克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)笔记和课后习题详解 第2章~第4章【圣才出品】

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第19章宏观经济政策和浮动汇率制下的国际协调19.1复习笔记1．支持浮动汇率制的观点（1）货币政策自主性在布雷顿森林体系的固定汇率制度下，除美国以外的其他国家极少有机会运用货币政策来达到内部平衡和外部平衡。

由于要抵消资本流动的影响，货币政策的作用被弱化了。

但是，如果各国中央银行不再为固定汇率而被迫干预货币市场，各国政府就能够运用货币政策来达到内部平衡和外部平衡，并且各国不再会因为外部因素导致本国出现通货膨胀或通货紧缩。

浮动汇率制的提倡者认为，如果中央银行不必再承担稳定其币值的义务，那么它们将恢复对货币的控制。

货币贬值会降低本国产品的相对价格，从而使外国对本国产品的需求增加，进而减少本国的失业。

同样，在经济过热的国家中，中央银行可以通过压缩货币供给来抑制过热的经济活动，而不必担心过多的国际储备流入会破坏其稳定币值的努力。

通过加强对货币政策的控制，各国可以排除那些扭曲国际支付的障碍。

浮动汇率制的提倡者还认为，各国如果使用浮动汇率，就能够选择自己愿意接受的长期通货膨胀率，而不再会被动地引进国外的通货膨胀率。

支持浮动汇率最为有力的理论之一就是认为它能够通过汇率的自动调整来隔绝国外持续性通货膨胀带来的影响。

产生这种隔绝的机制是购买力平价。

（2）对称性浮动汇率制的支持者认为：浮动汇率制可以消除类似布雷顿森林体系所造成的不对称。

由于各国不再将本国货币钉住对美元的汇率，也就不必因此而持有美元作储备。

所以，各国都可以自主决定本国的货币状况。

同样，美国在运用货币政策或财政政策改变美元汇率时，不会再遇到特别的阻碍。

最后，在全球范围内，所有国家的汇率都将由市场而不是由政府决定。

（3）汇率自动稳定器功能与固定汇率相比，浮动汇率相对减少了需求冲击对就业的影响，从而有利于经济稳定。

当对本国产品和劳务的需求下降时，浮动汇率下的货币贬值，会使本国产品和劳务的价格下降，部分地减轻了这种需求下降的不利影响。

国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。

生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。

相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。

所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。

2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。

答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。

答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。

答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？6．答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。

7．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。

答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。

对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。

8．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。

Chapter 4Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income DistributionChapter OrganizationA Model of a Two-Factor EconomyPrices and ProductionChoosing the Mix of InputsFactor Prices and Goods PricesResources and OutputEffects of International Trade Between Two-Factor Economies Relative Prices and the Pattern of TradeTrade and the Distribution of IncomeFactor Price EqualizationTrade and Income Distribution in the Short RunCase Study: North-South Trade and Income InequalityThe Political Economy of Trade: A Preliminary ViewThe Gains from Trade, RevisitedOptimal Trade PolicyIncome Distribution and Trade PoliticsBox: Income Distribution and the Beginnings of Trade Theory Empirical Evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelTesting the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelImplications of the TestsSummaryAppendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Input Choices Choice of TechniqueGoods Prices and Factor PricesChapter OverviewIn Chapter 3, trade between nations was motivated by differences internationally in the relative productivity of workers when producing a range of products. In Chapter 4, this analysis goes a step further by introducing the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.The Heckscher-Ohlin theory considers the pattern of production and trade which will arise when countries have different endowments of factors of production, such as labor, capital, and land. The basic point is that countries tend to export goods that are intensive in the factors with which they are abundantly supplied. Trade has strong effects on the relative earnings of resources, and tends to lead to equalization across countries of prices of the factors of production. These theoretical results and related empirical findings are presented in this chapter.The chapter begins by developing a general equilibrium model of an economy with two goods which are each produced using two factors according to fixed coefficient production functions. The assumption of fixed coefficient production functions provides an unambiguous ranking of goods in terms of factor intensities. (The appendix develops the model when the production functions have variable coefficients.) Two important results are derived using this model. The first is known as the Rybczynski effect. Increasing the relative supply of one factor, holding relative goods prices constant, leads to a biased expansion of production possibilities favoring the relative supply of the good which uses that factor intensively.The second key result is known as the Stolper-Samuelson effect. Increasing the relative price of a good, holding factor supplies constant, increases the return to the factor used intensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase, while lowering the return to the other factor. This result has important income distribution implications.It can be quite instructive to think of the effects of demographic/labor force changes on the supply of different products. For example, how might the pattern of production during the productive years of the “Baby Boom” generation differ from the pattern of production for post Baby Boom generations? What does this imply for returns to factors and relative price behavior?The central message concerning trade patterns of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is that countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are relatively abundantly endowed. This is demonstrated by showing that, using the relative supply and relative demand analysis, the country relatively abundantly endowed with a certain factor will produce that factor more cheaply than the other country. International trade leads to a convergence of goods prices. Thus, the results from the Stolper-Samuelson effect demonstrate that owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade, but ownersof a country’s scarce factors lose. The extension of this result is the important Factor Price Equalization Theorem, which states that trade in (and thus price equalization of) goods leads to an equalization in the rewards to factors across countries. The political implications of factor price equalization should be interesting to students.The chapter also introduces some political economy considerations. First, it briefly notes that many of the results regarding trade and income distribution assume full and swift adjustment in the economy. In the short run, though, labor and capital that are currently in a particular industry may have sector-specific skills or knowledge and are being forced to move to another sector, and this involves costs. Thus, even if a shift in relative prices were to improve the lot of labor, for those laborers who must change jobs, there is a short run cost.The core of the political economy discussion focuses on the fact that when opening to trade, some may benefit and some may lose, but the expansion of economic opportunity should allow society to redistribute some of the gains towards those who lose, making sure everyone benefits on net. In practice, though, those who lose are often more concentrated and hence have more incentive to try to affect policy. Thus, trade policy is not always welfare maximizing, but may simply reflect the preferences of the loudest and best organized in society.Empirical results concerning the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, beginning with the Leontief paradox and extending to current research, do not support its predictions concerning resource endowments explaining overall patterns of trade, though some patterns do match the broad outlines of its theory (e.g., theUnited States imports more low-skill products from Bangladesh and more high-skill products from Germany). This observation has motivated many economists to consider motives for trade between nations that are not exclusively based on differences across countries. These concepts will be exploredin later chapters. Despite these shortcomings, important and relevant results concerning income distribution are obtained from the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.Answers to Textbook Problems1. The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used inproduction, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries as well if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. Comparisons between another country and the United States is less relevant for this purpose.2. a. The box diagram has 600 as the length of two sides (representing labor) and 60 as the lengthof the other two sides (representing land). There will be a ray from each of the two cornersrepresenting the origins. To find the slopes of these rays we use the information from the questionconcerning the ratios of the production coefficients. The question states that a LC/a TC= 20 anda LF/a TF= 5.Since a LC/a TC= (L C/Q C)/(T C/Q C) =L C/T C we have L C= 20T C. Using the same reasoning,a LF/a TF= (L F/Q F)/(T F/Q F) =L F/T F and since this ratio equals 5, we have L F= 5T F. We cansolve this algebraically since L=L C+ L F= 600 and T=T C+ T F= 60.The solution is L C= 400, T C= 20, L F= 200 and T F= 40.b. The dimensions of the box change with each increase in available labor, but the slopes of the raysfrom the origins remain the same. The solutions in the different cases are as follows.L= 800: T C= 33.33, L C= 666.67, T F= 26.67, L F= 133.33L= 1000: T C= 46.67, L C= 933.33, T F= 13.33, L F= 66.67L= 1200: T C= 60, L C= 1200, T F= 0, L F= 0. (complete specialization).c. At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices would have to change, orthere would be unemployment.3. This question is similar to an issue discussed in Chapter 3. What matters is not the absolute abundanceof factors, but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.4. In the Ricardian model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. Thisresult does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly addresses distribution by considering the effects of trade on theowners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses fromtrade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from theHeckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits. In the short run, certainunskilled unions may gain or lose from trade depending on in which sector they work, but in theory, in the longer run, the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin model will dominate.5. Specific programmers may face wage cuts due to the competition from India, but this is not inconsistentwith skilled labor wages rising. By making programming more efficient in general, this development may have increased wages for others in the software industry or lowered the prices of the goodsoverall. In the short run, though, it has clearly hurt those with sector specific skills who will facetransition costs. There are many reasons to not block the imports of computer programming services (or outsourcing of these jobs). First, by allowing programming to be done more cheaply, it expands the production possibilities frontier of the U.S., making the entire country better off on average.Necessary redistribution can be done, but we should not stop trade which is making the nation as a whole better off. In addition, no one trade policy action exists in a vacuum, and if the U.S. blocked the programming imports, it could lead to broader trade restrictions in other countries.6. The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensivein factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, whichhas a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods.Bowen, Leamer and Sveikauskas found for the world as a whole the correlation between factorendowment and trade patterns to be tenuous. The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries’ e xports and imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.7. If the efficiency of the factors of production differs internationally, the lessons of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to “effective factors” which adjust for the differences in technology or worker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model has been found to be moresuccessful than the unadjusted model at explaining the pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalization concepts would apply to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equal to two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled workercould earn twice what lower-skilled workers do, and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第6章规模经济、不完全竞争和国际贸易6.1复习笔记1．规模经济（1）规模经济和国际贸易①规模经济的表现规模经济表现为生产规模越大，生产效率越高，产出的增长大于投入的增长。

