian non-oil merchandise exports amounted to US$41Billion,equal to approximately18percent of Mainland Norway GDP(GDP excluding the oil and gas sector).Norwegian merchandise exports constituted around1/3of total Norwegian exports in2005,and were undertaken by18,219sellers who sold5,154products to81,362 buyers across205destinations.2The quantitative exercise in Section5.2requires data onfirms’imports across suppliers and source countries,as well as data onfirms’total purchases of intermediate goods.In this part of the paper,we therefore use customs data on imports that have an identical structure to the export data described above.In addition,we match the import data to balance sheet data for manufacturingfirms,which includes a variable for total intermediate purchases.The balance sheet data is from Statistics Norway’s Capital database,which is an annual unbalanced panel of all non-oil manufacturing joint-stockfirms.It includes approximately8,000firms per year,which is roughly 90percent of all manufacturingfirms.3Thefirm-level evidence from Norwegian non-oil exports looks remarkably similar to that of other developed countries,see Cebeci et al.(2012),Irarrazabal et al.(2013)and Mayer and Ottaviano (2008).Tables1and2report the top5exported products from Mainland Norway.Ordered by export value,exports of intermediate inputs(metals,fertilizers),capital equipment(vessels) and food(fish)constitute the largest shares of exports.Ordered by the number of exporters, differentiated products such as machinery and various parts and components rank the highest.The empirical analysis in Section5also employs international trade data from COMTRADE and the World Bank’s Enterprise Surveys as well as the Bureau van Dijk’s ORBIS database to calculate1Statistics Norway identifies buyers using the raw transaction-level records;however they aggregate the data to the annual level before allowing external access to the data.2In the same year,merchandise exports in the U.S.and UK was60and50percent of total exports respectively.3Statistics Norway’s capital database is described in Raknerud et al.(2004).measures of buyer heterogeneity across export destinations.Furthermore,we use Colombian buyer-seller data to test the external validity of our results.See Appendix Section I for a description.3Exporters and Importers3.1Basic FactsThis section explores the matched buyer-seller data for Norwegian exporters.We establish the rele-vance of the buyer dimension as a margin of trade,and document a set of facts on the heterogeneity of buyers and sellers and their relationships.We let these facts guide our model of international trade and subsequent empirical specifications.Fact1:The buyer margin explains a large fraction of the variation in aggregate trade.To examine the role of buyers in the variation of exports across countries,we decompose total exports to country j,x j,into the product of the number of exportingfirms,f,the number of exported products,p,the number of buyers(importers),b,the density of trade,d,i.e.the fraction of all possible exporter-product-buyer combinations for country j for which trade is positive,and the average value of exports,¯x.Hence,x j=f j p j b j d j¯x jwhere d j=o j/(f j p j b j),o j is the number of exporter-product-buyer observations for which trade with country j is positive and¯x j=x j/o j is average value per exporter-product-buyer.We regress the logarithm of each component on the logarithm of total exports to a given market in2006,e.g. ln f j,against ln x j.Given that OLS is a linear estimator and its residuals have an expected value of zero,the coefficients for each set of regressions sum to unity,with each coefficient representing the share of overall variation in trade explained by the respective margin.The results,shown in Table 3,confirm and extend previousfindings on the importance of the extensive and intensive margins of trade.While it has been shown in a variety of contexts that the number of exportingfirms and products increases as total exports to a destination increase,our results show the comparable importance of the number of importing buyers in total exports.In fact,the buyer margin is as large or larger than thefirm or product margins.It is well documented that the total value of exports,the number of exportingfirms and the number of exported products are all systematically related to destination market characteristics such as GDP and distance.Looking within thefirm across markets,we show how the buyer margin responds to these standard gravity variables by regressing afirm’s number of customers on afirm fixed effect,distance and GDP