application of metaphor on advertisement english

STUDIES IN LITERATURE AND LANGUAGEVol. 1, No. 6, 2010, pp. 75-81ISSN 1923-1555 [P RINT ] ISSN 1923-1563[O NLINE ] 75Metaphors in Advertising DiscourseLuu Trong Tuan 1Abstract: Metaphors are the mappings of the abstract world into the concrete world through human senses or experiences. In Vietnamese advertisements, brands are metaphorized and brand metaphors can be categorized into ontological and structural metaphors. BRAND IS MOTION is a structural metaphor, and BRAND IS A CONTAINER, BRAND IS A VALUABLE RESOURCE, BRAND IS A COMPANION, and BRAND IS A GLADIATOR are instances of ontological metaphors.Keywords: conceptual metaphors; ontological metaphors; structural metaphors; brand; Vietnamese advertisements1. INTRODUCTIONMetaphors can be used verbally in the headline and/or copy. There are many advantages linked with the use of metaphors in advertising discourse. First, they elicit more cognitive elaboration than literal messages (Toncar and Munch 2001), presumably since individuals need to comprehend the complex message to draw inferences (Mick 1992). Their artful deviations provide intrinsic rewards that come from processing various interpretations of the text (Barthes 1986). Second, resolving such deviations or incongruities leads to favorable attitudes (McQuarrie and Mick 1999). Third, metaphors inject novelty, thus increasing motivation to read and process the ad (Goodstein 1993). Fourth, promotional metaphors, which are usually apt, comprehensive, and memorable, influence consumer beliefs and affect (Ward and Gaidis 1990). Another advantage of metaphors is their centrality to the process of imagination (Goldman 1986; Oliver, Robertson, and Mitchell 1993). According to Zaltman and Coulter (1995): "Without metaphors, we cannot imagine. They are the engines of imagination." Finally, McQuarrie and Phillips (2005) observed that consumers are more receptive to multiple, distinct, and positive inferences about the brand when metaphoric advertising is adopted.Metaphor has been portrayed as “an expression which describes a person or object in a literary way’ (Walter & Woodford 2005) and is the ‘result of some operation performed upon the literal meaning of the utterance…’ (Lakoff & Johnson 1980a: 453). This traditional way of defining metaphor had been used for centuries; and although currently deemed ‘false’ and obsolete (Lakoff 1993: 202), this traditional portrayal of metaphor can still be seen in the dictionary entry.Nonetheless, traditional views on metaphor were ultimately modified when Lakoff & Johnson (1980b) introduced a different approach to understanding and categorizing metaphor with their theory of conceptual 1National University of Ho Chi Minh City Bio Data Luu Trong Tuan is currently an EFL teacher at National University of Ho Chi Minh City. He received his M.TESOL from Victoria University, Australia in 2004. Besides his focus on TESOL, his recent publications such as Language Transfer is Cultural Transfer between Communities, Social Sciences Review , No. 11, 2004, pp. 60-63; and Principles for Scientific Translation, Social Sciences Review , No. 8, 2004, pp. 63-67; and Building Vietnamese Medical Terminology via Language Contact, Australian Journal of Linguistics , Vol. 29, No. 3, September 2009, pp. 315-336 show his interest in language contact and translation areas. *Received 15 July 2010; accepted 29 August 2010metaphor. In this theory, they argue that metaphors pervade our way of conceiving of the world and are encountered extensively in several of our languages, thoughts and actions (p. 3). A reason for such widespread use is potentially that, by definition, conceptual metaphor aids the understanding of the non-physical by contrasting and categorizing abstract concepts with physical reality (Kövecses 2002: 6); this would be hard, if not impossible, to accomplish without the use of metaphor (p. 7).Instances of abstract concepts employed to relate to physical realities include time, for example, that has been defined as a ‘continuum that lacks spatial dimensions’ (‘Time’ 2006). Due to a lack of physical depiction, human beings have had to relate to time with perceivable physical experiences