表6-1列出了某一行业的投入产出关系，且该产品的生产只需要劳动这一种投入。

从表中可以看出，生产10件产品需要15小时的劳动，而生产25件产品只需要30个小时的劳动。

规模经济表现为：劳动投入增加1倍（从15小时增加到30小时），产出却增加了1.5倍（从10件增加到25件）。

表6-1某一假定行业的投入产出关系②规模经济是国际贸易的动因之一假定世界上只有A和B两个国家，二者都具有生产这种产品的同样技术，最初都生产10个单位。

根据表6-1，该产量在每个国家均要15小时的劳动投入，即全世界用30个小时来生产20单位产品。

但是，现在假定该新产品的生产集中到一个国家，比如说A国，且A国在这一行业也投入30个小时的劳动。

然而，在一个国家内投入30个小时的劳动，却能生产出25件产品。

显然，生产集中到A国可以使得世界以同样的劳动投入多产出25%的产品。

可见，各国可以用比以往更有效的规模专业化地生产有限类别的产品；同时，它们之间的相互贸易又使得消费所有产品成为可能。

（2）规模经济和市场结构①规模经济的分类a．外部规模经济，指单位产品成本取决于整个行业规模而非单个厂商规模的规模经济类型。

b．内部规模经济，指单位产品成本取决于单个厂商的规模而不是其所在的行业规模的规模经济类型。

②规模经济对市场结构的影响外部的和内部的规模经济对市场结构具有不同的影响。

一个只存在外部规模经济的行业（即大厂商没有优势）一般由许多相对较小的厂商构成，且处于完全竞争的状态；相反，存在内部规模经济的行业中，大厂商比小厂商更具有成本优势，就形成了不完全竞争的市场结构。

外部规模经济和内部规模经济都是国际贸易的重要原因。

但是，由于它们对市场结构的影响不同，下面将对它们进行分别讨论。

十万种考研考证电子书、题库、视频学习平台第10章发展中国家的贸易政策10.1 复习笔记1．进口替代战略（1）含义及特征进口替代战略又称内向型发展战略，其基本特征是以国内生产的工业制成品代替进口品，满足国内需求，并以此带动国民经济增长。

（2）一般做法①首先发展相对简易的日用工业，然后发展重化工业。

②压缩政府的不必要开支，增加生产性投资比重。

③对建立替代工业所必须的机器设备、中间品或原料进口采取关税减免和政府补贴的优惠政策。

④通过关税、非关税壁垒以及高估本国币值的方式，限制一般工业品进口，同时保证资本品以较低价格进口。

（3）幼稚工业论（幼稚工业论是进口替代战略的指导思想）①含义发展中国家具有制造业的潜在的比较优势，但发展中国家新建的制造工业最初却不能与发达国家已经成熟完善的制造业竞争。

为了使新成长的制造业获得立足之地，政府应该暂时地给予支持，直到它们足够强大，能够参与国际竞争为止。

②注意之处十万种考研考证电子书、题库、视频学习平台a．试图从现在就进入未来才会具有比较优势的产业，并不总能得到好处。

b．如果政府保护本身有助于培养制造业的竞争力，那么保护才是值得的。

反之，则不值得。

总之，只有存在某种国内市场失灵的情况下，幼稚工业论才能成为政府干预的有效论据。

③市场失灵幼稚工业是否需要保护取决于幼稚工业的保护必须与一种具体的市场失灵相联系，这种市场失灵会使得私有市场不能以应有的速度发展这一产业。

有两种类型的市场失灵可以作为保护幼稚工业的依据：不完全资本市场和无偿占用问题。

a．不完全资本市场作为保护幼稚工业的依据认为，如果一个发展中国家没有一整套金融机构可以使得传统部门的储蓄用于新成长部门的投资，那么新工业部门的增长将会受这些工业当前盈利能力的限制。

最优政策是建立更完善的资本市场。

但是，由于对这些幼稚工业的保护可以提高利润，从而使其更快成长，所以保护幼稚工业可以作为次优的政策选择。

b．无偿占用问题的思想是：新产业产生的社会福利没有得到补偿。

第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。

生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。

相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。

所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。

2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。

答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。

答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。

答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A 国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。

6．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。

答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。

对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。

7．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。

8．根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？答案提示：小国。

9*．为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸？答案提示：第二章答案1．根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》笔记和课后习题详解（国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡）【圣才出品】⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台第12章国民收⼊核算与国际收⽀平衡12.1 复习笔记1．国民收⼊账户（1）GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是⼀国的国民⽣产总值（GNP），它是⼀国的⽣产要素在⼀定时期内所⽣产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。

