国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章完整版

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（国际金融部分）课后习题答案（英文版）第一章CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONChapter OrganizationWhat is International Economics About?The Gains from TradeThe Pattern of TradeProtectionismThe Balance of PaymentsExchange-Rate DeterminationInternational Policy CoordinationThe International Capital MarketInternational Economics: Trade and MoneyCHAPTER OVERVIEWThe intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, the covers of magazines, and the lead reports of television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the effects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad.The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domesticand international environment. In recent history, these events include the causes and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexico crisis in late 1994; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. Most recently, the financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 andspread to many countries around the globe and the Economic and Monetary Union in Europe have highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable students to understand the economic context in which such events occur.Chapter 1 of the text presents data demonstrating the growth in trade and increasing importance of international economics. This chapter also highlights and briefly discusses seven themes which arise throughout the book. These themes include: 1) the gains from trade;2) the pattern of trade; 3) protectionism; 4), the balance of payments; 5) exchange rate determination; 6) international policy coordination; and 7) the international capital market. Students will recognize that many of the central policy debates occurring today come under the rubric of one of these themes. Indeed, it is often a fruitful heuristic to use current events to illustrate the force of the key themes and arguments which are presentedthroughout the text.。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解（第11章贸易政策中的争议）【圣才出品】第11章贸易政策中的争议一、概念题1．以邻为壑的政策（beggar-thy-neighbor policies）答：以邻为壑的政策是指以牺牲别国的利益来提高本国福利的政策，即当一个国家采取某种政策或行动的时候，事实上其得到的好处来自于另一个国家的损失，一个国家所得到的，最终会是另一个国家所失去的。

从货币角度来说，本国货币扩张会引起汇率贬值，净出口增加，从而增加产出与就业，但是本国增加净出口对应着国外贸易余额的恶化。

本国货币贬值使需求从国外商品转移到本国商品上，国外的产出与就业会因此下降。

正是由于这个原因，由贬值引起的贸易余额的变动就是以邻为壑的政策，它是输出失业，或以损害其他国家来创造本国就业的一种方式。

本国福利的提高是以牺牲别国利益为代价的，因此这一政策很容易引起别国的报复和贸易战的爆发，最终损害各方的利益。

从国际贸易角度来说，战略性贸易政策就是一种以邻为壑的政策。

战略性贸易政策通过鼓励国内特定产品的出口和限制国外特定产品的进口，来保持本国在世界市场上的竞争优势，虽然使本国受益，但使外国受到了损失，本国也面临着受到外国报复的问题。

反之，如果外国的净出口增加，相当于本国消费者购买了很多外国的商品。

这样，对本国该产业的产品需求的下降就是对本国的该产业的一个冲击。

这种冲击会阻碍对其进行的投资和经营，从而使得这个产业的状况变坏，进而影响本国经济。

总之，以邻为壑的政策将引发贸易战从而使得各方均受到损害。

2．外部性（externalities）答：外部性是指当某个企业的经济行为（或者某个人的消费行为），经过非价格手段，直接地、不可避免地影响了其他企业的生产（或者其他人的效用），并且成为后者自己所不能加以控制的情况时，对前者来说就存在着外部性问题。

外部性可以分为正外部性和负外部性。

正外部性是指某个经济行为主体的行为使他人或者整个社会受益，而受益者无须花费代价；负外部性是指某经济行为主体的行为引起他人成本的增加或者效用的减少。

Chapter 12 第三题和第五题练习提示3. (a)Credit Debit An American buys a share of German stock(Financial account, U.S. asset import) -The American pays with a check on his Swiss bank account(Financial account, U.S. asset import) +(b) If the German stock seller deposits the U.S. check in its German bank,Credit Debit An American buys a share of German stock(Financial account, U.S. asset import) -The American pays with a check on his American bank account(Financial account, U.S. asset export) +(c)Credit Debit The sale of dollars by the Korean government(Financial account, U.S. asset export) -The Korean citizens who buy the dollars use them to buy American goods(Current account, U.S. goods export) +Credit Debit The sale of dollars by the Korean government(Financial account, U.S. asset export) -The Korean citizens who buy the dollars use them to buy American assets(Financial account, U.S. asset export) +(d) Suppose the company issuing the traveler’s check uses a checking account in France to make payments,Credit Debit The company issuing the traveler’s check pays the French restaurateur for the meal (Current account, U.S. service import) - Sale of claim on the company issuing the traveler’s check(Financial account, U.S. assets export) +(e)Credit Debit The California winemaker contributes a case of cabernet sauvignon abroad(Current account, U.S. unilateral current transfers) - Receivable of the California winemaker(Current account, U.S. goods export) +Credit Debit Receivable of the California winemaker(Current account, U.S. goods export) -The California winemaker contributes a case of cabernet sauvignon abroad(Current account, U.S. unilateral current transfers) +(f)Credit Debit The U.S. owned factory in Britain makes local earning(Current account, U.S. income receipts) +The U.S. owned factory in Britain deposits its local earning in a British bank(Financial account, U.S. asset import) -Credit Debit The U.S. owned factory in Britain uses its local earning to reinvest(Current account, U.S. income receipts) -The U.S. owned factory in Britain makes the payment for reinvestment(Financial account, U.S. asset import) +5.(a) Since Pecunia had a current account deficit of $1b and a nonreserve financial account surplus of $500m in 2002, the balance of Pecunia’s official reserve transaction should be +$500m as follow:Pecunia international transactionCredit Debit Current account -$1b Financial accountThe balance of Pecunia’s official reserve transaction +$500mThe balance of nonreserve assets +$500mThe balance of payment of Pecunia = the negative value of the balance of Pecunia’s official reserve transaction= -$500m.Pecunia had a financial account surplus of $1b in 2002; it implies Pecunia’s net foreign assets decreased by $1b in 2002.(b) Pecunian central bank had to sell $500m, so Pecunian central bank’s foreign reserves decreased by $500m:Pecunia international transactionCredit Debit Current account -$1b Financial accountPecunian official reserve assets +$500mForeign official reserve assets 0 0The balance of nonreserve assets +$500m(c) There was no need for Pecunian central bank to sell dollar, and Pecunian central bank’s foreign reserves increased by $100m as shown below:Pecunia international transactionCredit Debit Current account -$1b Financial accountPecunian official reserve assets -$100m Foreign official reserve assets + $600mThe balance of nonreserve assets +$500m(d)Pecunia international transactionCredit Debit Current account -$1b Financial accountPecunian official reserve assets -$100m Foreign official reserve assets + $600mThe balance of nonreserve assets +$500mThe following is for your reference:3.(a) The purchase of the German stock is a debit in the U.S. financial account. There is acorresponding credit in the U.S. financial account when the American pays witha check on his Swiss bank account because his claims on Switzerland fall by theamount of the check. This is a case in which an American trades one foreign assetfor another.(b) Again, there is a U.S. financial account debit as a result of the purchase of a Germanstock by an American. T he corresponding credit in this case occurs when theGerman seller deposits the U.S. check in its German bank and that bank lends themoney to a German importer (in which case the credit will be in the U.S. currentaccount) o r to an individual or corporation that purchases a U.S. asset (in whichcase the credit will be in the U.S. financial account). Ultimately, there will be someaction taken by the bank which results in a credit in the U.S. balance of payments.(c) The foreign exchange intervention by the French government involves the sale of aU.S. asset, the dollars it holds in the United States, and thus represents a debititem in the U.S. financial account. The French citizens who buy the dollars mayuse them to buy American goods, which would be an American current accountcredit,or an American asset, which would be an American financial accountcredit.(d) Suppose the company issuing the traveler’s check uses a checking account inFrance to make payments. When this company pays the French restaurateur for themeal, its payment represents a debit in the U.S. current account.The company issuing the traveler’s check must sell assets (deplete its checking account in France) to make this payment. This reduction in the French assetsowned by that company represents a credit in the American financial account.(e) There is no credit or debit in either the financial or the current account sincethere has been no market transaction.(f) There is no recording in the U.S. Balance of Payments of this offshore transaction.5.(a) Since non-central bank financial inflows fell short of the current-account deficit by$500 million, the balance of payments of Pecunia (official settlements balance) was–$500 million. The country as a whole somehow had to finance its $1 billioncurrent-account deficit, so Pecunia’s net foreign assets fell by $1 billion.(b) By dipping into its foreign reserves, the central bank of Pecunia financed theportion of the country’s current-account deficit not covered by private financialinflows. Only if foreign central banks had acquired Pecunian assets could thePecunian central bank have avoided using$500 million in reserves to complete the financing of the current account. Thus,Pecunia’s central bank lost $500 million in reserves, which would appear as anofficial financial inflow (of the same magnitude) in the country’s balance ofpayments accounts.(c) If foreign official capital inflows to Pecunia were $600 million, the Central Banknow increased its foreign assets by $100 million. Put another way, the countryneeded only $1 billion to cover its current-account deficit, but $1.1 billion flowed into the country (500 million private and600 million from foreign central banks). The Pecunian central bank must, therefore, have used the extra $100 million in foreign borrowing to increase its reserves. The balance of payments is still –500 million, but this is now comprised of 600 million in foreign Central Banks purchasing Pecunia assets and 100 million of Pecunia’s Central Bank purchasing foreign assets, as opposed to Pecunia selling 500 million in assets. Purchases of Pecunian assets by foreign central banks enter their countries’balance of payments accounts as outflows, which are debit items. The rationale is that the transactions result in foreign payments to the Pecunians who sell the assets.(d) Along with non-central bank transactions, the accounts would show an increase inforeign official reserve assets held in Pecunia of $600 million (a financial account credit, or inflow) and an increase Pecunian official reserve assets held abroad of $100 million (a financial account debit, or outflow). Of course, total net financial inflows of $1 billion just cover the current-account deficit.。