in the destination market(all in logs).The results in Table4column 2show that afirm’s number of customers is significantly higher in larger markets and smaller in remote markets,i.e.importers per exporter vary systematically with GDP and distance.4The 4We also use totalfirm-level exports and averagefirm-level exports per buyer as dependent variables in columnsNote:2006data,log scales.GDP in from Penn World Table7.1(cgdp×pop),US normal-ized to1.importance of market size is also illustrated in Figure1.Here,the vertical axis denotes the average number of customers per Norwegian exporter while the horizontal axis denotes destination market GDP.The larger the market size,the greater the number of buyers for a given Norwegian exporter. The model in Section4generates a positive relationship between market size and the number of customers per exporter.Fact2:The populations of sellers and buyers of Norwegian exports are both characterized by extreme concentration.The top10percent of sellers account for98percent of Norwegian aggregate exports.At the same time,the top10percent of buyers are almost as dominant and account for 96percent of the purchases of Norwegian exports(Table5).Although a handful of exporters and importers account for a large share of aggregate trade,these largefirms are matching with many partners;one-to-one matches are typically not important in the aggregate.Table6shows that one-to-one matches represent9.5percent of all exporter-importer connections but account for only 4.6percent of aggregate trade.Many-to-many matches,i.e.where both exporter and importer have multiple connections,make up almost two thirds of aggregate trade.These facts motivate us to develop a model allowing for suppliers to match with several customers and buyers to match with multiple sellers.Fact3:The distributions of buyers per exporter and exporters per buyer are characterized by 1and3.Note:2006data,log scale.The estimated slope coefficients are-1.02(s.e.0.010)for China,-1.02(s.e.0.002)for Sweden and-1.13(s.e.0.005)for the U.S.The distribution is Pareto if the slope is constant.The slope coefficient equals the negative of the inverse of the Pareto shape parameter(−1/a,see footnote7).Note:2006data,log scale.The estimated slope coefficients are-0.92(s.e.0.002)for China,-0.88(s.e.0.001)for Sweden and-0.80(s.e.0.001)for the U.S.The distribution is Pareto if the slope is constant.The slope coefficient equals the negative of the inverse of the Pareto shape parameter(−1/a,see footnote3).many firms with few connections and a few firms with many connections.We plot the number of buyers of each exporting firm in a particular market against the fraction of exporters selling in the market who sell to at least that many buyers.We find that the distributions are remarkably similar across markets,Figure 2plots the results for China,the US and Sweden.5The average number of buyers per seller is 4.5in the U.S.and 3.6in China and Sweden (see Table 5).The distributions appear to be largely consistent with a Pareto distribution as the cdfs are close to linear except in the tails.Note that the Pareto fails to capture the discreteness of the actual empirical distribution (the number of customers per exporter is discrete)but we view the Pareto as a continuous approximation of the discrete case.We also plot the number of exporters per buyer in a particular market against the fraction of buyers in this market who buy from at least that many exporters (see Figure 3).Again the distributions are approximately Pareto,except in the tails,with many buyers having a few suppliers,and a few buyers with many suppliers.The average number of exporters per buyer in China,Sweden and the US is 1.7,1.9and 1.6,respectively.Fact 4:Within a market,exporters with more customers have higher total sales,but the dis-tribution of exports across customers does not vary systematically with the number of customers.Figure 4plots the relationship between a firm’s number of customers on the horizontal axis and its total exports on the vertical axis using log scales.The solid line is the fit from a kernel-weighted local polynomial regression,and the gray area is the 95percent confidence interval.We pool all destination countries and normalize exports such that average exports for one-customer firms in each destination equal 1.6Not surprisingly,firms with more buyers typically export more.The average firm with 10customers in a destination exports more than 10times as much as a firm with only one customer.In Figure 5,we examine how the distribution of exports across buyers varies with the number of buyers.The plot shows