GNP是宏观经济学家研究⼀国产出时所⽤的基本度量⼿段，由花费在最终产品上的⽀出的市场价值量加总⽽得到。

GNP的⽀出与劳动、资本以及其他⽣产要素紧密相连。

根据购买最终产品的四种可能⽤途，GNP可以分解为以下四个部分：消费（国内居民私⼈消费的数额）、投资（私⼈企业为进⾏再⽣产⽽留下的⽤于购买⼚房设备的数额）、政府购买（政府使⽤的数额）和经常项⽬余额（对外净出⼝的商品和服务的数额）。

（2）国民收⼊国民收⼊等于GNP减去折旧，加上净单边转移⽀付，再减去间接商业税。

即：国民收⼊＝GNP－折旧＋净单边转移⽀付－间接商业税在实际经济中，要使GNP和国民收⼊的恒等关系完全成⽴，必须对GNP的定义作⼀定调整：①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使⽤过程中由于磨损⽽引起的经济损失。

这部分经济损失称为折旧，折旧减少了资本所有者的收⼊。

为了计算⼀定时期的国民收⼊，必须从GNP 中减去这⼀时期资本的折旧。

GNP减去折旧后称为国民⽣产净值（NNP）。

⼗万种考研考证电⼦书、题库、视频学习平台②⼀国的收⼊可能会包括外国居民的赠与，这种赠与称为单边转移⽀付。

单边转移⽀付的例⼦包括向居住在国外的退休公民⽀付养⽼⾦、赔偿⽀付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。

净单边转移⽀付是⼀国收⼊的⼀部分，但不是⼀国产出的⼀部分，因此，净单边转移⽀付，必须加到NNP中以计算国民收⼊。

③国民收⼊取决于⽣产者获得的产品价格，GNP则取决于购买者所⽀付的价格。

但是，这两组价格并不是完全⼀致的，例如，销售税会使得购买者的⽀付⼤于销售者的收⼊，导致GNP被⾼估，超过了国民收⼊。

第4章资源、比较优势与收入分配一、概念题1．充裕要素（abundant factor）答：充裕要素是“稀缺要素”的对称，是指一国相对充裕的生产要素。

充裕要素的“充裕”是相对的，指的并不是一国所拥有的该生产要素的绝对数量的充裕，而是该生产要素相对于其他生产要素的相对充裕。

充裕要素是以资源禀赋解释国际贸易的赫克歇尔-俄林定理中的重要概念。

根据赫克歇尔-俄林定理，各国倾向于生产并出口国内充裕要素密集型的产品，一国充裕要素的所有者能够从国际贸易中获利。

2．要素价格（factor prices）答：要素价格即生产要素的价格，是指每一单位的生产要素在一定时期内给所有者带来的收入。

生产要素主要有四种：劳动力、土地、资本和企业家才能。

相应地，其价格分别称为工资、地租、利息和利润。

生产要素价格同产品的价格一样，主要是由生产要素市场上供求的相互作用决定的。

在市场经济中，工资主要由劳动力市场上的供求关系决定；地租主要由土地市场上的供求关系决定；利息主要由资本市场上的供求关系决定；利润作为企业家收入，主要由企业家市场上的供求关系决定。

3．生产可能性边界的偏向性扩张（biased expansion of production possibilities）答：生产可能性边界的偏向性扩张是指生产可能性边界在一个方向上扩张的幅度大于在另一方向上扩张的幅度，如图4-1所示。

图4-1（a）说明了生产可能性曲线偏向于X的扩张，图4-1（b）则说明了生产可能性曲线偏向Y的扩张。

图中的生产可能性边界都从1TT移到了2TT。

图4-1 生产可能性边界的偏向性扩张4．要素比例理论（factor-proportions theory）答：要素比例理论又称“赫克歇尔-俄林理论”、“生产要素禀赋理论”，是指从资源禀赋角度对国际贸易中生产成本和价格的差异做出解释的国际贸易理论。

要素比例理论的主要内容是：国际贸易源于不同国家之间商品的价格存在差异，而价格差异的原因在于不同国家生产成本有高有低，生产成本的高低又是因为各国生产要素价格有差别，生产要素价格的差别又与各国生产要素丰裕程度密切相关。