克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案【篇一：克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点】lass=txt>第12章国民收入核算和国际收支1、如问题所述，gnp仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。

在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从gnp中减去，出口的中间品价值加到gnp中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。

例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。

其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的gnp中。

出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的gnp，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。

所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的gnp中减去，并加入美国的gnp。

2、（1）等式12-2可以写成ca?(sp?i)?(t?g)。

美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。

（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。

不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。

例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。

（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。

）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。

一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。

这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。

3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。

相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。

这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。

（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。

当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。

最后，银行采取的各项行为将导致记入美国国际收支表的贷方。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点赤字。

因此，1982-1985年美国资本流入超过了其经常项目的赤字。

第13章 汇率与外汇市场：资产方法 1、汇率为每欧元1.5美元时，一条德国香肠bratwurst 等于三条hot dog 。

其他不变时，当美元升值至1.25$per Euro, 一条德国香肠bratwurst 等价于2.5个hot dog 。

相对于初始阶段，hot dog 变得更贵。

2、63、25%；20%；2%。

4、分别为：15%、10%、-8%。

5、（1）由于利率相等，根据利率平价条件，美元对英镑的预期贬值率为零，即当前汇率与预期汇率相等。

（2）1.579$per pound6、如果美元利率不久将会下调，市场会形成美元贬值的预期，即e E 值变大，从而使欧元存款的美元预期收益率增加，图13-1中的曲线I 移到I '，导致美元对欧元贬值，汇率从0E 升高到1E 。

131-图　7、（1）如图13-2，当欧元利率从0i 提高到1i 时，汇率从0E 调整到1E ，欧元相对于美元升值。

I 'IE 1E $/euroE图13-2（2）如图13-3，当欧元对美元预期升值时，美元存款的欧元预期收益率提高，美元存款的欧元收益曲线从I '上升到I ，欧元对美元的汇率从E '提高到E ，欧元对美元贬值。

133-图8、(a)如果美联储降低利率，在预期不变的情况下，根据利率平价条件，美元将贬值。

如图13-4，利率从i 下降到i ' ，美元对外国货币的汇价从E 提高到E '，美元贬值。

如果软着陆，并且美联储没有降低利率，则美元不会贬值。

即使美联储稍微降低利率，假如从i 降低到*i （如图13-5），这比人们开始相信会发生的还要小。

同时，由于软着陆所产生的乐观因素，使美元预期升值，即e E 值变小，使国外资产的美元预期收益率降低（曲线I 向下移动到I '），曲线移动反映了对美国软着陆引起的乐观预期，同时由乐观因素引起的预期表明：在没有预期变化的情况下，由利I 'E E 'euro/$E IiE 1E euro/$E rate of return(in euro)0i 1i率i 下降到*i 引起美元贬值程度（从E 贬值到*E ）将大于存在预期变化引起的美元贬值程度（从E 到E ''）。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：23 《国际经济学》（国际金融）习题答案要点第12章 国民收入核算与国际收支1、如问题所述，GNP 仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。

在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从GNP 中减去，出口的中间品价值加到GNP 中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。

例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。

其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的GNP 中。

出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的GNP ，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。

所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的GNP 中减去，并加入美国的GNP 。

2、（1）等式12-2可以写成()()p CA S I T G =-+-。

美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。

（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。

不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。

例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。

（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。

）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。

一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。

这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。

3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。

相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。

这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。

（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。

当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。

OVERVIEW OF SECTION III: EXCHANGE RATES AND OPEN ECONOMY MACROECONOMICSSection III of the textbook is comprised of six chapters:Chapter 12 National Income Accounting and the Balance of PaymentsChapter 13 Exchange Rates and the Foreign Exchange Market: An Asset Approach Chapter 14 Money, Interest Rates, and Exchange RatesChapter 15 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long RunChapter 16 Output and the Exchange Rate in the Short RunChapter 17 Fixed Exchange Rates and Foreign Exchange InterventionSECTION III OVERVIEWThe presentation of international finance theory proceeds by building up an integrated model of exchange rate and output determination. Successive chapters in Part III construct this model step by step so students acquire a firm understanding of each component as well as the manner in which these components fit together. The resulting model presents a single unifying framework admitting the entire range of exchange rate regimes from pure float to managed float to fixed rates. The model may be used to analyze both comparative static and dynamic time path results arising from temporary or permanent policy or exogenous shocks in an open economy.The primacy given to asset markets in the model is reflected in the discussion of national income and balance of payments accounting in the first chapter of this section. Chapter 12 begins with a discussion of the focus of international finance. The discussion then proceeds to national income accounting in an open economy. The chapter points out, in the discussion on the balance of payments account, that current account transactions must be financed by financial account flows from either central bank or noncentral bank transactions. A case study uses national income accounting identities to consider the link between government budget deficits and the current account.Observed behavior of the exchange rate favors modeling it as an asset price rather than as a goods price. Thus, the core relationship for short-run exchange-rate determination in the model developed in Part III is uncovered interest parity. Chapter 13 presents a model inwhich the exchange rate adjusts to equate expected returns on interest-bearing assets denominated in different currencies given expectations about exchange rates, and the domestic and foreign interest rate. This first building block of the model lays the foundation for subsequent chapters that explore the determination of domestic interest rates and output, the basis for expectations of future exchange rates and richer specifications of the foreign-exchange market that include risk. An appendix to this chapter explains the determination of forward exchange rates.Chapter 14 introduces the domestic money market, linking monetary factors to short-run exchange-rate determination through the domestic interest rate. The chapter begins with a discussion of the determination of the domestic interest rate. Interest parity links the domestic interest rate to the exchange rate, a relationship captured in a two-quadrant diagram. Comparative statics employing this diagram demonstrate the effects of monetary expansion and contraction on the exchange rate in the short run. Dynamic considerations are introduced through an appeal to the long run neutrality of money that identifies a long-run steady-state value toward which the exchange rate evolves. The dynamic time path of the model exhibits overshooting of the exchange-rate in response to monetary changes.Chapter 15 develops a model of the long run exchange rate. The long-run exchange rate plays a role in a complete short-run macroeconomic model since one variable in that model is the expected future exchange rate. The chapter begins with a discussion of the law of one price and purchasing power parity. A model of the exchange rate in the long-run based upon purchasing power parity is developed. A review of the empirical evidence, however, casts doubt on this model. The chapter then goes on to develop a general model of exchange rates in the long run in which the neutrality of monetary shocks emerges as a special case. In contrast, shocks to the output market or changes in fiscal policy alter the long run real exchange rate. This chapter also discusses the real interest parity relationship that links the real interest rate differential to the expected change in the real exchange rate. An appendix examines the relationship of the interest rate and exchange rate under a flexible-price monetary approach.Chapter 16 presents a macroeconomic model of output and exchange-rate determination in the short run. The chapter introduces aggregate demand in a setting of short-run price stickiness to construct a model of the goods market. The exchange-rate analysis presented in previous chapters provides a model of the asset market. The resulting model is, in spirit, very close to the classic Mundell-Fleming model. This model is used to examine the effects of avariety of policies. The analysis allows a distinction to be drawn between permanent and temporary policy shifts through the pedagogic device that permanent policy shifts alter long-run expectations while temporary policy shifts do not. This distinction highlights the importance of exchange-rate expectations on macroeconomic outcomes. A case study of U.S. fiscal and monetary policy between 1979 and 1983 utilizes the model to explain notable historical events. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the links between exchange rate and import price movements which focuses on the J-curve and exchange-rate pass-through. An appendix to the chapter compares the IS-LM model to the model developed in this chapter. A second appendix considers intertemporal trade and consumption demand. A third appendix discusses the Marshall-Lerner condition and estimates of trade elasticities.The final chapter of this section discusses intervention by the central bank and the relationship of this policy to the money supply. This analysis is blended with the previous chapter's short-run macroeconomic model to analyze policy under fixed rates. The balance sheet of the central bank is used to keep track of the effects of foreign exchange intervention on the money supply. The model developed in previous chapters is extended by relaxing the interest parity condition and allowing exchange-rate risk to influence agents' decisions. This allows a discussion of sterilized intervention. Another topic discussed in this chapter is capital flight and balance of payments crises with an introduction to different models of how a balance of payments or currency crisis can occur. The analysis also is extended to a two-country framework to discuss alternative systems for fixing the exchange-rate as a prelude to Part IV. An appendix to Chapter 17 develops a model of the foreign-exchange market in which risk factors make domestic-currency and foreign-currency assets imperfect substitutes.A second appendix explores the monetary approach to the balance of payments. The third appendix discusses the timing of a balance of payments crisis.。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解（国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡）【圣才出品】⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台第12章国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡12.1 复习笔记1．国民收⼊账户（1）GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是⼀国的国民⽣产总值（GNP），它是⼀国的⽣产要素在⼀定时期内所⽣产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。