the fitted lines from polynomial regressions of the 10th,median and 90th percentile of firm-level log exports (across buyers)and the log number of customers using log scales.We focus on firms with 10or more customers because the 10th and 90th percentiles are not well defined for firms with fewer than 10buyers.Again,we pool all destinations and normalize exports such that average exports for one-customer firms are 1.Firm-level exports to the median buyer are roughly constant,so that better-connected sellers are not selling more to their median buyer in a5To interpret Figure 2as the empirical CDF,let x ρj be the ρth percentile of the number of buyers per exporter in market j .We can then write Pr X ≤x ρj =ρ.If the distribution is Pareto with shape parameter a and location parameter x 0,we have 1− x 0/x ρj a =ρ,and taking logs this gives us ln x ρj =ln x 0−1ln (1−ρ).Hence,the slopein Figure 2is −1/a .6The unit of observation is a firm-destination.Log exports are expressed relative to average log exports for one-customer firms,ln Exports mj −ln ExportsOCF j ,where ln Exports mj is log exports from seller m to market j and ln ExportsOCF j is average log exports for one-customer firms in market j .This normalization is similar to removing country fixed effects from export flows.Furthermore it ensures that the values on the vertical axis are expressed relative to one-customer firms.Note:2006data.The Figure shows thefitted line from a kernel-weighted local polynomial regressionoffirm-destination log exports onfirm-destination log number of customers.Axes scales are in logs.Exports are normalized,see footnote7.destination compared to less well-connected sellers.The10th and90th percentiles are also relatively flat.Dispersion infirm-level exports(across buyers),measured as the difference between the90th and10th percentiles,is constant forfirms with more than10buyers.In our theoretical model,the variation infirm sales in a market is driven by the extensive margin of the number of customers.Fact5:There is negative degree assortivity among sellers and buyers.We characterize sellers according to their number of buyers,and buyers according to their number of sellers.Wefind that the better connected a seller,the less well-connected is its average buyer.Figure6provides an overview of seller-buyer relationships.The Figure shows all possible values of the number of buyers per Norwegianfirm in a given market,a j,on the x-axis,and the average number of Norwegian connections among these buyers,b j(a j),on the y-axis.Both variables are demeaned and axes are in logs.7The interpretation of a point with the coordinates(10,0.1)is that the customers of Norwegian exporters in a market with10times more customers than average have1/10th the average number of Norwegian suppliers.The slope of thefitted regression line is-0.13,so a10percent increase in number of customers is associated with a1.3percent decline in average connections among the 7This Figure shows b(a j)/¯b j(a j),where¯b j(a j)is the average number of Norwegian connections among all buyersjin j.Note:2006data.The Figure shows thefitted lines from kernel-weighted local polynomial regres-sions of the x’th percentile of within-firm-destination log exports onfirm-destination log number ofcustomers.Axes scales in logs.Exports are normalized,see footnote7.customers.8In recent work by Bernard et al.(2014),negative degree assortivity is also found for buyer-seller links among Japanesefirms.The Japanese dataset covers close to the universe of domestic buyer-seller links and therefore contains information about the full set of buyer linkages (not only the linkages going back to the source market,).Note that negative degree assortivity does not mean that well-connected exporters only sell to less-connected buyers;instead it suggests that well-connected exporters typically sell to both well-connected buyers and less-connected buyers,whereas less-connected exporters typically only sell to well-connected buyers.This is illustrated in Figure7.We dividefirms into groups with1connection, 2-3,4-10and11+connections in the largest export market,Sweden.9For each group,we then calculate the share of customers that have1Norwegian connection,2-3,4-10and11+Norwegian connections.The far left bar shows that among exporters with1Swedish connection,around30 percent of the total number of matches are made with buyers with1Norwegian connection.The8Using the median number of connections instead of the average number of connections as the dependent variable also generates a significant and negative slope coefficient.Estimating the relationship