Chapter 18The International Monetary System, 1870–1973?Chapter OrganizationMacroeconomic Policy Goals in an Open EconomyInternal Balance: Full Employment and Price-Level StabilityExternal Balance: The Optimal Level of the Current Account International Macroeconomic Policy under the Gold Standard, 1870–1914 Origins of the Gold StandardExternal Balance under the Gold StandardThe Price-Specie-Flow MechanismThe Gold Standard “Rules of the Game”: Myth and RealityBox: Hume v. the MercantilistsInternal Balance under the Gold StandardCase Study: The Political Economy of Exchange Rate Regimes:Conflict over America’s Monetary Standard During the 1890s The Interwar Years, 1918–1939The Fleeting Return to GoldInternational Economic DisintegrationCase Study: The International Gold Standard and the Great Depression The Bretton Woods System and the International Monetary Fund Goals and Structure of the IMFConvertibility and the Expansion of Private Capital FlowsSpeculative Capital Flows and CrisesAnalyzing Policy Options under the Bretton Woods SystemMaintaining Internal BalanceMaintaining External BalanceExpenditure-Changing and Expenditure-Switching PoliciesThe External-Balance Problem of the United StatesCase Study: The Decline and Fall of the Bretton Woods SystemWorldwide Inflation and the Transition to Floating Rates Summary?Chapter OverviewThis is the first of five international monetary policy chapters. These chapters complement the preceding theory chapters in several ways. They provide the historical and institutional background students require to place their theoretical knowledge in a useful context. The chapters also allow students, through study of historical and current events, to sharpen their grasp of the theoretical models and to develop the intuition those models can provide. (Application of the theory to events of current interest will hopefully motivate students to return to earlier chapters and master points that may have been missed on the first pass.)Chapter 18 chronicles the evolution of the international monetary system from the gold standard of1870–1914, through the interwar years, and up to and including the post-World War II Bretton Woods regime that ended in March 1973. The central focus of the chapter is the manner in which each system addressed, or failed to address, the requirements of internal and external balance for its participants.A country is in internal balance when its resources are fully employed and there is price level stability. External balance implies an optimal time path of the current account subject to its being balanced over the long run. Other factors have been important in the definition of external balance at various times, and these are discussed in the text. The basic definition of external balance as an appropriate current-account level, however, seems to capture a goal that most policy-makers share regardless of the particular circumstances.The price-specie-flow mechanism described by David Hume shows how the gold standard could ensure convergence to external balance. You may want to present the following model of the price-specie-flow mechanism. This model is based upon three equations: 1. The balance sheet of the central bank. At the most simple level, this is justgold holdings equals the money supply: G ? M.2. The quantity theory. With velocity and output assumed constant and bothnormalized to 1, this yields the simple equation M ? P.3. A balance of payments equation where the current account is a function of thereal exchange rate and there are no private capital flows: CA ? f(E ? P*/P)These equations can be combined in a figure like the one below. The 45? line represents the quantity theory, and the vertical line is the price level where the real exchange rate results in a balanced current account. The economy moves along the 45? line back towards the equilibrium Point 0 whenever it is out of equilibrium. For example, the loss of four-fifths of a country’s gold would put that country at Point a with lower prices and a lower money supply. The resulting real exchange rate depreciation causes a current account surplus which restores money balances as the country proceeds up the 45? line froma to 0.FigureThe automatic adjustment process described by the price-specie-flow mechanism is expedited by following “rules of the game” under which governments contract the domestic source components oftheir monetary bases when gold reserves are falling (corresponding to a current-account deficit) and expand when gold reserves are rising (the surplus case).In practice, there was little incentive for countries with expanding gold reserves to follow the “rules of the game.” This increased the contractionary burden shouldered by countries with persistent current account deficits. The gold standard also subjugated internal balance to the demands of external balance. Research suggests price-level stability and high employment were attained less consistently under the gold standard than in the post-1945 period.The interwar years were marked by severe economic instability. The monetization of war debt and of reparation payments led to episodes of hyperinflation in Europe. Anill-fated attempt to return to thepre-war gold parity for the pound led to stagnation in Britain. Competitive devaluations and protectionism were pursued in a futile effort to stimulate domestic economic growth during the Great Depression.These beggar-thy-neighbor policies provoked foreign retaliation and led to the disintegration of the world economy. As one of the case studies shows, strict adherence to the Gold Standard appears to have hurt many countries during the Great Depression.Determined to avoid repeating the mistakes of the interwar years, Allied economic policy-makers metat Bretton Woods in 1944 to forge a new international monetary system for the postwar world. The exchange-rate regime that emerged from this conference had at its center the . dollar. All other currencies had fixed exchange rates against the dollar, which itself had a fixed value in terms of gold.An International Monetary Fund was set up to oversee the system and facilitate its functioning by lending to countries with temporary balance of payments problems.A formal discussion of internal and external balance introduces the concepts of expenditure-switching and expenditure-changing policies. The Bretton Woods system, with its emphasis on infrequent adjustmentof fixed parities, restricted the use of expenditure-switching policies. Increases in U.S. monetary growth to finance fiscal expenditures after the mid-1960s led to a loss of confidence in the dollar and the termination of the dollar’s convertibility into gold. The analysis presented in the text demonstrateshow the Bretton Woods system forced countries to “import” inflation from the United States and shows that the breakdown of the system occurred when countries were no longer willing to accept this burden.?Answers to Textbook Problems1. a. Since it takes considerable investment to develop uranium mines, you wouldwant a larger current account deficit to allow your country to finance some of the investment with foreign savings.b. A permanent increase in the world price of copper would cause a short-termcurrent account deficit if the price rise leads you to invest more in coppermining. If there are no investment effects, you would not change yourexternal balance target because it would be optimal simply to spend youradditional income.c. A temporary increase in the world price of copper would cause a currentaccount surplus. You would want to smooth out your country’s consumption bysaving some of its temporarily higher income.d. A temporary rise in the world price of oil would cause a current accountdeficit if you were an importer of oil, but a surplus if you were an exporter of oil.2. Because the marginal propensity to consume out of income is less than 1, atransfer of income from B to A increases savings in A and decreases savings in B.Therefore, A has a current account surplus and B has a corresponding deficit.This corresponds to a balance of payments disequilibrium in Hume’s world, which must be financed by gold flows from B to A. These gold flows increase A’s money supply and decrease B’s money supply, pushing up prices in A and depressingprices in B. These price changes cease once balance of payments equilibrium has been restored.3. Changes in parities reflected both initial misalignments and balance of paymentscrises. Attempts to return to the parities of the prewar period after the war ignored the changes in underlying economic fundamentals that the war caused. This made some exchange rates less than fully credible and encouraged balance ofpayments crises. Central bank commitments to the gold parities were also less than credible after the wartime suspension of the gold standard, and as a result of the increasing concern of governments with internal economic conditions.4. A monetary contraction, under the gold standard, will lead to an increase in thegold holdings of the contracting country’s central bank if other countries do not pursue a similar policy. All countries cannot succeed in doing thissimultaneously since the total stock of gold reserves is fixed in the short run.Under a reserve currency system, however, a monetary contraction causes anincipient rise in the domestic interest rate, which attracts foreign capital. The central bank must accommodate the inflow of foreign capital to preserve theexchange rate parity. There is thus an increase in the central bank’s holdings of foreign reserves equal to the fall in its holdings of domestic assets. There is no obstacle to a simultaneous increase in reserves by all central banksbecause central banks acquire more claims on the reserve currency country while their citizens end up with correspondingly greater liabilities.5. The increase in domestic prices makes home exports less attractive and causes acurrent account deficit. This diminishes the money supply and causescontractionary pressures in the economywhich serve to mitigate and ultimately reverse wage demands and price increases.6. A “demand determined” increase in dollar reserve holdings would not affect theworld supply of money as central banks merely attempt to trade their holdings of domestic assets for dollar rese rves. A “supply determined” increase in reserve holdings, however, would result from expansionary monetary policy in the United States (the reserve center). At least at the end of the Bretton Woods era the increase in world dollar reserves arose in part because of an expansionarymonetary policyin the United States rather than a desire by other central banks to increasetheir holdings of dollar assets. Only the “supply determined” increase indollar reserves is relevant for analyzing the relationship between world holdings of dollar reserves by central banks and inflation.7. An increase in the world interest rate leads to a fall in a central bank’sholdings of foreign reserves as domestic residents trade in their cash forforeign bonds. This leads to a d ecline in the home country’s money supply. The central bank of a “small” country cannot offset these effects sinceit cannot alter the world interest rate. An attempt to sterilize the reserve loss through open market purchases would fail unless bonds are imperfect substitutes.8. Capital account restrictions insulate the domestic interest rate from the worldinterest rate. Monetary policy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internal balance. Because there are no offsetting capital flows, monetary policy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internal balance. The costs of capital controls include the inefficiency which is introduced when the domestic interest rate differs from the world rate and the high costs of enforcing the controls.9. Yes, it does seem that the external balance problem of a deficit country is moresevere. While the macroeconomic imbalance may be equally problematic in the long run regardless of whether it is a deficit or surplus, large external deficits involve the risk that the market will fix the problem quickly by ceasing to fund the external deficit. In this case, there may have to be rapid adjustment that could be disruptive. Surplus countries are rarely forced into rapid adjustments, making the problems less risky.10. An inflow attack is different from capital flight, but many parallels exist. Inan “outflow” attack, speculators sell the home currency and drain the central bank of its foreign assets. The central bank could always defend if it so chooses (they can raise interest rates to improbably high levels), but if it is unwilling to cripple the economy with tight monetary policy, it must relent. An “inflow”attack is similar in that the central bank can always maintain the peg, it is just that the consequences of doing so may be more unpalatable than breaking the peg. If money flows in, the central bank must buy foreign assets to keep thecurrency from appreciating. If the central bank cannot sterilize all the inflows (eventually they may run out of domestic assets to sell to sterilize thetransactions where they are buying foreign assets), it will have to either let the currency appreciate or let the money supply rise. If it is unwilling to allow and increase in inflation due to a rising money supply, breaking the peg may be preferable.11. a. We know that China has a very large current account surplus, placing them highabove the XX line. They also have moderate inflationary pressures (describedas “gathering” in the question, implying they are not yet very strong). This suggests that China is above the II line, but not too far above it. It wouldbe placed in Zone 1 (see below).b. China needs to appreciate the exchange rate to move down on the graph towardsbalance. (Shown on the graph with the dashed line down)c. China would need to expand government spending to move to the right and hitthe overall balance point. Such a policy would help cushion the negativeaggregate demand pressurethat the appreciation might generate.。