GNP是宏观经济学家研究⼀国产出时所⽤的基本度量⼿段，由花费在最终产品上的⽀出的市场价值量加总⽽得到。

GNP的⽀出与劳动、资本以及其他⽣产要素紧密相连。

根据购买最终产品的四种可能⽤途，GNP可以分解为以下四个部分：消费（国内居民私⼈消费的数额）、投资（私⼈企业为进⾏再⽣产⽽留下的⽤于购买⼚房设备的数额）、政府购买（政府使⽤的数额）和经常项⽬余额（对外净出⼝的商品和服务的数额）。

（2）国民收⼊国民收⼊等于GNP减去折旧，加上净单边转移⽀付，再减去间接商业税。

即：国民收⼊＝GNP－折旧＋净单边转移⽀付－间接商业税在实际经济中，要使GNP和国民收⼊的恒等关系完全成⽴，必须对GNP的定义作⼀定调整：①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使⽤过程中由于磨损⽽引起的经济损失。

这部分经济损失称为折旧，折旧减少了资本所有者的收⼊。

为了计算⼀定时期的国民收⼊，必须从GNP 中减去这⼀时期资本的折旧。

GNP减去折旧后称为国民⽣产净值（NNP）。

⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台②⼀国的收⼊可能会包括外国居民的赠与，这种赠与称为单边转移⽀付。

单边转移⽀付的例⼦包括向居住在国外的退休公民⽀付养⽼⾦、赔偿⽀付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。