separately for each country, instead of pooling all countries,produces a negative assortivity coefficient for89percent of the countries we have sufficient data for(defined as countries with10or more observations in the regression).In appendix F,we show that the elasticity is informative of a structural parameter of the model.9The median,75th percentile and90th percentile number of number of customers per exporter is1,3and7 respectively.Patterns for other markets are broadly similar.Note:2006data.The Figure shows all possible values of the number of buyers per Norwegianfirmin a given market j,a j,on the x-axis,and the average number of Norwegian connections amongthese buyers,b j(a j),on the y-axis.Axes scales are in logs.Both variables are demeaned,i.e.b j(a j)is the average number of Norwegian connections among allb j(a j),where¯we show b j(a j)/¯buyers in market j.Thefitted regression line and95%confidence intervals are denoted by the solidline and gray area.The slope coefficient is-0.13(s.e.0.01).far right bar shows that among exporters with11+Swedish connections,almost half of the number of matches made are with buyers with1Norwegian connection.Hence,more popular exporters are much more exposed to single-connection buyers.Note that degree assortivity is only a meaningful measure in economic environments with many-to-many matching.Moreover,negative degree assortivity can coexist with positive assortative matching on the intensive(export value)margin.For example,Sugita et al.(2014)study one-to-one matches in Mexico-U.S.trade andfind evidence that more capable sellers typically match with more capable buyers.10In fact,this would also be the outcome of a one-to-one matching version of our model because the profits of a match are supermodular in seller and buyer efficiency,see Appendix C.1110Dragusanu(2014)and Benguria(2014)alsofind evidence of positive assortivity on the intensive margin.11Social networks typically feature positive degree assortivity,that is,highly connected nodes tend to attach to other highly connected nodes,while negative correlations are usually found in technical networks such as servers on the Internet(Jackson and Rogers,2007).In the friendship network among prison inmates considered by Jackson and Rogers(2007),the correlation between a node’s in-degree(incoming connections)and the average in-degree of its neighbors is0.58.The correlation in our data is-0.31.Serrano and Boguna(2003)find evidence of negative sorting in the network of trading countries;i.e.highly connected countries,in terms of trading partners,tend to attach to。
equilibrium英文解释Equilibrium is a fundamental concept in physics, chemistry, economics, and other fields, referring to a state of balance or stability where opposing forces or influences are balanced, resulting in no net change or motion. In other words, it is a state where the system is at rest or in a constant state of motion, with no tendency to change.In physics, equilibrium is often described as the state where a system is in a state of dynamic balance, with all forces acting on it canceled out by opposing forces. This can be seen in mechanical systems, where objects are atrest or moving with constant velocity, or in thermodynamic systems, where the system is in a state of thermal balance, with no net heat flow.In chemistry, equilibrium is typically referred to as a state where a chemical reaction proceeds in both directions at the same rate, resulting in no net change in theconcentrations of the reactants and products. This state is known as chemical equilibrium, and it is described by the law of mass action, which states that the rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants.In economics, equilibrium is often described as a state where the supply and demand for a particular good or service are balanced, resulting in a stable price. This state is known as market equilibrium, and it is described by the law of supply and demand, which states that the price of a good or service will adjust to balance the quantity supplied with the quantity demanded.In all these fields, equilibrium is an important concept because it represents a state of stability and predictability. When a system is in equilibrium, it is generally easier to understand and predict its behavior than when it is in a state of flux or change. Additionally, equilibrium states often correspond to optimal or most efficient conditions, making them important targets for engineering, economic policy, and other applications.However, it is important to note that equilibrium is not always a static or unchanging state. In many systems, equilibrium