in order to explicate it. In English language, time has been compared with motion, an adversary (Kövecses 2002: 285), a container (Lakoff & Johnson 1980b: 29), as well as money (p. 7). The phrase “spending time” is an illustration of money (use) being compared to time. Since a comparison is being made between concepts that evidently do not share physical properties (money-use, for example, is in no way physically similar to time that does not possess physical properties), these comparisons are utterly ‘metaphorical’.In marketing, a service, as an intangible product, lacks spatial dimensions; however, a product manufactured by a firm is a tangible entity with spatial dimensions. Numerous advertisements, nonetheless, are meant to seed value creation in customers, so market brands rather than products. Brands which lacks spatial dimensions are metaphorically expressed.2. LITERATURE REVIEWMetaphors in advertising literature has been primarily conceptual. Ward and Gaidis (1990) reviewed several models of metaphor comprehension and quality which were grounded in work from psychology and linguistics. Furthermore, Scott (1994) has argued for a theory of visual rhetoric to help researchers frame how meaning is constructed via visual arguments in advertisements. These contributions have provided both a call for, and a fertile ground for research into, the effects of metaphors in the marketing communication context.Those responding to the call have provided valuable insight into the effects of these advertising message strategies. Findings suggest that consumers spend more time looking at and processing ads that contain metaphors (Gray and Snyder 1989). MacInnis, Moorman and Jaworski (1991) argue that as executional cues, metaphors are interesting, they stimulate curiosity about the brand, and consequently, they result in deeper levels of processing. Pawlowski, Badzinski and Mitchell (1998) found that children's cognitive development plays a role in the comprehension of metaphors in ads, which in turn affects memory. They found that although young readers may have difficulty interpreting metaphors, there was a slight advantage in recall and perceptions compared to literal advertisements.A crucial consideration for advertising research is determining if metaphors are correctly interpreted or even understood by consumers. According to Ward and Gaidis (1990), comprehensibility is an important variable in the study of metaphors: "To be effective, a promotional metaphor must be minimally comprehended by its intended audience" (p. 636). Stern (1988) suggests that a significant proportion of the intended audience does not always "get" the intended meaning of the metaphor. Work by Phillips (1997) highlights the magnitude of metaphor comprehension in advertising. Phillips (1997) found that while strong pictorial implicatures (metaphors in which central meaning is manifest and difficult to misinterpret) were interpreted as the advertising creator intended, weak implicatures (those which require "work" by the viewer to interpret) were either misinterpreted, or solicited multiple divergent interpretations.3. ONTOLOGICAL AND STRUCTURAL METAPHORS According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980b), conceptual metaphors penetrate our understanding of the world around us. Metaphors are present in everyday speech, in every language, and are to a certain extent, culture specific (p. 3).76This perspective maintains that one conceptual domain, is comprehended via another conceptual domain, and is expressed as DOMAIN A IS DOMAIN B (Kövecses 2002: 4). DOMAIN A that refers to any abstract concepts (or source domains) is related in some way to DOMAIN B, concrete objects (or target domains). Our understanding of the workings or features of the concrete domains will help us partially relate to the abstract ones (p. 4). This process is unidirectional, or non-reversible; this implies that the target domain can not normally be comprehended via the source domain (p. 6). This is logical, as individuals need to be able to relate the concrete to the abstract in order to understand the less physical world. In addition, this is a highly automated process that is used unconsciously; as