第3章劳动生产率和比较优势：李嘉图模型一、概念题1．绝对优势（absolute advantage）答：绝对优势论是指由英国古典经济学的奠基人亚当·斯密提出的贸易理论，即各国以生产成本的绝对差异为基础、发挥各自的优势进行国际分工，并通过自由贸易增进共同利益的国际贸易理论斯密认为，国际贸易和国际分工的原因及基础是各国间存在的劳动生产率和生产成本的绝对差别。

一国如果在某种产品上具有比别国高的劳动生产率，就称该国在这一产品上就具有绝对优势。

2．贫民劳动论（pauper labor argument）答：贫民劳动论是指在国际贸易中，如果来自外国的竞争是建立在低工资的基础上，那么这种竞争是不公平的，而且会损害其他参与竞争国家的利益。

因此，贫民劳动论认为，为了保护本国利益，国内产业没有必要与低效率低工资的外国产业展开贸易。

但是，克鲁格曼却认为，贫民劳动论是对李嘉图比较优势的误解，因为本国决定进行贸易还是自己生产，关键是用本国自己的劳动力来衡量，与外国的低工资率并没有多大关系。

3．比较优势（comparative advantage）答：比较优势理论认为，国际贸易的基础并不限于劳动生产率上的绝对差别。

只要各国之间存在着劳动生产率上的相对差别，就会出现生产成本和产品价格的相对差别，从而使各国在不同的产品上具有比较优势，使国际分工和国际贸易成为可能。

根据李嘉图的比较优势贸易理论，每个国家都应集中生产并出口其具有“比较优势”的产品，进口其具有“比较劣势”的产品。

4．生产可能性边界（production possibility frontier）答：生产可能性边界又称“生产可能性曲线”或“产品转换曲线”，是指在技术不变和资源充分利用的情况下，社会或单个厂商把全部资源充分地和有效率地用于生产商品所能获得的最大产量的各种组合的曲线。

生产可能性边界用于说明减少一种商品的产出量可以增加另一种商品的产出量的可能性。

在曲线之外的任何点都是不可能得到的，资源不可能实现这种配置，曲线内的点都可以得到，资源容易实现这种配置，只有曲线上的点代表资源充分利用下的最优效率。

克鲁格曼的《国际经济学》学习小结第2、3、 4、5章开门见山，讲国际贸易模型。

第二章首先讲李嘉图模型，其主要观点在于：一国出口劳动生产率相对高的产品，进口劳动生产率相对低的产品，相对低工资率使得绝对生产率低的国家获得比较竞争优势。

第三章介绍特定要素模型，其重要贡献在于解释了收入分配效应。

假设土地与资本为特定要素，每个国家出口部门特定要素的拥有者从贸易中获利，而与进口产品竞争部门的特定要素的拥有者受损。

流动要素的拥有者可能受益也可能受损。

第四章介绍资源与贸易的赫俄理论。

其主要论点有四点：1. 两种产品相对价格与生产产品的要素的相对价格间存在一一对应的关系，若劳动密集型产品相对价格上升，劳动者收入上升，土地所有者收入下降；2.相对价格不变时，要素供给上升，以此要素密集的产品产出上升，另一种产品产出下降；3. 赫俄定理：各国倾向于出口其国内充裕资源密集型产品，相对资源充裕的所有者获利，稀缺资源所有者受损；4. 要素均等化：要素分配不均，要素价格不同，成本不同，价格不同，产生贸易，最终导致产品价格趋同，要素价格趋同，从这一过程可看出，贸易中的商品流动暗含要素流动。

第五章综合前几章模型，得出标准贸易模型:：1. 生产可能性边界推导世界相对供给曲线，通过消费者偏好推导世界相对需求曲线，出口产品对进口产品的相对价格由此供需曲线决定；2. 出口偏向型增长使贸易条件（出口产品价格比上进口产品价格）恶化，即一国出口产品扩张程度大于进口产品扩张程度，进口偏向性增长使贸易条件改善。

克鲁格曼的《国际经济学》第六章讲的是规模经济-垄断竞争模型。

首先给出垄断竞争的形成，随着产出的增加，单位产品成本下降的趋势。

垄断竞争模型，假设垄断厂商生产有差异产品，对产品持有垄断地位；每个厂商将对手的价格作为既定。

那么则有Q = S*(1/n - b*(p-ap))；其中q为厂商的销量，s为行业总销量，n为行业中厂商数，p为厂商产品的价格，ap为竞争者的均价。

第1篇国际贸易理论第2章世界贸易概览一、概念题1．发展中国家（developing countries）答：发展中国家是与发达国家相对的经济上比较落后的国家，又称“欠发达国家”或“落后国家”。

通常指第三世界国家，包括亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲及其他地区的130多个国家。

衡量一国是否为发展中国家的具体标准有很多种，如经济学家刘易斯和世界银行均提出过界定发展中国家的标准。

一般而言，凡人均收入低于美国人均收入的五分之一的国家就被定义为发展中国家。

比较贫困和落后是发展中国家的共同特点。

2．服务外包（service outsourcing）答：服务外包是指企业将其非核心的业务外包出去，利用外部最优秀的专业化团队来承接其业务，从而使其专注于核心业务，达到降低成本、提高效率、增强企业核心竞争力和对环境应变能力的一种管理模式。

20世纪90年代以来，随着信息技术的迅速发展，特别是互联网的普遍存在及广泛应用，服务外包得到蓬勃发展。

从美国到英国，从欧洲到亚洲，无论是中小企业还是跨国公司，都把自己有限的资源集中于公司的核心能力上而将其余业务交给外部专业公司，服务外包成为“发达经济中不断成长的现象”。