is a dynamic state, with small fluctuations or perturbations constantly occurring. These fluctuations can be caused by external influences, internal fluctuations in the system, or random events. In these cases, the system will continually adjust to maintain the balance orstability of the equilibrium state.Additionally, it is worth noting that achieving or maintaining an equilibrium state can often be challenging. In many cases, it requires careful control or management of the system, as well as an understanding of the interactions and dependencies within the system. For example, in economic systems, maintaining market equilibrium often requires government intervention or regulation to prevent market failures or excesses. In physical systems, achieving equilibrium may require precise control of external conditions or the manipulation of system parameters.In conclusion, equilibrium is a fundamental conceptthat describes a state of balance or stability in various fields. It represents a state where opposing forces or influences are balanced, resulting in no net change or motion. While equilibrium may be seen as a static or unchanging state in some cases, it is often a dynamic state that requires careful management and control to maintain. Understanding and manipulating equilibrium states iscrucial in many fields, including physics, chemistry, economics, and engineering, and has important applications in real-world scenarios.。
混合策略同时博弈II：非零和博弈 和III：一般性讨论 Simultaneous-Move Games with Mixed Strategies II: Non-Zero-Sum Games and III: General Discussion 第8章 Chapter 08混合策略同时博弈：非零和博弈 Simultaneous-Move Games with Mixed Strategies: Non-Zero-Sum Games 在非零和博弈中，参与者之间没有明显的利益 冲突，也就没有普遍的理由来对对手隐藏其利 益所在。
In non-zero-sum games, player do not have clearly conflicting interests and have no general reason to want to conceal their interests from others. 因此，迷惑对手就不一定有道理。
As a result, there is no general argument for keeping the other player guessing.Slide 2由于不确定的信念导致的混合策略 Mixing Sustained by Uncertain Beliefs不过，由于是同时博弈，参与者可能不得不持 有对对手行动的某种不确定性的信念，因而也 就不能确定地给出自己的最优行动。
However, Simultaneous play can still lead players to have uncertain beliefs about the actions of a rival player and therefore to be uncertain about their own best actions.Slide 3哈里和萨莉能否会面？ Will Harry Meet Sally?SALLY Starbucks Starbucks HARRY Local Latte 0, 0 2, 2 1, 1 Local Latte 0, 0Slide 4哈里和萨莉能否会面？ Will Harry Meet Sally?Sally’s Payoffs2Local LatteSally’s best-response1Starbucks0 2/3Harry’s p-mix1Slide 5哈里和萨莉能否会面？ Will Harry Meet Sally?Sally’s 1 q-mix2/33 Nash EquilibriaHarry’s best response02/3Harry’s p-mixSlide 61Sally’s best response哈里和萨莉能否会面？ Will Harry Meet Sally?混合策略均衡下每个人的期望收益为2/3，小于任何 一个纯策略均衡（2或1）。
液相色谱词汇中英文对照液相色谱词汇中英文对照高效毛细管电泳high—performance capillary electrophoresis归一化法normalization method毛细管等电聚焦capillary isoelectric focusing毛细管等速电泳isotachophoresis毛细管电色谱capillary electrochromatography毛细管电泳capillary electrophoresis毛细管电泳电喷雾质谱联用capillary electrophoresis – electr芯片电泳microchip electrophoresis色谱法chromatography色谱峰chromatographic peak色谱峰区域宽度peak width色谱富集过样samt injection of chromatography色谱工作站chromatographic working station色谱图chromatogram色谱仪chromatograph色谱柱chromatographic column色谱柱column色谱柱切换技术switching column technique毛细管超临界流体色谱法capillary supercritical fluid chromat…毛细管电泳基质辅助激光解吸电离质谱离线检测off—line capillar…毛细管电泳离子分析capillary ion analysis毛细管电泳免疫分析immunity analysis of capillary electropho…毛细管胶束电动色谱micellar electrokinetic chromatography毛细管凝胶电泳capillary gel electrophoresis毛细管凝胶柱capillary gel column毛细管亲和电泳affinity capillary electrophoresis毛细管区带电泳capillary zone electrophoresis毛细管有效长度the effective length of capillary electrophor…间接检测indirect detection间接荧光检测indirect fluorescence detection间接紫外检测indirect ultraviolet detection检测器detector检测器检测限detector detectability检测器灵敏度detector sensitivity检测器线性范围detector linear range阴离子交换剂anion exchanger阴离子交换色谱法anion exchange chromatography，AEC高速逆流色谱法high speed counter—current chromatography高温凝胶色谱法high temperature gel chromatography高效液相色谱-付里叶变换红外分析法high performance liquid ch…高效液相色谱法high performance liquid chromatography高效柱high performance column高压流通池技术high pressure flow cell technique高压输液泵high pressure pump高压梯度high-pressure gradient高压液相色谱法high pressure liquid chromatography阴离子交换树脂anion exchange resin荧光薄层板fluorescent thin layer plate荧光检测器fluorescence detector荧光色谱法fluorescence chromatography迎头色谱法frontal chromatography迎头色谱法frontal method硬(质）凝胶hard gel有机改进剂organic modifier有机相生物传感器Organic biosensor有效峰数effective peak number EPN有效理论塔板数number of effective theoretical plates有效塔板高度effective plate height有效淌度effective mobility淤浆填充法slurry packing method予柱pre-column在线电堆集on—line electrical