鲁文·兹瓦特的翻译描述模式

摘要：本文介绍了当今西方翻译研究的一个重要的学派——描写学派的起源、成长与成熟的过程，以及这个学派的特点。

文章论述了描写翻译学派对中国翻译理论研究的现实意义。

文章认为描写学派可以为各种各样的翻译定位、拓宽翻译研究的领域并丰富翻译实践的手段。

关键词：规范；描写；翻译研究Abstract: This paper traces the origin, growth and development of des criptive translation studies, one of the most influential schools of thought in translation studies in the West today. Following a brief des cription of its major characteristics, the paper dwells on the school’s relevance to the Chinese translators. The point is made that the des criptive theory can explain the orientation of all kinds of translations, broaden the scope of the field of study and enrich the practice of translation in China.Key words: pres criptive; des criptive; translation studies翻译研究，从一开始的归纳式的经验总结，如严复的信、达、雅，即用自己从翻译实践中得来的经验，浓缩成警句式的“标准”，传授给后人，让别人照着去做；到后来的演绎式的科学研究，如奈达的动态对等，即利用语言学的一些基本原理。

鲁文·兹瓦特翻译转移模式评述摘要：1989~1990年，荷兰学者鲁文·兹瓦特提出了自己的翻译研究模式：比较模式和描写模式。

比较模式即微观结构模式，在比较模式中，鲁文·兹瓦特主要研究翻译转移，并列出了三种翻译转移类型：调适、调整和变异。

比较模式强调对译文和原文进行客观、全面和细致的比较与描写，特别就句子层面以下的语言微观变化树立较为科学的衡量标准。

描写模式即宏观结构模式，适用于文学翻译研究。

关键词：鲁文·兹瓦特；翻译转移；比较模式；描写模式20世纪50年代开始，语言学被用于分析翻译，试图用详尽的例子与分类来说明翻译的过程。

翻译转移，简言之就是原文与译文之间发生在语言层面的一切变化。

50年代末，法国翻译学者维内和达波内特对翻译策略的两种分类(含七个翻译步骤)产生了广泛的影响，成为经典模式。

60年代，卡特福德(Cartford)首先提出“转换”的概念，他认为翻译有两类转换：层次转换和范畴转换，但不少学者批评他“选用的例子过于理想化，多为杜撰而并非真实译文，且难以超越句子层面来进行通篇分析”［1］62。

60~70年代，捷克学者的研究进一步发展了翻译转移，列维(Levy)将译者语言选择的“渐进语义转换”与“博弈理论”联系起来；波波维奇(Popovic)解释转换的出现“并非是译者希望改变一篇文章，而是他努力尽可能忠实地重现它，试图把它作为一个有机的整体来完整地掌握它”［2］80；米科(Miko)则着重讨论翻译中“表述转换”以及风格的不同理论方面，他认为，“保留源文本的表述特点或风格是译者主要的也许是唯一的目标。

”［3］66在对翻译转移的种种研究模式中，鲁文·兹瓦特(Leuven-Zwart)的模式被认为是最明晰、最广泛、最详尽的翻译分析模式［1］63-65。

然而，我国对她在翻译研究上做出的成绩显然关注不够，更谈不上研究运用了。

鲁文·兹瓦特的研究模式由比较模式和描写模式两部分组成，比较模式涉及源语与目标语之间的细节比较，是微观结构转换(包括句子、从句和词组的层面)；描写模式是宏观结构转换(包括诸如人物塑造风格或叙事角度的变化的层面)，适用于文学翻译研究。

【托福写作素材】常用例证之名人事迹篇-瓦特 (Watt)托福写作论证过程中我们往往需要举例说明一些问题，但又苦于没有合适的素材，尤其是关于有说服力的名人事例。

那么，在以下内容中，我们就为大家整理一下关于名人的素材案例，希望能为大家的备考带来帮助。

瓦特 (Watt)British engineer and inventor who made fundamental improvements in the steam engine, resulting in the modern, high-pressure steam engine (patented 1769).瓦特，詹姆斯1736-1819英国工程师和发明家，他对蒸汽机做出了基础性的改进，使之发展成现代的高压蒸汽机(1769年获得专利)参考事迹：提起瓦特，大家都可能认为是蒸汽机的发明家，其实早在瓦特之前，已经有比较粗糙的蒸汽机了，不过经过瓦特的改造，效率大大提高，引发了人类历史上第一次技术革命，推动了工业革命的运行。