净单边转移⽀付是⼀国收⼊的⼀部分，但不是⼀国产出的⼀部分，因此，净单边转移⽀付，必须加到NNP中以计算国民收⼊。

③国民收⼊取决于⽣产者获得的产品价格，GNP则取决于购买者所⽀付的价格。

但是，这两组价格并不是完全⼀致的，例如，销售税会使得购买者的⽀付⼤于销售者的收⼊，导致GNP被⾼估，超过了国民收⼊。

Chapter 18The International Monetary System, 1870–1973?Chapter OrganizationMacroeconomic Policy Goals in an Open EconomyInternal Balance: Full Employment and Price-Level StabilityExternal Balance: The Optimal Level of the Current Account International Macroeconomic Policy under the Gold Standard, 1870–1914 Origins of the Gold StandardExternal Balance under the Gold StandardThe Price-Specie-Flow MechanismThe Gold Standard “Rules of the Game”: Myth and RealityBox: Hume v. the MercantilistsInternal Balance under the Gold StandardCase Study: The Political Economy of Exchange Rate Regimes:Conflict over America’s Monetary Standard During the 1890s The Interwar Years, 1918–1939The Fleeting Return to GoldInternational Economic DisintegrationCase Study: The International Gold Standard and the Great Depression The Bretton Woods System and the International Monetary Fund Goals and Structure of the IMFConvertibility and the Expansion of Private Capital FlowsSpeculative Capital Flows and CrisesAnalyzing Policy Options under the Bretton Woods SystemMaintaining Internal BalanceMaintaining External BalanceExpenditure-Changing and Expenditure-Switching PoliciesThe External-Balance Problem of the United StatesCase Study: The Decline and Fall of the Bretton Woods SystemWorldwide Inflation and the Transition to Floating Rates Summary?Chapter OverviewThis is the first of five international monetary policy chapters. These chapters complement the preceding theory chapters in several ways. They provide the historical and institutional background students require to place their theoretical knowledge in a useful context. The chapters also allow students, through study of historical and current events, to sharpen their grasp of the theoretical models and to develop the intuition those models can provide. (Application of the theory to events of current interest will hopefully motivate students to return to earlier chapters and master points that may have been missed on the first pass.)Chapter 18 chronicles the evolution of the international monetary system from the gold standard of1870–1914, through the interwar years, and up to and including the post-World War II Bretton Woods regime that ended in March 1973. The central focus of the chapter is the manner in which each system addressed, or failed to address, the requirements of internal and external balance for its participants.A country is in internal balance when its resources are fully employed and there is price level stability. External balance implies an optimal time path of the current account subject to its being balanced over the long run. Other factors have been important in the definition of external balance at various times, and these are discussed in the text. The basic definition of external balance as an appropriate current-account level, however, seems to capture a goal that most policy-makers share regardless of the particular circumstances.The price-specie-flow mechanism described by David Hume shows how the gold standard could ensure convergence to external balance. You may want to present the following model of the price-specie-flow mechanism. This model is based upon three equations: 1. The balance sheet of the central bank. At the most simple level, this is justgold holdings equals the money supply: G ? M.2. The quantity theory. With velocity and output assumed constant and bothnormalized to 1, this yields the simple equation M ? P.3. A balance of payments equation where the current account is a function of thereal exchange rate and there are no private capital flows: CA ? f(E ? P*/P)These equations can be combined in a figure like the one below. The 45? line represents the quantity theory, and the vertical line is the price level where the real exchange rate results in a balanced current account. The economy moves along the 45? line back towards the equilibrium Point 0 whenever it is out of equilibrium. For example, the loss of four-fifths of a country’s gold would put that country at Point a with lower prices and a lower money supply. The resulting real exchange rate depreciation causes a current account surplus which restores money balances as the country proceeds up the 45? line froma to 0.FigureThe automatic adjustment process described by the price-specie-flow mechanism is expedited by following “rules of the game” under which governments contract the domestic source components oftheir monetary bases when gold reserves are falling (corresponding to a current-account deficit) and expand when gold reserves are rising (the surplus case).In practice, there was little incentive for countries with expanding gold reserves to follow the “rules of the game.” This increased the contractionary burden shouldered by countries with persistent current account deficits. The gold standard also subjugated internal balance to the demands of external balance. Research suggests price-level stability and high employment were attained less consistently under the gold standard than in the post-1945 period.The interwar years were marked by severe economic instability. The monetization of war debt and of reparation payments led to episodes of hyperinflation in Europe. Anill-fated attempt to return to thepre-war gold parity for the pound led to stagnation in Britain. Competitive devaluations and protectionism were pursued in a futile effort to stimulate domestic economic growth during the Great Depression.These beggar-thy-neighbor policies provoked foreign retaliation and led to the disintegration of the world economy. As one of the case studies shows, strict adherence to the Gold Standard appears to have hurt many countries during the Great Depression.Determined to avoid repeating the mistakes of the interwar years, Allied economic policy-makers metat Bretton Woods in 1944 to forge a new international monetary system for the postwar world. The exchange-rate regime that emerged from this conference had at its center the . dollar. All other currencies had fixed exchange rates against the dollar, which itself had a fixed value in terms of gold.An International Monetary Fund was set up to oversee the system and facilitate its functioning by lending to countries with temporary balance of payments problems.A formal discussion of internal and external balance introduces the concepts of expenditure-switching and expenditure-changing policies. The Bretton Woods system, with its emphasis on infrequent adjustmentof fixed parities, restricted the use of expenditure-switching policies. Increases in U.S. monetary growth to finance fiscal expenditures after the mid-1960s led to a loss of confidence in the dollar and the termination of the dollar’s convertibility into gold. The analysis presented in the text demonstrateshow the Bretton Woods system forced countries to “import” inflation from the United States and shows that the breakdown of the system occurred when countries were no longer willing to accept this burden.?Answers to Textbook Problems1. a. Since it takes considerable investment to develop uranium mines, you wouldwant a larger current account deficit to allow your country to finance some of the investment with foreign savings.b. A permanent increase in the world price of copper would cause a short-termcurrent account deficit if the price rise leads you to invest more in coppermining. If there are no investment effects, you would not change yourexternal balance target because it would be optimal simply to spend youradditional income.c. A temporary increase in the world price of copper would cause a currentaccount surplus. You would want to smooth out your country’s consumption bysaving some of its temporarily higher income.d. A temporary rise in the world price of oil would cause a current accountdeficit if you were an importer of oil, but a surplus if you were an exporter of oil.2. Because the marginal propensity to consume out of income is less than 1, atransfer of income from B to A increases savings in A and decreases savings in B.Therefore, A has a current account surplus and B has a corresponding deficit.This corresponds to a balance of payments disequilibrium in Hume’s world, which must be financed by gold flows from B to A. These gold flows increase A’s money supply and decrease B’s money supply, pushing up prices in A and depressingprices in B. These price changes cease once balance of payments equilibrium has been restored.3. Changes in parities reflected both initial misalignments and balance of paymentscrises. Attempts to return to the parities of the prewar period after the war ignored the changes in underlying economic fundamentals that the war caused. This made some exchange rates less than fully credible and encouraged balance ofpayments crises. Central bank commitments to the gold parities were also less than credible after the wartime suspension of the gold standard, and as a result of the increasing concern of governments with internal economic conditions.4. A monetary contraction, under the gold standard, will lead to an increase in thegold holdings of the contracting country’s central bank if other countries do not pursue a similar policy. All countries cannot succeed in doing thissimultaneously since the total stock of gold reserves is fixed in the short run.Under a reserve currency system, however, a monetary contraction causes anincipient rise in the domestic interest rate, which attracts foreign capital. The central bank must accommodate the inflow of foreign capital to preserve theexchange rate parity. There is thus an increase in the central bank’s holdings of foreign reserves equal to the fall in its holdings of domestic assets. There is no obstacle to a simultaneous increase in reserves by all central banksbecause central banks acquire more claims on the reserve currency country while their citizens end up with correspondingly greater liabilities.5. The increase in domestic prices makes home exports less attractive and causes acurrent account deficit. This diminishes the money supply and causescontractionary pressures in the economywhich serve to mitigate and ultimately reverse wage demands and price increases.6. A “demand determined” increase in dollar reserve holdings would not affect theworld supply of money as central banks merely attempt to trade their holdings of domestic assets for dollar rese rves. A “supply determined” increase in reserve holdings, however, would result from expansionary monetary policy in the United States (the reserve center). At least at the end of the Bretton Woods era the increase in world dollar reserves arose in part because of an expansionarymonetary policyin the United States rather than a desire by other central banks to increasetheir holdings of dollar assets. Only the “supply determined” increase indollar reserves is relevant for analyzing the relationship between world holdings of dollar reserves by central banks and inflation.7. An increase in the world interest rate leads to a fall in a central bank’sholdings of foreign reserves as domestic residents trade in their cash forforeign bonds. This leads to a d ecline in the home country’s money supply. The central bank of a “small” country cannot offset these effects sinceit cannot alter the world interest rate. An attempt to sterilize the reserve loss through open market purchases would fail unless bonds are imperfect substitutes.8. Capital account restrictions insulate the domestic interest rate from the worldinterest rate. Monetary policy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internal balance. Because there are no offsetting capital flows, monetary policy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internal balance. The costs of capital controls include the inefficiency which is introduced when the domestic interest rate differs from the world rate and the high costs of enforcing the controls.9. Yes, it does seem that the external balance problem of a deficit country is moresevere. While the macroeconomic imbalance may be equally problematic in the long run regardless of whether it is a deficit or surplus, large external deficits involve the risk that the market will fix the problem quickly by ceasing to fund the external deficit. In this case, there may have to be rapid adjustment that could be disruptive. Surplus countries are rarely forced into rapid adjustments, making the problems less risky.10. An inflow attack is different from capital flight, but many parallels exist. Inan “outflow” attack, speculators sell the home currency and drain the central bank of its foreign assets. The central bank could always defend if it so chooses (they can raise interest rates to improbably high levels), but if it is unwilling to cripple the economy with tight monetary policy, it must relent. An “inflow”attack is similar in that the central bank can always maintain the peg, it is just that the consequences of doing so may be more unpalatable than breaking the peg. If money flows in, the central bank must buy foreign assets to keep thecurrency from appreciating. If the central bank cannot sterilize all the inflows (eventually they may run out of domestic assets to sell to sterilize thetransactions where they are buying foreign assets), it will have to either let the currency appreciate or let the money supply rise. If it is unwilling to allow and increase in inflation due to a rising money supply, breaking the peg may be preferable.11. a. We know that China has a very large current account surplus, placing them highabove the XX line. They also have moderate inflationary pressures (describedas “gathering” in the question, implying they are not yet very strong). This suggests that China is above the II line, but not too far above it. It wouldbe placed in Zone 1 (see below).b. China needs to appreciate the exchange rate to move down on the graph towardsbalance. (Shown on the graph with the dashed line down)c. China would need to expand government spending to move to the right and hitthe overall balance point. Such a policy would help cushion the negativeaggregate demand pressurethat the appreciation might generate.。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解（第7章国际要素流动）【圣才出品】第7章国际要素流动⼀、概念题1．外国直接投资（direct foreign investment）答：外国直接投资⼜称“海外直接投资”，是指⼀个国家或地区的投资者对另⼀国家或地区所进⾏的、以控制或参与经营管理为特征的跨国投资⾏为，是国际资本流动的⼀种重要形式。

跨国公司是最主要的直接投资主体之⼀。

外国直接投资有多种具体形式，常见的有直接在国外投资设⽴⼦公司或分公司、购买国外某公司全部或⼀定⽐例的股份并获得⼀定的控制权、通过与东道国企业签订各种合约或合同取得对该企业的某种控制权等。

2．跨国公司的分布及内部化动机（location and internalization motives of multinationals）答：内部化是指在企业内部建⽴市场，以企业的内部市场代替外部市场，从⽽解决由于市场不完全⽽带来的不能保证供需交换正常进⾏的问题的⾏为过程。

内部化理论认为，由于市场存在不完全性和交易成本上升，因此企业通过外部市场的买卖关系不能保证企业获利，并导致许多附加成本。

因此，建⽴企业内部市场即通过跨国公司内部形成的公司内市场，就能克服外部市场和市场不完全所造成的风险和损失，给技术转移和垂直⼀体化带来好处。

3．要素流动（factor movements）答：要素流动是指⽣产要素在不同国家之间的流动。

具体包括劳动⼒流动、国际借贷和证券投资等形式的短期资本流动，以及跨国公司进⾏的长期投资等。

就经济本⾝⽽⾔，⽣产要素的国际流动和商品的国际流动（国际贸易）没有本质的不同，⼆者在⼀定程度上是可以相互替代的；但在现实⽣活中，由于社会、政治和⽂化传统等⽅⾯的差异，⽣产要素的国际流动远⽐商品的国际流动困难和复杂。