stacking在柱电导率检测on-column electrical conductivity detection噪声noise噪信比noise –signal ratio增强紫外—可见吸收检测技术UV-visible absorption enhanced det…窄粒度分布narrow particle size distribution折射率检测器refractive index detector, RID真空脱气装置vacuum degasser阵列毛细管电泳capillary array electrophoresis蒸发光散射检测器evaporative light—scattering detector, ELSD整体性质检测器integral property detector正相高效液相色谱法normal phase high performance liquid chro…正相离子对色谱法normal phase ion—pair chromatography正相毛细管电色谱positive capillary electrokinetic chromatog…直接化学离子化direct chemical ionization GC—MS直接激光在柱吸收检测on-column direct laser detection纸色谱法paper chromatography置换色谱法displacement chromatography制备色谱preparative chromatography制备色谱仪preparative chromatograph制备柱preparation column智能色谱chromatography with artificial intelligence质量色谱mass chromatography质量型检测器mass detector质量型检测器mass flow rate sensitive detector中压液相色谱middle—pressure liquid chromatography重建色谱图reconstructive chromatogram重均分子量weight mean molecular weight轴向扩散longitudinal diffusion轴向吸收池absorption pool of axial direction轴向压缩柱axial compression column柱端电导率检测out-let end detection of electrical conductiv…柱负载能力column loadability柱后衍生化post-column derivatization柱老化condition （aging) of column柱流出物(column) effluent柱流失column bleeding柱内径column internal diameter柱前衍生化pro-column derivatization柱切换技术column switching technique柱清洗column cleaning柱容量column capacity柱入口压力column inlet pressure柱色谱法column chromatography柱上检测on—line detection柱渗透性column permeability柱寿命column life柱头进样column head sampling柱外效应extra-column effect柱温箱column oven柱效column efficiency柱压column pressure柱再生column regeneration柱中衍生化on-column derivatization注射泵syringe pump转化定量法trans-quantitative method紫外—可见光检测器ultraviolet visible detector，UV-Vis紫外吸收检测器ultraviolet absorption detector自动进样器automatic sampler自由溶液毛细管电泳free solution capillary electrophoresis总分离效能指标over—all resolution efficiency总交换容量total exchange capacity总渗透体积total osmotic volume纵向扩散longitudinal diffusion组合式仪器系统building block instrument最佳流速optimum flow rate最佳实际流速optimum practical flow rate最小检测量minimum detectable quantity最小检测浓度minimum detectable concentration萃取色谱法extraction chromatography脱气装置degasser外标法external standard method外梯度outside gradient网状结构reticular structure往复泵reciprocating pump往复式隔膜泵reciprocating diaphragm pump微分型检测器differential detector微孔树脂micro—reticular resin微库仑检测器micro coulometric detector微量进样针micro—syringe微量色谱法micro-chromatography微乳液电动色谱microemulsion electrokinetic chromatography微生物传感器Microbial sensor微生物显影bioautography微填充柱micro—packed column微吸附检测器micro adsorption detector微型柱micro-column涡流扩散eddy diffusion无机离子交换剂inorganic ion exchanger无胶筛分毛细管电泳non-gel capillary electrophoresis无孔单分散填料non-porous monodisperse packing无脉动色谱泵pulse—free chromatographic pump物理钝化法physical deactivation吸附等温线adsorption isotherm吸附剂adsorbing material吸附剂活性adsorbent activity吸附平衡常数adsorption equilibrium constant吸附溶剂强度参数adsorption solvent strength parameter吸附色谱法adsorption chromatography吸附型PLOT柱adsorption type porous—layer open tubular colum…吸附柱adsorption column吸光度比值法absorbance ratio method洗脱强度eluting power显色器color—developing sprayer限制扩散理论theory of restricted diffusion线速度linear velocity线性梯度linear gradient相比率phase ratio相对保留值relative retention value相对比移值relative Rf value相对挥发度relative volatility相对灵敏度relative sensitivity相对碳（重量)响应因子relative carbon response factor相对响应值relative response相对校正因子relative correction factor相交束激光诱导的热透镜测量heat lens detection of intersect …相似相溶原则rule of similarity响应时间response time响应值response小角激光散射光度计low-angle laser light scattering photomet…小内径毛细管柱Microbore column校正保留体积corrected retention volume校正曲线法calibration curve method校正因子correction factor旋转薄层法rotating thin layer chromatography旋转小室逆流色谱rotational little-chamber counter—current c…选择性检测器selective detector循环色谱法recycling chromatography压电晶体piezoelectric crystal压电免疫传感器Piezoelectric Immunosensor压电转换器piezoelectric transducer压力保护pressure protect压力上限pressure high limit压力梯度校正因子pressure gradient correction factor压力下限pressure low limit衍生化法derivatization method衍生化试剂derivatization reagent阳离子交换剂cation exchanger阳离子交换色谱法cation exchange chromatography，CEC氧化铝色谱法alumina chromatography样品环sample loop样品预处理sample pretreatment液-液分配色谱法liquid—liquid partition chromatography液—液色谱法liquid-liquid chromatography液滴逆流色谱drop counter-current chromatography液固色谱liquid—solid chromatography液晶固定相liquid crystal stationary phase液态离子交换剂liquid ion exchanger液相传质阻力resistance of liquid mass transfer液相色谱—傅里叶变换红外光谱联用liquid chromatography-FTIR 液相色谱-质谱分析法liquid chromatography—mass spectrometry 液相色谱-质谱仪liquid chromatography—mass spectrometer液相色谱法liquid chromatography液相载荷量liquid phase loading溶剂效率solvent efficiency溶解度参数solubility parameter溶液性能检测器solution property