Lakoff and Turner (1989) put it,Metaphor is a tool so ordinary that we use it unconsciously and automatically… it isirreplaceable: metaphor allows us to understand ourselves and our world in ways that no othermodes of thought can. (xi)The use of capital letters, when referring to the domains, signifies that conceptual metaphors, being mental categories, are not necessarily expressed in a language. Nevertheless, all metaphorical expressions are written in lower-case letters (Kövecses 2002: 4). This signifies that conceptual metaphors in a language are expressed through metaphorical expressions.Even though all conceptual metaphors function according to the cognitive theory of metaphor illustrated above, there are different categories of classification. The metaphorical expressions structured by conceptual metaphors that will be investigated in this paper fall into two categories: structural and ontological metaphors. The disparity between these two types of metaphor is that structural metaphors include an extremely well-defined target domain that will help structure the abstract source domain (Kövecses 2002: 33). Ontological metaphors, on the other hand, do not have such a well-defined target domain (p. 34). Ontological metaphors purely categorize the abstract source domain into objects, substances, and containers and our understanding of the three is rather limited and quite general (Lakoff & Johnson 1980b: 25). If the mappings of the ontological metaphors were richer than they are, they would be considered structural metaphors (Kövecses 2002: 35).3.1 Ontological metaphorsOntological metaphors are one of the least noticeable types of conceptual metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson 1980b: 28). They enable us to understand our own experiences as regards concrete objects, by picking out certain parts of our own experiences from the whole in order to categorize, group and quantify them. In other words, we ‘impose artificial boundaries’ on abstract entities (Kövecses 2002: 25).BRAND IS A CONTAINEROne concrete reality encountered among the ontological metaphors that relates to brand, is a container, BRAND IS A CONTAINER. In the ensuing advertisement, whereas Yomost yoghurt contains ingredients derived from nature, Yomost brand contains more than that: the brand is a container of rhythms of life.Bản hòa tấu của những hương vị thảo nguyên(A concert of the flavors from the pasture)(Advertisement of Yomust yoghurt)The brands “Vinaphone” and “HTC” contain the entire world:Cùng Vinaphone và HTC Wildfire mang cả thế giới vào điện thoại di động của bạnVinaphone and HTC Wildfire bring the whole world into your cellphone.BRAND IS A VALUABLE RESOURCEAnother conceptual metaphor that structures the view of brand in Vietnamese advertising discourse is the BRAND IS A VALUABLE RESOURCE conceptual metaphor. This conceptual metaphor can be implicitly expressed in advertisements:77Du lịch Việt Nam - Vẻđẹp tiềm ẩn.(Vietnam tourism – the hidden charm)It can be explicitly expressed to highlight that brand value is linked to life:La Vie - Một phần tất yếu của cuộc sống(La Vie – the integral part of life)Ởđâu có sóng ởđó có sự sống.(Where there’s air – there will be life)(Mobifone’s advertisment of 3G)Or via a valuable commodity such as gold:Đầu tư ngay, tay chạm vàng(Invest instantly to touch gold)(Advertisement of The EverRich II apartments)Ensure Gold – Sống khỏe với trái tim vàng(Ensure Gold – Live healthily with a gold heart)BRAND IS A COMPANIONBrand, furthermore, is metaphorized as a companion who understands and supports customers in their quest for their own values in their life as well as their career. Take the following advertisements as examples: Tay trong tay trên đường thành công(Hand in hand on the journey towards success)(Advertisement of Fiat car in Tuoi Tre (Youth) Newspaper on October 16,2001)Người bạn đường dũng mãnh đang đến(A strong companion is approach)(Advertisement of Ford car in Tuoi Tre (Youth) Newspaper on June 5, 2001) In the examples above, even though “tay trong tay” can be understood as “Fiat car user’s hand on the car’s steering wheel” (in Vietnamese language, “tay” has two homonyms: “tay” implying “hand” and “tay” implying “steering wheel”) and “người bạn đường dũng mãnh” (a strong companion) can be discerned as “Ford car”, both Fiat and Ford mean to transfer their brand values to their customers and promote them to higher levels in society as well as push them towards opportunities. “Dũng mãnh” (strong) here denotes the power of the brands.The subsequent examples show that brand values are made prominent and obscure the concreteness of the products (FPT, S.J.C.) or services (AIA).FPT - Cùng đi tới thành công.