如今，商品的国际流动越来越便捷，但⽣产要素的国际流动还有很多限制：⼤多数国家仍对移民做出严格的限制，东道国对国际资本短期流动的投机性和冲击⼒提⾼了警惕，⼤多数国家对跨国公司进⾏直接投资的领域和股权⽐例做出了限制性规定等。

Chapter 61.For each of the following examples, explain whether this is a case of external or internaleconomies of scale:a.Most musical wind instruments in the United States are produced by more than adozen factories in Elkhart, Indiana.b.All Hondas sold in the United States are either imported or produced in Marysville,Ohio.c.All airframes for Airbus, Europe’s only producer of large aircraft, are assembled inT oulouse, France.d.Hartford, Connecticut is the insurance capital of the northeastern United States.External economies of scale: Cases a and d. The productions of these two industries concentrate in a few locations and successfully reduce each industry's costs even when the scale of operation of individual firms remains small. External economies need not lead to imperfect competition. The benefits of geographical concentration may include a greater variety of specialized services to support industry operations and larger labor markets or thicker input markets.Internal economies of scale: Cases b and c. Both of them occur at the level of the individual firm. The larger the output of a product by a particular firm, the lower its average costs. This leads to imperfect competition as in petrochemicals, aircraft, and autos.2.In perfect competition, firm set price equal to marginal cost. Why isn’t this possiblewhen there are internal economies of scale?Unlike the case of perfectly competitive markets, under monopoly marginal revenue is not equal to price. The profit maximizing output level of a monopolist occurs where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Marginal revenue is always less than price under imperfectly competitive markets because to sell an extra unit of output the firm must lower the price of all units, not just the marginal one.3.It is often argued that the existence of increasing returns is a source of conflict betweencountries, since each country is better off if it can increase its production in those industries characterized by economies of scale. Evaluate this view in terms of both the monopolistic competition and the external economy models.Both internal economies of scale (which may lead to monopolistic competition) and external economies of scale could lead to increasing returns.By concentrating the production of each good with economies of scale in one country rather than spreading the production over several countries, the world economy will use the same amount of labor to produce more output.In the monopolistic competition model, the concentration of labor benefits the host country.The host country can capture some monopoly rents. But the rest of the world may hurt and have to face higher prices on its consumption goods.In the external economies case, such monopolistic pricing behavior is less likely since imperfectly competitive markets are less likely.4.Suppose the two countries we considered in the numerical example on pages 132-135were to integrate their automobile marker with a third country with an annual market for 3.75 million automobiles. Find the number of firms, the output per firm, and theprice per automobile in the new integrated market after trade.15.8n X 1c P c AC 2=⇒==−−→−+=+==n S Fb S n bn X F AC PHowever, since you will never see 0.8 firms, there will be 15 firms that enter the market, not16 firms since the last firm knows that it can not make positive profits. The rest of the solution is straight-forward. Using X=S/n, output per firm is 41,666 units. Using the price equation, and the fact that c=5,000, yields an equilibrium price of $7,000.5. Evaluate the relative importance of economies of scale and comparative advantage incausing the following:a. Most of the world ’s aluminum is smelted in Norway or Canada.b. Half of the world ’s large jet aircraft are assembled in Seattle.c. Most semiconductors are manufactured in either the United States or Japan.d. Most Scotch whiskey comes from Scotland.e. Much of the world ’s best wine comes from France.a. The relatively few locations for production suggest external economies of scale in production. If these operations are large, there may also be large internal economies of scale in production.b. Since economies of scale are significant in airplane production, it tends to be done by a small number of (imperfectly competitive) firms at a limited number of locations. One such location is Seattle, where Boeing produces.c. Since external economies of scale are significant in semiconductor production,semiconductor industries tend to be concentrated in certain geographic locations. If, for some historical reason, a semiconductor is established in a specific location, the export of semiconductors by that country is due to economies of scale and not comparative advantage.d. "True" scotch whiskey can only come from Scotland. The production of scotch whiskeyrequires a technique known to skilled distillers who are concentrated in the region. Also, soil and climactic conditions are favorable for grains used in local scotch production. This reflects comparative advantage.e. France has a particular blend of climactic conditions and land that is difficult to reproduce elsewhere. This generates a comparative advantage in wine production.6. There are some shops in Japan that sell Japanese goods imported back from the UnitedStates at a discount over the prices charged by other Japanese shops. How is this possible?The Japanese producers employ price discrimination across United States and Japanesemarkets, so that the goods sold in the United States are much cheaper than those sold in Japan. It may be profitable for other Japanese to purchase these goods in the United States, incur any tariffs and transportation costs, and resell the goods in Japan. Clearly, the price differential across markets may lead to such profitable chance.7. Consider a situation similar to that in Figure 6-9, in which two countries that canproduce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves. In this case, however, suppose that the two countries have the same costs, so that their supply curves are identical.a. What would you expect to be the pattern of international specialization and trade?What would determine who produces the good?Suppose two countries that can produce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves and are identical countries with identical curves. If one country starts out as a producer of a good, i.e. it has a head start even as a matter of historical accident, then all production will occur in that particular country and it will export to the rest of the world. b. What are the benefits of international trade in this case? Do they accrue only to thecountry that gets the industry?Consumers in both countries will pay a lower price for this good when externaleconomies are maximized through trade and all production is located in a single market. In the present example, no single country has a natural cost advantage or is worse off than it would be under autarky.8. It is fairly common for an industrial cluster to break up and for production to move tolocations with lower wages when the technology of the industry is no longer rapidly improving —when it is no longer essential to have the absolutely most modern machinery, when the need for highly skilled workers has declined, and when being at the cutting edge of innovation conveys only a small advantage. Ex plain this tendency of industrial clusters to break up in terms of the theory of external economies.External economies are important for firms as technology changes rapidly and as the“cutting edge” moves quickly with frequent innovations. As this pr ocess slows, manufacturing becomes more normal and standard and there is less advantage brought by external economies. Instead, firms look for low cost production locations. Since external economies are no longer important, firms find little advantage in being clustered and it is likely that low-wage locations will be chosen.chapter 81. The import demand equation, MD , is found by subtracting the home supply equation from the home demand equation. This results in MD = 80 - 40 x P . Without trade, domestic prices Q P,CD AC AC External Economics and Specializationand quantities adjust such that import demand is zero. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is 2.2. a. Foreign's export supply curve, XS , is XS = -40 + 40 x P . In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b. When trade occurs export supply is equal to import demand, XS = MD . Thus, using theequations from problems 1 and 2a, P = 1.50, and the volume of trade is 20.3. a. The new MD curve is 80 - 40 x (P+t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to 0.5. (Note: in solving these problems you should be careful about whether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff, the MD equation would be expressed as MD =80-40 x (1+t)P). The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged. Solving, we find that the world price is $1.25, and thus the internal price at home is $1.75. The volume of trade has been reduced to 10, and the total demand for wheat at home has fallen to 65 (from the free trade level of 70). The total demand for wheat in Foreign has gone up from 50 to 55.b. andc. The welfare of the home country is best studied using the combined numerical andgraphical solutions presented below in Figure 8-1.P T =1.7550556070QuantityPrice P W =1.50P T*=1.25where the areas in the figure are:a: 55(1.75-1.50) -.5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=13.125b: .5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=0.625c: (65-55)(1.75-1.50)=2.50d: .5(70-65)(1.75-1.50)=0.625e: (65-55)(1.50-1.25)=2.50Consumer surplus change: -(a+b+c+d)=-16.875. Producer surplus change: a=13.125. Government revenue change: c+e=5. Efficiency losses b+d are exceeded by terms of trade gain e. [Note: in the calculations for the a, b, and d areas a figure of .5 shows up. This is because we are measuring the area of a triangle, which is one-half of the area of the rectangle defined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.]4. Using the same solution methodology as in problem 3, when the home country is very small relative to the foreign country, its effects on the terms of trade are expected to be much less. The small country is much more likely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition is shown in this problem. The free trade equilibrium is now at the price $1.09 and the trade volume is now $36.40.With the imposition of a tariff of 0.5 by Home, the new world price is $1.045, the internal homeprice is $1.545, home demand is 69.10 units, home supply is 50.90 and the volume of trade is 18.20. When Home is relatively small, the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Home is relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of .5 by home lowered world price by 25 percent, whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price by about 5 percent. The internal Home price is now closer to the free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large. In this case, the government revenues from the tariff equal 9.10, the consumer surplus loss is 33.51, and the producer surplus gain is 21.089. The distortionary losses associated with the tariff (areas b+d) sum to 4.14 and the terms of trade gain (e) is 0.819. Clearly, in this small country example the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains. The general lesson is the smaller the economy, the larger the losses from a tariff since the terms of trade gains are smaller.5. The effective rate of protection takes into consideration the costs of imported intermediate goods. In this example, half of the cost of an aircraft represents components purchased from other countries. Without the subsidy the aircraft would cost $60 million. The European value added to the aircraft is $30 million. The subsidy cuts the cost of the value added to purchasers of the airplane to $20 million. Thus, the effective rate of protection is (30 - 20)/20 = 50%.6. We first use the foreign export supply and domestic import demand curves to determine the new world price. The foreign supply of exports curve, with a foreign subsidy of 50 percent per unit, becomes XS = -40 + 40(1+0.5) x P. The equilibrium world price is 1.2 and the internal foreign price is 1.8. The volume of trade is 32. The foreign demand and supply curves are used to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide (1.8 - 1.2) x 32 = 19.2 units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producers surplus rises due to the subsidy by the amount of 15.3 units of output. Foreign consumers surplus falls due to the higher price by7.5 units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign due to the subsidy is 7.5 + 19.2 - 15.3 = 11.4 units of output. Home consumers and producers face an internal price of 1.2 as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70 x .3 + .5 (6x.3) = 21.9 while Home producers surplus falls by 44 x .3 + .5(6 x .3) = 14.1, for a net gain of 7.8 units of output.7. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts, Acirema imports 200 bags of peanuts. A quota limiting the import of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a. The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b. The quota rents are ($20 - $10) x 50 = $500.c. The consumption distortion loss is .5 x 100 bags x $10 per bag = $500.d. The production distortion loss is .5 x50 bags x$10 per bag = $250.。