因为蒸汽机，瓦特从一个一贫如洗的穷小子成了名利双收的人物，他在11年里就获得了76,000 英镑专利税，为了保护自己的专利，他到晚年显得非常不爽，经常到法院起诉，阻止和压制别人的发明，甚至不许自己的助手去试验用蒸汽发动四轮车。

这是一个科学家的悲剧，不过对GRE考生来说是好事情，找着专家批了!轶事：小时候看到一壶水开了，蒸汽把壶盖冲的扑扑跳，这种常人司空见惯的现象却引起了小瓦特的浓厚兴趣，目不转睛的盯着水壶，忘了把它提下来，为此被大人说成”懒孩子”利用点：”The people who make important contributions to society are generally not those who develop their own new ideas, but those who are most gifted at perceiving and coordinating the talents and skills of others.”以及所有专家，权威的话题。

英语作文鲁迅先生的人生经历1. Can you introduce the life of Lu Xun briefly?Lu Xun was a prominent Chinese writer, thinker, andsocial critic in the early 20th century. He was born in Shaoxing, Zhejiang Province in 1881 and died in Shanghai in 1936. He is considered the father of modern Chineseliterature and the most important figure in modern Chinese intellectual history.鲁迅是中国著名的作家、思想家和社会评论家，出生于1881年的浙江绍兴，于1936年在上海去世。

他被认为是现代中国文学之父，是现代中国知识分子史上最重要的人物。

2. What were some major events that influenced Lu Xun's life and work?Lu Xun lived during a time of great political and social upheaval in China, including the collapse of the Qing dynasty, the rise of nationalism and communism, and the invasion of Japan. These events had a profound impact onhis life and work. He witnessed the suffering andoppression of the Chinese people and was deeply critical ofthe traditional Confucian culture that he believed had contributed to their plight.在鲁迅的生命和工作中，发生了很多重大事件，包括清朝的崩溃、民族主义和共产主义的崛起、以及日本的侵略。

立法文本中的翻译转移现象分析王建辉(湖南农业大学外国语学院,湖南长沙410128)摘 要:翻译转移是翻译活动中不可避免的现象,普遍存在于各类文体翻译中。

把翻译转移和法律翻译结合起来,对立法文本中的翻译转移现象进行描述性研究。

翻译转移可从微观角度和宏观角度分析,微观层次的翻译转移可分为层次转移、单位转移、结构转移、类型转移和系统转移,而宏观层次的翻译转移可分为语义转移和语用转移。

通过众多实例的分析,指出评判翻译转移的可接受性标准是语言标准和法律标准。

关键词:立法文本; 翻译转移; 转移类型; 翻译标准中图分类号:H31519 文献标识码:A 文章编号:1671-9743(2007)01-0110-02An Analysis of Translation Shifts in Legislative TextsW ANG Jian-hui(Foreign Language Colle ge,H unan Agriculture University ,Changsha,H unan 410128)Abstract :The occurrence of translation shift is an unavoidable phenomenon in translation of various bining translation shifts wi th the translation of legislative texts,this paper makes a descrip tive analysis of translation shifts in legislative texts,and it is pointed out translation shifts in the English translations of Chinese legislative texts should be analyzed from both micro and macro perspectives.Level shifts,uni t shi fts,structure shifts,class shi fts and system shifts are supposed to be present at micro level;semantic shifts and pragmatic shifts can be identified at macro level.Numerous instances from several Chinese laws and regulations are exemplified.Lingui stic and legal criteria are norms that govern the acceptability of the translation shifts.Key words :legislative texts; translation shift; types of shifts; translation criterion收稿日期:2006-11-02作者简介:王建辉(1970-),男,湖南益阳人,湖南农业大学外国语学院讲师,硕士,从事翻译理论与实践方面的研究。

⽣态⽂学与⽣态翻译学_解构与建构在当今这个全球化的时代，随着各民族之间⽂化交流的⽇益频繁，翻译的作⽤已经变得越来越不可缺少。

因⽽对翻译的研究也就⽆可置疑地被提到了学术研究的议事⽇程上。

翻译研究(translation studies)，或翻译学(translatology)，在经历过⽂化转向后将向何处发展，已经成为国内外翻译研究者们共同思考的⼀个问题。