(FPT – Towards success together)Gửi trọn niềm tin cho người dẫn đường tận tụy(Place all the trust on the guide)(Advertisement of AIA Insurance Company in Tuoi Tre (Youth) Newspaper onApril 13, 2001)S.J.C. – Người bạn chuẩn mực và tin cậy(S.J.C – A trustworthy friend)BRAND IS A GLADIATOR78An extension of ontological metaphors subsists in the form of personification. Personification is expressed in conceptual metaphors through a source domain that has been ascribed human characteristics (Lakoff & Johnson 1980b: 34).In the conceptual metaphor BRAND IS A GLADIATOR, we have traveled from comprehending BRAND IS A PERSON to comprehending brand in a specific way; we now acknowledge how to think about and act towards it (Lakoff & Johnson 1980b: 34). Brand values in the ensuing advertisements are personificated into gladiators fighting against any harms towards the beauty and the peace of human life: Mosfly – Hạ gục nhanh, tiêu diệt gọn(Mosfly – Defeat briskly, eradicate thoroughly.)OMO- Đánh bật 99 vết bẩn(OMO – Eliminate 99 sorts of dirt)Xóa đi dấu vết thời gian(Erase the traces of time)(Advertisement of DeBon in Heritage (Di Sản) magazine, issue December and January2001)3.2 Structural metaphorsUnlike ontological metaphors, the target domains in structural metaphors are understood through the intricate makeup and detailed knowledge we have of the source domains (Kövecses 2002: 33).The three versions of the BRAND IS MOTION conceptual metaphor that will be investigated in this paper embrace:1) The brand is deemed a point towards which the observer (customer) moves, as illustrated in the following ad in which customers move toward Vfresh brand:Trái tim ơi, để chắc ai đó thật sự quan tâm đến bạn, hãy tìm tôi(Heart! To be sure that person whole-heartedly cares for you, please find me.)(Vfresh soy milk)2) The observer (customer) is a point towards which the brand moves, as San Miguel brand is boldly rushing towards customers shaking things around:Long trời lở tuyết(Heaven shakes and snow falls)or Ajinomoto travels around the world to visit every customer:Vòng quanh thế giới, Ajinomoto.(Around the world, Ajinomoto)and Yomost brand moves towards you, carrying his love:Hãy để cánh bướm Yomost nối nhịp yêu thương(Let the Yomost butterfly connect heartbeats)3) The brand, in certain cases, moves, and customers move along. The advertisement below suggests consumers should move along the continuous technological innovation of Sony:Sony – luôn đi trước thời đại(Sony – always go ahead of time)794.CONCLUDING REMARKSMetaphors are the mappings of the abstract world into the concrete world through human senses or experiences. Similar to time metaphors, brand metaphors can be categorized into ontological and structural metaphors. BRAND IS MOTION is a structural metaphor, and BRAND IS A CONTAINER, BRAND IS A VALUABLE RESOURCE, BRAND IS A COMPANION, and BRAND IS A GLADIATOR are instances of ontological metaphors. Cognitive theory, along with views on ontological and structural metaphors not merely help explore time metaphors and brand metaphors, but also metaphors of other abstract concepts by mapping them into the dimensions of space or the dimensions of human experiences, so abstract concepts become no longer abstract through human cognitive lens.REFERENCESBarthes, R. (1986 [1964]). Rhétorique de l’image. Communications4,40–51.Goldman, A.I. (1986). Epistemology and Cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Goodstein, R.C. (1993). Category-based Applications and Extensions in Advertising: Motivating More Extensive Ad Processing. 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中英广告中的修辞比较常娇（西北大学外国语学院陕西西安710127）摘要：随着国际全球化，经济贸易日益增多,外国产品进入中国市场的最直接方式就是广告的宣传,而我国的企业为开拓海外市场也需要凭借广告这块敲门砖。