第1篇国际贸易理论第2章世界贸易概览一、概念题1．发展中国家（developing countries）答：发展中国家是与发达国家相对的经济上比较落后的国家，又称“欠发达国家”或“落后国家”。

通常指第三世界国家，包括亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲及其他地区的130多个国家。

衡量一国是否为发展中国家的具体标准有很多种，如经济学家刘易斯和世界银行均提出过界定发展中国家的标准。

一般而言，凡人均收入低于美国人均收入的五分之一的国家就被定义为发展中国家。

比较贫困和落后是发展中国家的共同特点。

2．服务外包（service outsourcing）答：服务外包是指企业将其非核心的业务外包出去，利用外部最优秀的专业化团队来承接其业务，从而使其专注于核心业务，达到降低成本、提高效率、增强企业核心竞争力和对环境应变能力的一种管理模式。

20世纪90年代以来，随着信息技术的迅速发展，特别是互联网的普遍存在及广泛应用，服务外包得到蓬勃发展。

从美国到英国，从欧洲到亚洲，无论是中小企业还是跨国公司，都把自己有限的资源集中于公司的核心能力上而将其余业务交给外部专业公司，服务外包成为“发达经济中不断成长的现象”。

3．引力模型（gravity model）答：丁伯根和波伊赫能的引力模型基本表达式为：其中，T是i国与j国的贸易额，A为常量，i Y是i国的国内生产总值，j Y是j国的国ij内生产总值，D是两国的距离。