detector溶胀swelling溶质性质检测器solute property detector容量因子capacity factor渗透极限分子量permeation limit molecular weight生物色谱biological chromatography生物特异性柱biospecific column生物自显影法bioautography升温速率temperature rate湿法柱填充wet column packing十八烷基键合硅胶octadecyl silane石墨化碳黑graphitized carbon black示差折光检测器differential refraction detector试剂显色法reagent color—developing method手动进样器manual injector手性氨基酸衍生物GC固定相chiral amino aci d derivatives stat…手性拆分试剂chiral selectors手性固定相chiral stationary phase手性固定相拆分法chiral solid phase separation手性环糊精衍生物GC固定相chiral cyclodextrin der GC手性金属络合物GC固定相chirametal stationary phase in GC 手性流动相chiral mobile phase手性流动相拆分法chiral mobile phase separation手性色谱chiral chromatography手性试剂chiral reagent手性衍生化法chiral derivation method疏溶剂理论solvophobic theory疏溶剂色谱法solvophobic chromatography疏溶剂作用理论solvophobic interaction principle疏水作用色谱hydrophobic interaction chromatography树脂交换容量exchange capacity of resin数均分子量number mean molecular weight双保留机理dual reservation mechanism双活塞往复泵two-piston reciprocating pump双束差分检测器detector of dual—beam difference双柱色谱法dual column chromatography水凝胶hydragel水系凝胶色谱柱aqua—system gel column死区域dead zone死体积dead volume塔板理论方程plate theory equation碳分子筛carbon molecular sieve特殊选择固定液selective stationary phase梯度洗脱gradient elution梯度洗脱装置gradient elution device梯度液相色谱gradient liquid chromatography体积排斥理论size exclusion theory体积排斥色谱size exclusion chromatography体积色谱法volumetric chromatography填充柱packed column填料packing material停流进样stop-flow injection通用型检测器common detector涂层毛细管coated capillary拖尾峰tailing peak拖尾因子tailing factor流动分离理论separation by flow流动相mobile phase流动相梯度eluent gradient流体动力学进样hydrostatic pressure injection流体力学体积hydrodynamic volume流型扩散dispersion due to flow profile脉冲阻尼器pulse damper酶传感器Enzyme sensor酶联免疫传感器Enzyme linked immunosensor酶免疫分析enzyme immnunoassay内标法internal standard method内标物internal standard内梯度inside gradient逆流色谱法counter-current chromatography逆流色谱仪counter current chromatograph凝胶过滤色谱gel filtration chromatography凝胶内体积gel inner volume凝胶色谱法gel chromatography凝胶色谱仪gel chromatograph凝胶渗透色谱gel permeation chromatography凝胶外体积gel interstitial volume凝胶柱gel column浓度梯度成像检测器concentration gradient imaging detector 浓度型检测器concentration detector排斥极限分子量exclusion limit molecular weight排斥体积exclusion volume排阻薄层色谱法exclusion TLC漂移drift迁移时间migration time迁移时间窗口the window of migration time前延峰leading peak前沿色谱法frontal chromatography强碱性阴离子交换剂strong-base anion exchanger强酸性阳离子交换剂strongly acidic cation exchanger切换时间switching time去离子水deionized water全多孔硅胶macro—reticular silica gel全多孔型填料macro-reticular packing material全二维色谱Comprehensive two-dim ensional gas chromatography…全硅烷化去活complete silylanization deactivation溶剂强度solvent strength激光解吸质谱法laser desorption MS，LDMS激光色谱laser chromatography激光诱导光束干涉检测detection of laser—induced light beam I…激光诱导毛细管振动测量laser-reduced capillary vibration det…激光诱导荧光检测器laser—induced fluorescence detector记忆峰memory peak记忆效应memory effect夹层槽sandwich chamber假峰ghost peak间断洗脱色谱法interrupted-elution chromatography间接光度（检测）离子色谱法indirect photometric ion chromato…间接光度(检测）色谱法indirect photometric chromatography减压液相色谱vacuum liquid chromatography键合固定相bonded stationary phase键合型离子交换剂bonded ion exchanger焦耳热joule heating胶束薄层色谱法micellar thin layer chromatography胶束液相色谱法micellar liquid chromatography交联度crosslinking degree阶梯梯度stagewise gradient进样阀injection valve进样量sample size进样器injector聚苯乙烯PSDVB聚硅氧烷高温裂解去活high—temperature pyrolysis deactivation…聚合物基质离子交换剂polymer substrate ion exchanger绝对检测器absolute detector可见光检测器visible light detector可交换离子exchangable ion空间性谱带加宽band broadening in space空穴色谱法vacancy chromatography孔结构pore structure孔径pore diameter孔径分布pore size distribution控制单元control unit快速色谱法high-speed chromatography理论塔板高度height equivalent to a theoretical plate(HETP）理论塔板数number of theoretical plates峰面积peak area峰面积测量法measurement of peak area峰面积校正calibration of peak area峰容量peak capacity固定相stationary phase固定液stationary liquid固定液的相对极性relative polarity of stationary liquid固定液极性stationary liquid polarity固相扩散solid diffusion固相荧光免疫分析solid phase fluorescence immunoassay固有粘度intrinsic viscosity光散射检测器light scattering detector硅胶silica gel硅烷化法silanization硅烷化法silanizing硅烷化载体silanized support过压液相色谱法over pressured liquid chromatography,OPLC恒流泵constant flow pump恒温操作constant temperature method恒压泵constant pressure pump红色载体red support红外检测器infrared detector红外总吸光度重建色谱图total infrared absorbance reconstruct…化合物形成色谱compound-formation chromatography化学发光检测器chemiluminescence detector化学发光检测器Chemiluminescence detector，SCD化学键合固定相bonded stationary phase化学键合相色谱bonded phase chromatography化学色谱法chemi—chromatography环糊精电动色谱cyclodextrin electrokinetic chromatography环形展开比移值circular development Rf value环形展开法circular development缓冲溶液添加剂buffer