如何在相互了解的基础之上更快更好的融入彼此的市场，这需要一个契合点。

本文通过对常见的修辞手法在中英广告中的应用的比较，分析其差异，探究其原因，以期对中英广告有更好的理解。

关键词：广告;修辞；修辞手法;差异比较广告语言属于功能文体学的研究内容。

广告可分为公益广告和商业广告，因篇幅所限，我们这里主要探讨商业广告。

商业广告可以说是无处不在,，无孔不入。

据统计，美国的每个普通消费者通过各种途径每天接触到的广告平均多达6000多条[2]。

它的最终目的是吸引消费者增加对所推销商品的注意和兴趣，加深对这种商品的印象，促使人们采取行动来购买这种商品。

修辞手法在中西广告语言中运用地比较广泛，且具有一定的相似性，但由于文化背景，思维习惯等因素的不同，二者存在一定的差异。

一、中英广告的发展过程中国广告的萌芽出现在3000多年前，春秋时期，河南省登封县告咸镇出土的东周陶器上都印有“阳城”篆体文字样的标记，它被认为是我国最早的文字广告。

北宋时期，印刷术的出现，为广告提供了新的形式。

在近代，广告有所发展却不均衡。

直至改革开放以来，我国广告产业才进入了良性发展阶段。

在西方，广告一词，源于拉丁文advertere, 意思是注意，诱导以及传播。

中古英语时代（约公元1300—1475年），演变成了Advertise, 其含义也随之衍化为“通知别人某件事，以引起他人的注意“[3]。

直到17世纪末，英国开始进行大规模的商业活动。

这时，广告一词便广泛地流行并被使用。

19世纪以来，美国社会的飞速发展直接推动了广告事业的进步。

二、修辞及其在广告中的应用修辞，修饰文辞；作文；亦指文辞或修饰文辞。

"修"是修饰的意思，"辞"的本来意思是辩论的言词，後引申为一切的言词。

毕业论文前期报告毕业论文题目：从商业广告看文化因素对广告翻译的影响The Influence of Culture Elements on the Translation ofAdvertisements-Take Commercial Advertisements as an Example学生姓名：杨小艺学号：098802班级：英语C093指导教师：侯晓佳职称：讲师报告提交日期：2013，4，13前期报告内容Nowadays English culture plays a more and more important role in people’s life, especially in business communication. To market a company’s products, advertisement plays an indispensable role. English advertising language is an important component of modern English culture. It has unique language feature which are the reflection of English culture. How English culture influence advertisements is an interesting topic. There are many theories on English culture and researches on the features of advertisements. However, there are fewer researches on the culture influence on advertisements.How people and cultures define themselves has great impact on their business practices. Consider the case of Japan, where group goals and needs are almost always placed ahead of those of individual. In Japan, the classic American hero—the self-made man or woman who boastfully looks out for “number one”—is hardly an ideal. There the individual gives way to the group. Decisions are made on a consensus basis and group harmony is the desideratum—to the point that even when visitors are thought to be dead wrong, the Japanese will never tell them that they are. The Dutch researcher and business consultant, Geert Hofstede, has developed a useful framework that define and classify national cultures. Each issue ultimately has a very real effect on how people process information and interacts, either personally or with business colleagues. The four dimensions consist of :(1) individualism(“I”consciousness versus “we”consciousness);(2) power distance(levels of equality in society);(3)uncertainty avoidance(need for formal rules and regulations);(4) masculinity(attitude toward achievement, roles of men and woman). A fifth dimension has also been added to distinguish culture difference: long-term versus short-term orientation. This theory can be used to explain many business programs.British and American culture is a multifaceted and broad concept, which contains language, religion, values and attitudes, manners and customs, material elements, aesthetics, education and social structure. Jonathan Crowther provides insights into what is important or popular in present-day Britain and America in an engaging manner, focusing on the practical applications of such information in The Oxford Guide to British and American Culture (New Edition2005). The Guide discovers facts and figures about Britain and America in the 21st century，explores the lives of the rich, the famous and the infamous, history, legends, festivals, music, food, shopping, and attitudes，looks up famous quotations and sayings and finds out who said what and get ideas of what to read-choose from lists of books that won the Booker, Pulitzer and other prizes plus suggestions for further reading.Advertisement, as a medium of promotion, intends to enhance the product’s reputation, attract more customers, and consequently stimulate them to buy it. So the application of advertising techniques and methods in advertisements can inspire consumers to purchase the product. There are many theories on advertisement which can be divided as advertisement targeting theories, advertising communication theories and advertisement marketing theories.The advertisement targeting is essential to the advertisement which determines whether the advertisement is successful or not. For fifty years, the advertisement targeting theories went through three stages, namely USP theory advocated by Rosser Reeves in the 1950s, CI theory advocated by David Ogilvy in the 1960s and modern target theory advocated by Al Rise and Jack Trout after 1970s. USP or Unique Selling Proposition means propose the consumers to buy the product because its unique feature or selling point. While in the 1970s, David Ogilvy changed the USP theory that is based on the product into CI theory that is based on image. Then Japanese scholars developed his theory which became a system called CIS, namely CorporateIdentity System. This system consists of three components: MI (Mind Identity) that reflects the basic value of a company, BI (Behavior Identity) that demonstrates a series of activities of a company and VI (Visual identity) that visualize the image of a company. After 1970s, Jack Trout and other masters of advertisement put forward the modern advertisement theory. The basic target principle is not creating novel product, but