a、b、c三个参数是用来拟合实际的经济数据。

引力模型ij方程式表明：其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。

把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。

另外，引力模型也可以用来明确国际贸易中的异常现象。

4．第三世界（third world）答：第三世界这个名词原本是指法国大革命中的Third Estate（第三阶级）。

冷战时期，一些经济发展比较落后的国家为表示并不靠拢北约或华约任何一方，用“第三世界”一词界定自己。

Chapter 61.For each of the following examples, explain whether this is a case of external or internaleconomies of scale:a.Most musical wind instruments in the United States are produced by more than adozen factories in Elkhart, Indiana.b.All Hondas sold in the United States are either imported or produced in Marysville,Ohio.c.All airframes for Airbus, Europe’s only producer of large aircraft, are assembled inToulouse, France.d.Hartford, Connecticut is the insurance capital of the northeastern United States.External economies of scale: Cases a and d. The productions of these two industries concentrate in a few locations and successfully reduce each industry's costs even when the scale of operation of individual firms remains small. External economies need not lead to imperfect competition. The benefits of geographical concentration may include a greater variety of specialized services to support industry operations and larger labor markets or thicker input markets.Internal economies of scale: Cases b and c. Both of them occur at the level of the individual firm. The larger the output of a product by a particular firm, the lower its average costs. This leads to imperfect competition as in petrochemicals, aircraft, and autos.2.In perfect competition, firm set price equal to marginal cost. Why isn’t this possiblewhen there are internal economies of scale?Unlike the case of perfectly competitive markets, under monopoly marginal revenue is not equal to price. The profit maximizing output level of a monopolist occurs where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Marginal revenue is always less than price under imperfectly competitive markets because to sell an extra unit of output the firm must lower the price of all units, not just the marginal one.3.It is often argued that the existence of increasing returns is a source of conflict betweencountries, since each country is better off if it can increase its production in those industries characterized by economies of scale. Evaluate this view in terms of both the monopolistic competition and the external economy models.Both internal economies of scale (which may lead to monopolistic competition) and external economies of scale could lead to increasing returns.By concentrating the production of each good with economies of scale in one country rather than spreading the production over several countries, the world economy will use the same amount of labor to produce more output.In the monopolistic competition model, the concentration of labor benefits the host country.The host country can capture some monopoly rents. But the rest of the world may hurt and have to face higher prices on its consumption goods.In the external economies case, such monopolistic pricing behavior is less likely since imperfectly competitive markets are less likely.4.Suppose the two countries we considered in the numerical example on pages 132-135were to integrate their automobile marker with a third country with an annual market for 3.75 million automobiles. Find the number of firms, the output per firm, and theprice per automobile in the new integrated market after trade.15.8n X 1c P c AC 2=⇒==−−→−+=+==nS Fb S n bn X F AC P However, since you will never see 0.8 firms, there will be 15 firms that enter the market, not16 firms since the last firm knows that it can not make positive profits. The rest of the solution is straight-forward. Using X=S/n, output per firm is 41,666 units. Using the price equation, and the fact that c=5,000, yields an equilibrium price of $7,000.5.Evaluate the relative importance of economies of scale and comparative advantage incausing the following:a.Most of the world’s aluminum is smelted in Norway or Canada.b.Half of the world’s large jet aircraft are assembled in Seattle.c.Most semiconductors are manufactured in either the United States or Japan.d.Most Scotch whiskey comes from Scotland.e.Much of the world’s best wine comes from France.a. The relatively few locations for production suggest external economies of scale in production. If these operations are large, there may also be large internal economies of scale in production.b. Since economies of scale are significant in airplane production, it tends to be done by a small number of (imperfectly competitive) firms at a limited number of locations. One such location is Seattle, where Boeing produces.c. Since external economies of scale are significant in semiconductor production, semiconductor industries tend to be concentrated in certain geographic locations. If, for some historical reason, a semiconductor is established in a specific location, the export of semiconductors by that country is due to economies of scale and not comparative advantage.d. "True" scotch whiskey can only come from Scotland. The production of scotch whiskey requires a technique known to skilled distillers who are concentrated in the region. Also, soil and climactic conditions are favorable for grains used in local scotch production. This reflects comparative advantage.e. France has a particular blend of climactic conditions and land that is difficult to reproduce elsewhere. This generates a comparative advantage in wine production.6.There are some shops in Japan that sell Japanese goods imported back from the UnitedStates at a discount over the prices charged by other Japanese shops. How is this possible?The Japanese producers employ price discrimination across United States and Japanesemarkets, so that the goods sold in the United States are much cheaper than those sold in Japan. It may be profitable for other Japanese to purchase these goods in the United States, incur any tariffs and transportation costs, and resell the goods in Japan. Clearly, the price differential across markets may lead to such profitable chance.7.Consider a situation similar to that in Figure 6-9, in which two countries that canproduce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves. In this case, however, suppose that the two countries have the same costs, so that their supply curves are identical.a.What would you expect to be the pattern of international specialization and trade?What would determine who produces the good?QP,CD AC AC External Economics and SpecializationSuppose two countries that can produce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves and are identical countries with identical curves. If one country starts out as a producer of a good, i.e. it has a head start even as a matter of historical accident, then all production will occur in that particular country and it will export to the rest of the world.b.What are the benefits of international trade in this case? Do they accrue only to thecountry that gets the industry?Consumers in both countries will pay a lower price for this good when externaleconomies are maximized through trade and all production is located in a single market. In the present example, no single country has a natural cost advantage or is worse off than it would be under autarky.8.It is fairly common for an industrial cluster to break up and for production to move tolocations with lower wages when the technology of the industry is no longer rapidly improving—when it is no longer essential to have the absolutely most modern machinery, when the need for highly skilled workers has declined, and when being at the cutting edge of innovation conveys only a small advantage. Explain this tendency of industrial clusters to break up in terms of the theory of external economies.External economies are important for firms as technology changes rapidly and as the“cutting edge” moves quickly with frequent innovations. As this process slows, manufacturing becomes more normal and standard and there is less advantage brought by external economies. Instead, firms look for low cost production locations. Since external economies are no longer important, firms find little advantage in being clustered and it is likely that low-wage locations will be chosen.chapter 81.The import demand equation, MD , is found by subtracting the home supply equation from the home demand equation. This results in MD = 80 - 40 x P. Without trade, domestic pricesand quantities adjust such that import demand is zero. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is 2.2.a.Foreign's export supply curve, XS , is XS = -40 + 40 x P. In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b.When trade occurs export supply is equal to import demand, XS = MD . Thus, using theequations from problems 1 and 2a, P = 1.50, and the volume of trade is 20.3.a.The new MD curve is 80 - 40 x (P+t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to 0.5. (Note: in solving these problems you should be careful about whether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff, the MD equation would be expressed as MD =80-40 x (1+t)P). The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged. Solving, we find that the world price is $1.25, and thus the internal price at home is $1.75. The volume of trade has been reduced to 10, and the total demand for wheat at home has fallen to 65 (from the free trade level of 70). The total demand for wheat in Foreign has gone up from 50 to 55.b.andc. The welfare of the home country is best studied using the combined numerical andgraphical solutions presented below in Figure 8-1.P T =1.7550556070QuantityPrice P W =1.50P T*=1.25where the areas in the figure are:a: 55(1.75-1.50) -.5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=13.125b: .5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=0.625c: (65-55)(1.75-1.50)=2.50d: .5(70-65)(1.75-1.50)=0.625e: (65-55)(1.50-1.25)=2.50Consumer surplus change: -(a+b+c+d)=-16.875. Producer surplus change: a=13.125. Government revenue change: c+e=5. Efficiency losses b+d are exceeded by terms of trade gain e. [Note: in the calculations for the a, b, and d areas a figure of .5 shows up. This is because we are measuring the area of a triangle, which is one-half of the area of the rectangle defined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.]4. Using the same solution methodology as in problem 3, when the home country is very small relative to the foreign country, its effects on the terms of trade are expected to be much less. The small country is much more likely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition is shown in this problem. The free trade equilibrium is now at the price $1.09 and the trade volume is now $36.40.With the imposition of a tariff of 0.5 by Home, the new world price is $1.045, the internal homeprice is $1.545, home demand is 69.10 units, home supply is 50.90 and the volume of trade is 18.20. When Home is relatively small, the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Home is relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of .5 by home lowered world price by 25 percent, whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price by about 5 percent. The internal Home price is now closer to the free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large. In this case, the government revenues from the tariff equal 9.10, the consumer surplus loss is 33.51, and the producer surplus gain is 21.089. The distortionary losses associated with the tariff (areas b+d) sum to 4.14 and the terms of trade gain (e) is 0.819. Clearly, in this small country example the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains. The general lesson is the smaller the economy, the larger the losses from a tariff since the terms of trade gains are smaller.5. The effective rate of protection takes into consideration the costs of imported intermediate goods. In this example, half of the cost of an aircraft represents components purchased from other countries. Without the subsidy the aircraft would cost $60 million. The European value added to the aircraft is $30 million. The subsidy cuts the cost of the value added to purchasers of the airplane to $20 million. Thus, the effective rate of protection is (30 - 20)/20 = 50%.6. We first use the foreign export supply and domestic import demand curves to determine the new world price. The foreign supply of exports curve, with a foreign subsidy of 50 percent per unit, becomes XS= -40 + 40(1+0.5) x P. The equilibrium world price is 1.2 and the internal foreign price is 1.8. The volume of trade is 32. The foreign demand and supply curves are used to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide (1.8 - 1.2) x 32 = 19.2 units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producers surplus rises due to the subsidy by the amount of 15.3 units of output. Foreign consumers surplus falls due to the higher price by7.5 units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign due to the subsidy is 7.5 + 19.2 - 15.3 = 11.4 units of output. Home consumers and producers face an internal price of 1.2 as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70 x .3 + .5 (6 x.3) = 21.9 while Home producers surplus falls by 44 x .3 + .5(6 x .3) = 14.1, for a net gain of 7.8 units of output.7. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts, Acirema imports 200 bags of peanuts. A quota limiting the import of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a.The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b. The quota rents are ($20 - $10) x 50 = $500.c. The consumption distortion loss is .5 x 100 bags x $10 per bag = $500.d. The production distortion loss is .5 x50 bags x$10 per bag = $250.。

OVERVIEW OF SECTION II: INTERNATIONAL TRADE POLICYSection II of the text is comprised of four chapters:Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade PolicyChapter 9 The Political Economy of Trade PolicyChapter 10 Trade Policy in Developing CountriesChapter 11 Strategic Trade Policies in Advanced CountriesSECTION II OVERVIEWTrade policy issues figure prominently in current political debates and public policy discussions. The first two chapters of this section of the text are concerned with the instruments of trade policy and the arguments for free trade and managed trade. The second two chapters consider these concepts in the context of specific sets of countries that face common problems. Throughout, the use of case studies provides the student with real world examples that clearly illustrate the theoretical arguments.Chapter 8 discusses various instruments of trade policy including tariffs, quotas, voluntary export restraints, and local content requirements. The effects of these policies on prices and trade volumes are determined in the context of a partial equilibrium framework. The chapter reviews the analytical tools of consumer and producer surplus, and uses these tools to consider the welfare effects of various protectionist measures. The specific incidents of trade restrictions presented as case studies include import quotas on sugar entering United States markets, voluntary export restraints on Japanese autos, and oil import quotas.Chapter 9 presents the set of ideas known as the political economy of trade theory. These ideas enable you to understand why certain trade restrictions exist, despite the force of general economic arguments which suggest that they reduce aggregate welfare. Possible motivations for trade restrictions are identified as those which increase national welfare, such as the optimum tariff, and those which foster either income redistribution or the preservation of status quo. While sometimes politically popular, these motivations for trade restrictions ignore the possibility of retaliation and usually fail tests based upon basic welfare analysis. Trade agreements of the 1990s are discussed, including the Uruguay Round, and distinctionsare made between Free Trade Areas and Customs Unions as well as between trade creation and trade diversion.Chapter 10 considers the possible uses of trade policies to promote the growth of developing economies. The chapter reviews the relative successes of different development strategies. It examines arguments for and the results of import-substituting industrialization. The phenomenon of economic dualism, referring to the coexistence of capital intensive industrial sectors and low-wage traditional sectors, and of uneven development are considered. The chapter concludes with a discussion of export led growth and the experience of the high performing Asian economies.Chapter 11 considers recent controversies in trade policy. The first part of the chapter considers the notion of strategic trade policy, which first arose in the 1990s. Strategic trade policy refers to the use of trade (and other) tools for channeling resources to sectors targeted for growth by industrial country governments. The chapter presents some commonly voiced arguments for intervention in particular sectors of the economy, and then shows how these arguments are critically flawed. The second part of the chapter introduces more sophisticated arguments for strategic trade policy. The most persuasive of these is the existence of some form of market failure. The second part of the chapter considers the impact of rising trade on workers in developing countries, and more broadly, the debate over globalization. This debate has been argued in academia and policy circles, but also on the streets of Seattle, Genoa, and other cities hosting global economic summits.。