additives辉光放电检测器glow discharge detector混合床离子交换固定相mixed—bed ion exchange stationary phase 混合床柱mixed bed column活塞泵piston pump活性activation活性硅胶activated silica gel活性氧化铝activated aluminium oxide基流background current or base current基线baseline基线宽度baseline width基质substrate materials基质隔离技术matrix isolation technique电歧视效应the effect of electrical discrimination电迁移进样electrophoretic injection电渗流electroendosmotic flow电渗流标记物electroendosmotic flow marker电渗流淌度electroendosmotic mobility电泳淌度electrophoretic mobility调整保留时间adjusted retention time调整保留体积adjusted retention volume叠加内标法added internal standard method二极管阵列检测器diode-array detector，DAD二维色谱法two—dimensional chromatography二元溶剂体系dual solvent system反冲洗back wash反吹技术back flushing technique反峰negative peak反离子counter ion反相高效液相色谱法reversed phas e high performance liquid ch…反相离子对色谱reversed phase ion pair chromatography反相离子对色谱法reversed phase ion—pair chromatography反相毛细管电色谱reverse capillary electrokinetic chromatogr…反相柱reversed phase column反应色谱reaction chromatography反圆心式展开anti-circular development反转电渗流reverse electroendosmotic flow范第姆特方程式van Deemter equation仿生传感器Biomimic electrode放射性检测器radioactivity detector放射自显影autoradiography非极性固定相non-polar stationary phase非极性键合相non-polar bonded phase非水系凝胶色谱柱non-aqua-system gel column非水相色谱nonaqueous phase chromatography非吸附性载体non—adsorptive support非线性分流non-linearity split stream非线性色谱non—linear chromatography非线性吸附等温线non—linear adsorption isotherm酚醛离子交换树脂phenolic ion exchange resin分离－反应－分离展开SRS development分离数separation number分离因子separation factor分离柱separation column分配等温线distribution isotherm分配色谱partition chromatography分配系数partition coefficient分析型色谱仪analytical type chromatograph分子扩散molecular diffusion封尾endcapping峰高peak heightpH梯度动态分离dynamic separation of the pH gradient pH值梯度洗脱pH gradient elutionZata电势Zata potentialZ形池Z-form pool氨基键合相amino—bonded phase氨基酸分析仪amino acid analyzer安培检测器ampere detector白色载体white support半微柱semimicro—column半制备柱semi-preparation column包覆型离子交换剂coated ion exchanger包覆型填料coated packing material保护柱guard column保留间隙retention gap保留时间retention time保留体积retention volume保留温度retention temperature保留值定性法retention qualitative method保留值沸点规律boiling point rule of retention保留值碳数规律carbon number rule of retention保留指数retention index保留指数定性法retention index qualitative method背景电导background conductance苯酚磺酸树脂phenol sulfonic acid resin苯乙烯styrene比保留体积specific retention volume比例阀proportional valve比渗透率specific permeability比移值Rf value便携式色谱仪portable chromatograph标准偏差standard deviation表观电泳淌度apparent electrophoretic mobility表观交换容量apparent exchange capacity表面电位检测器surface potential detector表面多孔硅胶superficially porous silica gel表面多孔填料superficially porous packing material表面多孔型离子交换剂superficially porous ion-exchanger玻璃球载体glass beads support不分流进样splitless sampling参比柱reference column场放大进样electrical field magnified injection场流分离field—flow fractionation场流分离仪field—flow fractionation场效应生物传感器Field effect transistor based Biosensor常压液相色谱法common-pressure liquid chromatography超声波脱气ultrasonic degas程序变流色谱法programmed flow (gas）chromatography程序升温进样programmed temperature sampling程序升温色谱法programmed temperature (gas）chromatography 程序升温蒸发器programmed temperature vaporizer ，PTV程序升压programmed pressure大孔树脂macro-reticular resin大孔填料macro—reticular packing material大内径毛细管柱Megaobore column单活塞往复泵single piston reciprocating pump单相色谱仪single phase chromatograph单向阀one—way valve单柱离子色谱法single column ion chromatography等度洗脱isocratic elution等离子体色谱法plasma chromatography等途电泳-毛细管区带电泳耦合进样isotachophoresis injection—c…低负荷柱low load column低容量柱low capacity column低压梯度low—pressure gradient低压液相色谱low—pressure liquid chromatography电导池conductance cell电导检测法conductance detection电荷转移分光光度法charge transfer spectrophotometry电化学检测器electrochemical detector电解抑制器electrolyze suppressor。
AMESIM 中文教程-第4章高级实例本章你将：• 搭建更复杂的系统• 稳定化运行• See aliasing with data sampling • 使用动态块• 使用旋转机械块4.1 1• 显示系统的状态变量• 用稳定化运行发现初始值• 在图形比较使用保存和装载数据• 给曲线添加文本4.1.1状态计数功能使你能看到仿真中显示的状态变量（外部的或隐含的或约束的），该功能作为快速观察状态变量标题的方式也是非常有用的。
在时间阶跃步序列中，积分过程要持续进行到终点。
在每一个阶跃步，都使用这个重复过程来确定状态变量在新时刻的值。
这一重复过程必须成功地收敛于阶跃过程；此外，每一步之后，都要基于运行参数对话框指定的允许误差进行误差测试。
在某特殊步，一些状态变量可能很容易满足收敛和误差测试，而其它变量则勉强通过测试。
AMESim 记录下满足测试有极大困难的状态变量，在运行模式，通过点击状态计数按钮，将出现状态计数对话框，它会摘述一些信息，这些信息对于确定慢仿真过程非常有用。
继续上一章的实例，再下载已经创建的QuarterCar.ame 文件。
为确保该实例所描述的过程对你的系统有意义，在参数模式下请确认如下数值已被设置：子模型草图上的数量（如果有）标题数值 Body_Mass/MAS002 1 body velocity 0.0body displacement 0.0SPR000A 2 2 spring force with both 0.0displacements zero Wheel_Mass/MAS002 3 wheel velocity 0.0wheel displacement 0.0 SPR000A 4 spring force with both 0.0displacements zero进入运行模式进行仿真，有5个状态变量，请点击状态计数按钮产生如图4.2所示对话框：Figure 4.2本例中，使运行速度变较的很可能是子模型为MAS002 (车轮质量)的状态变量（wheel velocity），如果仿真缓慢，你可以点击更新（Update）按钮或自动更新对话框。