3．引力模型（gravity model）答：丁伯根和波伊赫能的引力模型基本表达式为：其中，T是i国与j国的贸易额，A为常量，i Y是i国的国内生产总值，j Y是j国的国ij内生产总值，D是两国的距离。

a、b、c三个参数是用来拟合实际的经济数据。

引力模型ij方程式表明：其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。

把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。

另外，引力模型也可以用来明确国际贸易中的异常现象。

4．第三世界（third world）答：第三世界这个名词原本是指法国大革命中的Third Estate（第三阶级）。

冷战时期，一些经济发展比较落后的国家为表示并不靠拢北约或华约任何一方，用“第三世界”一词界定自己。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第20章最优货币区和欧洲的经验20.1复习笔记1．欧洲单一货币的演变（1）1969～1978年欧洲货币改革的原因欧盟国家从20世纪60年代末开始努力寻求货币政策的一致性和汇率的更大稳定性，其主要有三个原因：一是影响世界经济的政策形势发生了变化；二是人们希望欧盟能发挥更大的作用；三是汇率的变动给欧盟带来了不少管理上的问题。

具体原因有两个：①为了提高欧洲在世界货币体系中的地位。

1969年的货币危机使得欧洲对美国将其国际货币职责放在其国家利益之前的可靠性失去信心。

面对美国越来越自私的政策，欧盟国家为了更加有效地维护自己的经济利益，决定在货币问题上采取一致行动。

②为了把欧盟变成一个真正的统一市场。

欧盟的长远目标就是要消除所有障碍，把欧盟变成一个巨大的统一的市场。

欧洲的政府官员认为，汇率的不确定性，是减少欧盟内部贸易的主要原因之一，只有在欧洲国家之间建立起固定的相互汇率，才能形成一个真正的统一欧洲市场。

（2）1979～1998年的欧洲货币体系（EMS）欧洲货币体系是欧洲共同体国家为实现经济一体化而于1979年3月13日建立的区域性金融体系。

当时参加的国家有联邦德国、法国、意大利、荷兰、比利时、卢森堡、丹麦和爱尔兰。

1984年9月希腊加入，1987年5月12日西班牙加入，1987年11月10日葡萄牙加入，1995年1月1日奥地利、芬兰和瑞典加入。

欧洲货币体系的主要内容包括三个方面：①创建欧洲货币单位。

欧洲货币单位是欧洲货币体系的中心内容。

在结构上，欧洲货币单位与欧洲记账单位相同，都是由成员国的一定量的货币组成，是一个货币“篮子”。

与欧洲记账单位的本质区别是，欧洲货币单位不仅可以作为价值尺度给资产和负债标价，而且还是一种支付手段，在许多方面发挥着货币的功能。

所以，欧洲货币单位既是一个货币“篮子”，也是一种“篮子货币”。

②建立双重的中心汇率制，以保证成员国汇率的稳定。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第22章发展中国家：增长、危机和改革22.1复习笔记1．发展中国家的结构特征（1）四种收入类型的国家根据人均年收入水平，世界各国可分为四种主要类型：低收入国家、中低收入国家、中高收入国家和高收入国家。

前三类国家相对于发达国家而言处于一个落后的发展阶段。

（2）发展中国家的结构特征①存在政府对经济进行广泛和直接控制的历史，包括对国际贸易的限制、政府对大型工业企业的所有权或控制权、政府对国际金融交易的直接控制，以及政府消费占GNP的高比例。

②存在高通货膨胀的历史。

在许多国家，政府无法仅仅通过税收来支付其沉重的支出和国有企业的亏损，逃税行为盛行，许多经济活动转入地下，所以最简单的办法就是印制钞票。

当政府连续扩大货币供应以提取较高水平的铸币税时，发展中国家就会发生通货膨胀甚至恶性通货膨胀。

③在国内金融市场自由化的国家，信贷机构往往比较脆弱。

银行会频繁地把借入的资金贷给不良的或者有很大风险的项目。

贷款的发放可能是建立在私人关系而不是未来收益的基础上，政府防范金融风险的措施，往往由于不能胜任、没有经验和直接的欺诈而失效。

④一般倾向于实行钉住汇率，或者至少是在政府大量干预下的管理浮动。

政府限制汇率波动的措施不仅体现了政府控制通货膨胀的愿望，也体现了政府对于浮动汇率可能会使得发展中国家的货币汇率在相对脆弱的市场上发生大幅度波动的担忧。

⑤自然资源或农业产品是许多发展中国家出口的重要组成部分。

⑥规避政府控制、税收和管制的动因会使得行贿和勒索等腐败行为在许多发展中国家盛行。

在某些情况下，地下经济活动的发展可以通过恢复一定程度上基于市场的资源配置而有助于提高经济效率，但是数据表明腐败和贫困是交织在一起的。

（3）发展中国家五种主要的外部融资渠道①债券融资。

发展中国家有时会通过向外国居民个人出售债券来为其赤字融资。

②银行融资。

20世纪70年代初到80年代末，发展中国家从发达国家的商业银行直接借入了大量资金。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第5章标准贸易模型5.1复习笔记1．开放经济的标准模型标准贸易模型建立在四个重要关系的基础之上：生产可能性边界和相对供给曲线之间的关系；相对价格和相对需求之间的关系；贸易条件（一个国家出口产品的价格除以进口产品的价格）对国家福利的影响；确定世界均衡的世界相对供给与相对需求之间的关系。

以下将逐一进行介绍。

（1）生产可能性边界和相对供给如图5-1所示，曲线TT 为一国的生产可能性边界。

点Q 是生产点，位于生产可能性边界所能接触到的最高的一条等价值线上。

图5-1产品相对价格确定社会产出可以在图5-1上用一系列等价值线来表示市场的产出价值，离原点越远的等价值线对应的产出价值就越高。

假定/C F P P 上升，则等价值线会变陡。

如图5-2所示，当棉布的相对价格从()1/C F P P 上升到()2/C F P P （从1VV 移动到2VV ）时，等价值线变陡。

这时，社会将生产更多的棉布和更少的粮食，均衡产出点将从点1Q 移动到点2Q 。

图5-2棉布相对价格的上升如何影响相对供给（2）相对价格和相对需求如图5-3所示，点Q 是生产点，点D 是消费点。

该国生产的棉布比消费的棉布多，因而出口棉布；相应的，消费的粮食比生产的粮食多，因而进口粮食。

图5-3标准模型中的生产、消费和贸易图5-4说明了相对价格/C F P P 上升所产生的影响。

当相对价格/C F P P 上升时，所有的等价值曲线变得更陡，最大价值线会从1VV 移到2VV ；生产点会从点1Q 移动到点2Q ；消费点会从点1D 移动到点2D 。

图5-4棉布相对价格上升产生的影响从点1D 到点2D 的移动反映了/C F P P 上升所产生的两个影响：①消费移动到了一条更高的无差异曲线上，社会福利改善了——收入效应。

②相对价格的变动会使得消费点随无差异曲线向靠近粮食、背离棉布的方向移动——替代效应。

（3）贸易条件改变对福利的影响贸易条件对国家福利的影响可以在图5-4中得到说明。

第5章标准贸易模型一、概念题1．偏向型增长（biased growth）答：偏向型增长是指生产可能性边界在一个方向上扩张的幅度大于在另一方向上扩张的幅度的一种经济增长方式。