operating people’s idea and taking up a certain position.Advertising communication is a process of spreading information. Many well-known scholars have advocated numerous theories on advertising communication, but the most classic theories are AIDMA theory and CS theory. AIDMA stands for five psychological activities: attention, interest, desire, memory and action. This is an advertising pyramid which the information is becoming less effective, the more people it reaches.The most typical example of advertisement marketing theory is Integrated Marketing communication theory which was advocated by Don E. Schultz. It is the coordination and integration of all marketing communication tools, avenues, functions and sources within a company into a seamless program that maximizes the impact on consumers and other end users at a minimal cost.Language, the carrier of culture, is an essential part of culture. Through the analysis of language, we can have a clear view of a nation’s culture. The language feature of the advertisements is diverse, such as simple, easy to remember, abbreviation, novel words. Besides, the advertisements also contain many rhetorical features. “K odak is Olympic color” is an example of metaphor. “A sk for More”“I am More satisfied”these two pieces of advertisements smartly took advantage of pun, because “more” not only serve as the function word, but also symbolizes the More cigarette. “Curls that last and last at last” is repetition. There are other features such as exaggeration, personification, and alliteration.Advertisement culture is featured by popularity，commerciality and nationality. Cultural traditions，beliefs and values exert influence on the mentality and behavior of commercial practitioners and consumers to a large extent so as to influence advertisement activities of various countries. From the way of thinking, we can seethat western people tend to be more logical and reasonable than our Chinese people. Their advertisements seldom directly say the benefits of their product, but make the consumer themselves to infer the benefits. Besides, western culture is centralized in “individualism”. Their mature character is embodied by independence and subjectivity. Individualism almost becomes the theme of western advertisements. No matter what kind of products and no matter how wonderful the originality is, the ultimate theme always comes down to individuality, freedom and self-esteem. Their color, visual impact and picture are very impressive. People can be astonished by their exaggeration, boldness and imagination. Therefore western culture is extrovert culture which emphasizes more outer form and visual impression.Different nationalities have a kind of rooted attitude towards consummation and a certain psychological thinking pattern and preference. Such as “We know y ou are both gourmet and weight watcher. Our cake keeps you on both.”, “gourmet” and “weight watcher”assure the customer that the cake is fat-free and delicious. Life customs and philosophical concept also have an effect on the advertisements. Such as “natural herb, pure honey” and “humor, health and happiness, i t’s a gift we’d love to give.”These advertisements reflect what they want to have. National self-identity influences the advertisements. Such as “one swallow does not make a summer.”, “swallow” both means “a kind of bird” and “a kind of action” which enable people to itch to try. Every successful advertisement is a combination of linguistics, psychology, sociology, economics and aesthetics and coordinates with a nation’s culture. Then it becomes a precious art.The influence of culture on advertisement is written by Franziska Pfound. The relevance of this topic is shown by the true story of the Gerber Company.This story shows that culture has an enormous impact on advertisements. The fact that makes it more important than it has never been before is globalization. As more and more companies are taking the decision to market their products abroad, they are facing cultural and linguistic dilemmas which international advertising invariably rises. This report aims to give an insight into this complex subject.Mars Company is an American manufacturer of confectionery, pet food, andother food products with US$30 billion in annual sales in 2010, and is ranked as the 5th largest privately held company in the United States by Forbes. As a famous international company, its products are widely marketed around the world, such as DOVE、M&M's、SNICKERS、SKITTLES. Its advertisements have been well known to their consumers. How many aspects of the English culture does it contain? How the advertisement embodies the effect of English culture? What’s the significance of the effect? I will study these questions by analyzing the advertisements of Mars Company. Through a detailed study of the thesis, readers can have knowledge of the culture behind the advertisement and its meaning.ReferencesCrowther, Jonathan, 2005, Oxford Guide to British and American Culture [M], Oxford University PressPfund, Franziska, 2002, The Influence of Culture on Advertisement [J], unpublished master paper.Mitchell, Charles, 2000, International Business Culture, Shanghai foreign language education press.王白菊，2005，英语广告语言与文化[J]，黑龙江教育学院学报，第2期。

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