CHAPTER 2LABOR PRODUCTIVITY AND COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE: THE RICARDIAN MODELChapter OrganizationThe Concept of Comparative AdvantageA One-Factor EconomyProduction PossibilitiesRelative Prices and SupplyTrade in a One-Factor WorldBox: Comparative Advantage in Practice: The Case of Babe RuthDetermining the Relative Price After TradeThe Gains from TradeA Numerical ExampleBox: The Losses from Non-TradeRelative WagesMisconceptions About Comparative AdvantageProductivity and CompetitivenessThe Pauper Labor ArgumentExploitationBox: Do Wages Reflect Productivity?Comparative Advantage with Many GoodsSetting Up the ModelRelative Wages and SpecializationDetermining the Relative Wage with a Multigood ModelAdding Transport Costs and Non-Traded GoodsEmpirical Evidence on the Ricardian ModelSummaryCHAPTER OVERVIEWThe Ricardian model provides an introduction to international trade theory. This most basic model of trade involves two countries, two goods, and one factor of production, labor. Differences in relative labor productivity across countries give rise to international trade. This Ricardian model, simple as it is, generates important insights concerning comparative advantage and the gains from trade. These insights are necessary foundations for the more complex models presented in later chapters.The text exposition begins with the examination of the production possibility frontier and the relative prices of goods for one country. The production possibility frontier is linear because of the assumption of constant returns to scale for labor, the sole factor of production. The opportunity cost of one good in terms of the other equals the price ratio since prices equal costs, costs equal unit labor requirements times wages, and wages are equal in each industry.After defining these concepts for a single country, a second country is introduced which has different relative unit labor requirements. General equilibrium relative supply and demand curves are developed. This analysis demonstrates that at least one country will specialize in production. The gains from trade are then demonstrated with a graph and a numerical example. The intuition of indirect production, that is "producing" a good by producing the good for which a country enjoys a comparative advantage and then trading for the other good, is an appealing concept to emphasize when presenting the gains from trade argument. Students are able to apply the Ricardian theory of comparative advantage to analyze three misconceptions about the advantages of free trade. Each of the three "myths" represents a common argument against free trade and the flaws of each can be demonstrated in the context of examples already developed in the chapter.While the initial intuitions are developed in the context of a two good model, it is straightforward to extend the model to describe trade patterns when there are N goods. This analysis can be used to explain why a small country specializes in the production of a few goods while a large country specializes in the production of many goods. The chapter ends by discussing the role that transport costs play in making some goods non-traded.The appendix presents a Ricardian model with a continuum of goods. The effect of productivity growth in a foreign country on home country welfare can be investigated withthis model. The common argument that foreign productivity advances worsen the welfare of the domestic economy is shown to be fallacious in the context of this model.ANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS1. a. The production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis at 400(1200/3) and the banana axis at 600 (1200/2).b. The opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. It takes three units of labor toharvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. If one foregoes harvesting an apple, this frees up three units of labor. These 3 units of labor could then be used to harvest 1.5 bananas.c. Labor mobility ensures a common wage in each sector and competition ensures the priceof goods equals their cost of production. Thus, the relative price equals the relative costs, which equals the wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit labor requirement for bananas. Since wages are equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas.2. a. The production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to160 (800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800 (800/1).b. The world relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of applesrelative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. The lowest relative price at which apples are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. The relative supply curve is flat at this price. The maximum number of apples supplied at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by Home while, at this price, Foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. This relative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. At the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples.The relative supply curve is again flat at 5. Thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relative supply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/2 rising from 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity.3. a. The relative demand curve includes the points (1/5, 5), (1/2, 2), (1,1), (2,1/2).b. The equilibrium relative price of apples is found at the intersection of the relativedemand and relative supply curves. This is the point (1/2, 2), where the relativedemand curve intersects the vertical section of the relative supply curve. Thus the equilibrium relative price is 2.c. Home produces only apples, Foreign produces only bananas, and each country tradessome of its product for the product of the other country.d. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, andForeign could gain by one apple foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. Each country is better off with trade.4. The increase in the number of workers at Home shifts out the relative supply schedulesuch that the corner points are at (1, 3/2) and (1, 5) instead of (1/2, 3/2) and (1/2, 5).The intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves is now in the lower horizontal section, at the point (2/3, 3/2). In this case, Foreign still gains from trade but the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home is the same whether or not there is trade, so Home neither gains nor loses from trade.5. This answer is identical to that in 3. The amount of "effective labor" has not changedsince the doubling of the labor force is accompanied by a halving of the productivity of labor.6. This statement is just an example of the pauper labor argument discussed in the chapter.The point is that relative wage rates do not come out of thin air; they are determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. The box in the chapter provides data which shows the strong connection between wages and productivity.Korea's low wage presumably reflects the fact that Korea is less productive than the United States in most industries. As the test example illustrated, a highly productive country that trades with a less productive, low-wage country will raise, not lower, its standard of living.7. The problem with this argument is that it does not use all the information needed fordetermining comparative advantage in production: this calculation involves the four unit labor requirements (for both the industry and service sectors, not just the two for the service sector). It is not enough to compare only service's unit labor requirements.If a ls< a ls*, Home labor is more efficient than foreign labor in services. While thisdemonstrates that the United States has an absolute advantage in services, this is neithera necessary nor a sufficient condition for determining comparative advantage. For thisdetermination, the industry ratios are also required. The competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries.8. While Japanese workers may earn the equivalent wages of U.S. workers, the purchasingpower of their income is one-third less. This implies that although w=w* (more or less), p<p* (since 3p=p*). Since the United States is considerably more productive in services, service prices are relatively low. This benefits and enhances U.S. purchasing power.However, many of these services cannot be transported and hence, are not traded. This implies that the Japanese may not benefit from the lower U.S. services costs, and do not face an international price which is lower than their domestic price. Likewise, the price of services in United States does not increase with the opening of trade since these services are non-traded. Consequently, U.S. purchasing power is higher than that of Japan due to its lower prices on non-traded goods.9. Gains from trade still exist in the presence of nontraded goods. The gains from tradedecline as the share of nontraded goods increases. In other words, the higher the portion of goods which do not enter international marketplace, the lower the potential gains from trade. If transport costs were high enough so that no goods were traded then, obviously, there would be no gains from trade.10. The world relative supply curve in this case consists of a step function, with as many"steps" (horizontal portions) as there are countries with different unit labor requirement ratios. Any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a comparative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. If the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods.FURTHER READINGDonald Davis. “Intraindustry Trade: A Heckscher-Ohlin-Ricardo Approach” (working paper, Harvard University).Rudiger Dornbusch, Stanley Fischer, and Paul Samuelson. "Comparative Advantage, Trade and Payments in a Ricardian Model with a Continuum of Goods." American Economic Review 67 (December 1977) pp.823-839.Giovanni Dosi, Keith Pavitt, and Luc Soete. The Economics of Technical Change and International Trade. Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1988.G.D.A. MacDougall. "British and American Exports: A Study Suggested by the Theory of Comparative Costs." Economic Journal 61 (September 1952) pp.487-521.John Stuart Mill. Principles of Political Economy. London: Longmans Green, 1917.David Ricardo. The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. Homewood Illinois: Irwin, 1963.。

国际经济学克鲁格曼教材答案HUA system office room 【HUA16H-TTMS2A-HUAS8Q8-HUAH1688】Problems and Answers to Chapter 2Q1: Canada and Australia are (mainly) English-speaking countries with populations that are not too different in size (Canada’s is 60 percent larger). But Canadian trade is twice as large, relative to GDP, as Australia’s. Why should this be the case加拿大和澳大利亚都是英语国家，两国的人口规模也相当（加拿大多60%），但是相对各自的GDP而言，加拿大的贸易额是澳大利亚的两倍，为什么如此？A1:According to Gravity Model, GDP is not the only factor to explain the volume oftrade between two countries, because distance is also an important factor. Consideringthe distance, the transportation cost of Australia is relatively higher than that ofCanada, so the attractiveness of trade is reduced. However, Canada is close to theUSA which is a large economy while Australia is not close to any large economy,making Canada more open while Australia is more autarky.GDP 不是解释两国贸易量的唯一重要因素，距离也是至关重要的因素之一。