经济发生偏向型增长的原因有：某个生产部门技术的进步；某种生产要素供给的增加或国家利用资源效率的提高等等。

在其他条件不变时，偏向型增长的直接影响是导致偏向扩张的产品的世界相对供给增加。

例如，图5-1（a）说明了偏向于X产品的经济增长，图5-1（b）说明了偏向于Y产品的经济增长。

图5-1 偏向型增长2．内部价格（internal price）答：内部价格是“外部价格”的对称，是指在国际贸易中相对于国际市场价格的产品的国内市场价格。

在各国的贸易活动中，政府经常借助于各种关税或补贴等政策措施来实现有利于本国经济的目标。

这些贸易政策会导致同种产品在国内市场和国际市场上具有不同的价格，其中产品在国内市场上的价格称为“内部价格”，而相对于国内市场价格的国际市场价格称为“外部价格”。

3．出口偏向型增长（export-biased growth）答：出口偏向型增长是指一国的经济增长主要源于出口产品生产能力提高的增长方式，表现在生产可能性边界上就是使生产可能性边界扩张偏向于出口产品。

一国的经济增长意味着该国生产能力的提高，从而使该国能够生产更多的产品。

对于不同产品而言，其生产能力的提高幅度可能是不相同的。

如果一国出口产品生产能力的提高幅度超过了其他类产品，那么这种经济增长方式就是出口偏向型增长。

4．等价值线（iso value lines）答：等价值线是描述市场产出价值的曲线，同一条等价值线的产出价值相等且不变。

例如，如图5-2所示，有两种产品A和B，价格分别是A P和B P，产量是A Q和B Q，那么等价值线是由等式A A B B+=所确定的。

V越大，等价值线的位置离原点越远，对应的产P Q P Q V出价值就越高。

图5-2 等价值线5．出口补贴（export subsidy）答：出口补贴是指国家为了降低出口商品的价格，提高其在国际市场上的竞争能力，对出口商品给予的现金补贴或财政上的优惠待遇。

Overview of Section I:International Trade TheorySection I of the text is comprised of six chapters:Chapter 2World Trade: An OverviewChapter 3Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage: The Ricardian ModelChapter 4Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income DistributionChapter 5The Standard Trade ModelChapter 6Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International TradeChapter 7International Factor MovementsSection I OverviewSection I of the text presents the theory of international trade. The intent of this section is to explorethe motives for and implications of patterns of trade between countries. The presentation proceeds by introducing successively more general models of trade, where the generality is provided by increasing the number of factors used in production, by increasing the mobility of factors of production across sectorsof the economy, by introducing more general technologies applied to production, and by examining different types of market structure. Throughout Section I, policy concerns and current issues are usedto emphasize the relevance of the theory of international trade for interpreting and understanding our economy.Chapter 2 gives a brief overview of world trade. In particular, it discusses what we know about the quantities and pattern of world trade today. The chapter uses the empirical relationship known asthe gravity model as a framework to describe trade. This framework describes trade as a function of the size of the economies involved and their distance. It can then be used to see where countries are trading more or less than expected. The chapter also notes the growth in world trade over the previous decades and uses the previous era of globalization (pre-WWI) as context for today’s experie nce.Chapter 3 introduces you to international trade theory through a framework known as the Ricardian model of trade. This model addresses the issue of why two countries would want to trade with each other. This model shows how mutually-beneficial trade arises when there are two countries, each with one factor of production which can be applied toward producing each of two goods. Key concepts are introduced, such as the production possibilities frontier, comparative advantage versus absolute advantage, gains from trade, relative prices, and relative wages across countries.Chapter 4 introduces what is known as the classic Heckscher-Ohlin model of international trade. Using this framework, you can work through the effects of trade on wages, prices and output. Many important and intuitive results are derived in this chapter including: the Rybczynski Theorem, the Stolper-Samuelson Theorem, and the Factor Price Equalization Theorem. Implications of the Heckscher-Ohlin model for the pattern of trade among countries are discussed, as are the failures of empirical evidence to confirmthe predictions of the theory. The chapter also introduces questions of political economy in trade. One4 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Editionimportant reason for this addition to the model is to consider the effects of trade on income distribution. This approach shows that while nations generally gain from international trade, it is quite possible that specific groups within these nations could be harmed by this trade. This discussion, and related questions about protectionism versus globalization, becomes broader and even more interesting as you work through the models and different assumptions of subsequent chapters.Chapter 5 presents a general model of international trade which admits the models of the previous chapters as special cases. This “standard trade model” is depicted graphically by a general equilibrium trade model as applied to a small open economy. Relative demand and relative supply curves are used to analyze a variety of policy issues, such as the effects of economic growth, the transfer problem, and the effects of trade tariffs and production subsidies. The appendix to the chapter develops offer curve analysis.While an extremely useful tool, the standard model of trade fails to account for some important aspectsof international trade. Specifically, while the factor proportions Heckscher-Ohlin theories explain some trade flows between countries, recent research in international economics has placed an increasing emphasis on economies of scale in production and imperfect competition among firms.Chapter 6 presents models of international trade that reflect these developments. The chapter begins by reviewing the concept of monopolistic competition among firms, and then showing the gains from trade which arise in such imperfectly competitive markets. Next, internal and external economies of scale in production and comparative advantage are discussed. The chapter continues with a discussion of the importance of intra-industry trade, dumping, and external economies of production. The subject matterof this chapter is important since it shows how gains from trade arise in ways that are not suggested by the standard, more traditional models of international trade. The subject matter also is enlightening given the increased emphasis on intra-industry trade in industrialized countries.Chapter 7 focuses on international factor mobility. This departs from previous chapters which assumed that the factors of production available for production within a country could n ot leave a country’s borders. Reasons for and the effects of international factor mobility are discussed in the context of a one-factor (labor) production and trade model. The analysis of the international mobility of labor motivates a further discussion of international mobility of capital. The international mobility of capital takes the form of international borrowing and lending. This facilitates the discussion of inter-temporal production choices and foreign direct investment behavior.Chapter 2World Trade: An Overview⏹Chapter OrganizationWho Trades with Whom?Size Matters: the Gravity ModelThe Logic of the Gravity ModelUsing the Gravity Model: Looking for AnomaliesImpediments to Trade: Distance, Barriers, and BordersThe Changing Pattern of World TradeHas the World Gotten SmallerWhat Do We Trade?Service OutsourcingDo Old Rules Still Apply?Summary⏹Key ThemesBefore entering into a series of theoretical models that explain why countries trade across borders and the benefits of this trade (Chapters 3–11), Chapter 2 considers the pattern of world trade which we observe today. The core idea of the chapter is the empirical model known as the gravity model. The gravity model is based on the observations that: (1) countries tend to trade with other nearby economies and (2) countries’ trade is proportional to their size. The model is called the gravity model as it is similar in form to the physics equation that describes the pull of one body on another as proportional to their size and distance.The basic form of the gravity equation is T ij=A⨯Y i⨯Y j/D ij. The logic supporting this equation is that large countries have large incomes to spend on imports and produce a large quantity of goods to sell as exports. This means that the larger either trade partner, the larger the volume of trade between them. At the same time, the distance between two trade partners can substitute for the transport costs that they face as well as proxy for more intangible aspects of a trading relationship such as the ease of contact for firms. This model can be used to estimate the predicted trade between two countries and look for anomalies in trade patterns. The text shows an example where the gravity model can be used to demonstrate the importance of national borders in determining trade flows. According to many estimates, the border between the U.S. and Canada has the impact on trade equivalent to roughly 2000 miles of distance. Other factors, such as tariffs, trade agreements, and common language can all affect trade and can be incorporated into the gravity model.6 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionThe chapter also considers the way trade has evolved over time. While people often feel that the modern era has seen unprecedented globalization, in fact, there is precedent. From the end of the 19th century to World War I, the economies of different countries were quite connected. Trade as a share of GDP was higher in 1910 than 1960, and only recently have trade levels surpassed the pre World War trade. The nature of trade has change though. The majority of trade is in manufactured goods with agriculture and mineral products (and oil) making up less than 20% of world trade. Even developing countries now export primarily manufactures. In contrast, a century ago, more trade was in primary products as nations tended to trade for things that literally could not be grown or found at home. Today, the reasons for trade are more varied and the products we trade are ever changing (for example, the rise in trade of things like call centers). The chapter concludes by focusing on o ne particular expansion of what is “tradable”—the increase in services trade. Modern information technology has greatly expanded what can be traded as the person staffing a call center, doing your accounting, or reading your X-ray can literally be half-way around the world. While still relatively rare, the potential for a large increase in service outsourcing is an important part of how trade will evolve in the coming decades. The next few chapters will explain the theory of why nations trade.Answers to Textbook Problems1. We saw that not only is GDP important in explaining how much two countries trade, but also,distance is crucial. Given its remoteness, Australia faces relatively high costs of transporting imports and exports, thereby reducing the attractiveness of trade. Since Canada has a border with a largeeconomy (the U.S.) and Australia is not near any other major economy, it makes sense that Canada would be more open and Australia more self-reliant.2. Mexico is quite close to the U.S., but it is far from the European Union (EU). So it makes sense thatit trades largely with the U.S. Brazil is far from both, so its trade is split between the two. Mexico trades more than Brazil in part because it is so close to a major economy (the U.S.) and in partbecause it is a member of a free trade agreement with a large economy (NAFTA). Brazil is farther away from any large economy and is in a free trade agreement with relatively small countries.3. No, if every country’s GDP were to double, world trade woul d not quadruple. One way to see thisusing the example from Table 2-2 would simply be to quadruple all the trade flows in 2-2 and also double the GDP in 2-1. We would see that the first line of Table 2-2 would be—, 6.4, 1.6, 1.6. If that were true, Country A would have exported $8 trillion which is equal to its entire GDP. Likewise, it would have imported $8 trillion, meaning it had zero spending on its own goods (highly unlikely). If instead we filled in Table 2-2 as before, by multiplying the appropriate shares of the world economy times a country’s GDP, we would see the first line of Table 2-2 reads—, 3.2, 0.8, 0.8. In this case, 60% of Country A’s GDP is exported, the same as before. The logic is that while the world GDP has doubled, increasing the likelihood of international trade, the local economy has doubled, increasing the likelihood of domestic trade. The gravity equation still holds. If you fill in the entire table, you will see that where before the equation was 0.1 ⨯ GDP i⨯ GDP j, it now is 0.05 ⨯ GDP i⨯ GDP j. The coefficient on each GDP is still one, but the overall constant has changed.4. As the share of world GDP which belongs to East Asian economies grows, then in every traderelationship which involves an East Asian economy, the size of the East Asian economy has grown.This makes the trade relationships with East Asian countries larger over time. The logic is similar for why the countries trade more with one another. Previously, they were quite small economies, meaning that their markets were too small to import a substantial amount. As they became morewealthy and the consumption demands of their populace rose, they were each able to importmore. Thus, while they previously had focused their exports to other rich nations, over time, they became part of the rich nation club and thus were targets for one another’s exports. Again, using the gravity model, when South Korea and Taiwan were both small, the product of their GDPs was quite small, meaning despite their proximity, there was little trade between them. Now that they have both grown considerably, their GDPs predict a considerable amount of trade.Chapter 2 World Trade: An Overview 7 5. As the chapter discusses, a century ago, much of world trade was in commodities that in many wayswere climate or geography determined. Thus, the UK imported goods that it could not make itself.This meant importing things like cotton or rubber from countries in the Western Hemisphere or Asia.As the UK’s climate and natural resource endowments were fairly similar to those in the rest of E urope, it had less of a need to import from other European countries. In the aftermath of the IndustrialRevolution, where manufacturing trade accelerated and has continued to expand with improvements in transportation and communications, it is not surprising that the UK would turn more to the nearby and large economies in Europe for much of its trade. This is a direct prediction of the gravity model.。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第8版笔记和课后习题详解第12章国民收入核算与国际收支平衡12.1复习笔记1．国民收入账户（1）GNP宏观经济分析的主要着眼点是一国的国民生产总值（GNP），它是一国的生产要素在一定时期内所生产并在市场上卖出的最终商品和服务的价值总量。

GNP是宏观经济学家研究一国产出时所用的基本度量手段，由花费在最终产品上的支出的市场价值量加总而得到。

GNP的支出与劳动、资本以及其他生产要素紧密相连。

根据购买最终产品的四种可能用途，GNP可以分解为以下四个部分：消费（国内居民私人消费的数额）、投资（私人企业为进行再生产而留下的用于购买厂房设备的数额）、政府购买（政府使用的数额）和经常项目余额（对外净出口的商品和服务的数额）。

（2）国民收入国民收入等于GNP减去折旧，加上净单边转移支付，再减去间接商业税。

即：国民收入＝GNP－折旧＋净单边转移支付－间接商业税在实际经济中，要使GNP和国民收入的恒等关系完全成立，必须对GNP的定义作一定调整：①GNP不考虑机器和建筑物在使用过程中由于磨损而引起的经济损失。

这部分经济损失称为折旧，折旧减少了资本所有者的收入。

为了计算一定时期的国民收入，必须从GNP 中减去这一时期资本的折旧。

GNP减去折旧后称为国民生产净值（NNP）。

②一国的收入可能会包括外国居民的赠与，这种赠与称为单边转移支付。

单边转移支付的例子包括向居住在国外的退休公民支付养老金、赔偿支付和对遭受旱灾国家的救济援助等。

净单边转移支付是一国收入的一部分，但不是一国产出的一部分，因此，净单边转移支付，必须加到NNP中以计算国民收入。

③国民收入取决于生产者获得的产品价格，GNP则取决于购买者所支付的价格。

但是，这两组价格并不是完全一致的，例如，销售税会使得购买者的支付大于销售者的收入，导致GNP被高估，超过了国民收入。

这部分税收被称为间接商业税。

在计算国民收入时，这部分间接商业税必须从GNP中减去。