在过去的⼏⼗年⾥，通过学者们的共同努⼒，翻译学或翻译研究有了长⾜的发展，它终于在学科的版图上确⽴了⾃⼰的地位，⽽且正在朝着⼀门相对独⽴和成熟的⼈⽂社会科学分⽀学科的⽅向发展。

⽣态翻译学应该算是翻译研究的⼀个分⽀学科。

我们现在已经看到⼀个不容忽视的现象，也即⽣态翻译学，伴随着另⼀些研究⽂学的⽣态学理论和批评⽅法正在翻译学界崛起，它强有⼒地对传统的⽂学和⽂化翻译以及翻译研究本⾝的教义形成了挑战。

但是在当代翻译研究领域内，仍有相当⼀部分学者对这⼀分⽀学科的意义和⽣命⼒持怀疑态度，其理由主要在于⽣态学之应⽤于⼈⽂学科，确切地说⽤于⽂学研究，只是近⼀、⼆⼗年的事，它究竟拥有多少学科意义上的合法性还须论证。

但作为⼀种实验性的研究⽅法和视⾓，它已经被证明⾃有其合理之处，最近⼆⼗多年来⽣态批评在西⽅和中国的⽐较⽂学和⽂学理论批评界的风⾏就是其不可忽视的明证。

鉴于⽣态翻译学的研究事实上已经存在于翻译学的实践中，因此本⽂⾸先要探讨的就是⽣态翻译学与⽂学的⽣态研究或⽣态批评的关系。

从⽣态写作到⽣态翻译提到⽣态翻译学，⼈们也许很快会想到当前在⽂学批评领域内⼗分活跃的⽣态批评。

那么究竟什么是⽣态批评呢？对此⼈们⼀直理解不⼀，这⾥暂且按照国内外学者已经基本达成的共识作⼀简单的概括，所谓⽣态批评就是从⽣态环境的视⾓来对⽂学现象进⾏批评性解读和阐释，它经过近⼆⼗年的实践已经逐步从⼀个问题导向的运动过渡到⼀种⽅法论导向的⽂学批评⽅法。

也即⽣态批评的对象就是以⽣态环境为题材的⽂学作品。

翻译理论1.西方翻译理论发轫于公元前1世纪，以古罗马帝国政治家和演说家西塞罗（Cicero,前106—43）发表的《论演说术》x标志。

2.中世纪时期从西罗马帝国崩溃起（476年）至15世纪文艺复兴止。

代表人物曼里乌?波伊提乌。

3.文艺复兴时期从14世纪末起至17世纪初止，代表人物：德西德利乌?伊拉斯谟，马丁?路德和乔治?查普曼。

4.近代时期从17世纪起直至第二次世界大战结束（黄金时代）。

代表人物：约翰?德莱顿，夏尔?巴托，亚历山大?弗雷泽?泰特勒，莱尔马赫，施雷格尔（August Sxhlegel,1767--1815）和洪堡。

5.现当代翻译理论时期从第二次世界大战结束起至今。

“翻译范围之广，形式之多，规模之大，成果之丰，是历史上任何时期都不能比拟的”（谭载喜?《西方翻译史》1991），四大学派：a、布拉格学派: 创始人是马西休斯,特鲁贝茨考伊和雅可布逊. 代表人物有雅可布逊和吉里?列维、乔治?穆南、冉佩尔特、维内. 主要论点是：（一）考虑语言的各种功能；（二）重视语言的比较，包括语义、语法、语音、语言风格及文学体裁方面的比较。

b、伦敦派: 创始人是弗斯. 代表人物弗斯、卡特福德、萨瓦里和纽马克. 主要论点是：译文的选词是否与原文等同，必须看它是否用于相同的言语环境中.c、美国结构派；d、交际理论派。

6. 柯平在《西方翻译理论浅析》介绍有六大学派：a、语言学派：代表安德烈?费道罗夫和巴尔胡达罗夫。

b、交际学派：现于7、80年代，代表奈达和雷伯恩。

其理论渊源是信息论c、美国翻译研讨班学派：d、文学—文化学派；e、结构学派；f、社会符号学派。

7.布拉格学派：创始人是马西休斯（Vilem Mathesius,1882—1938）和两名俄国移民特鲁贝茨考伊（Nikolay S·Trubetskoy,1890--1938）和雅可布逊（Roman Jakobson, 1896--1982）。

主要代表人物有解渴的雅可布逊和吉里·列维（Jiri Levy）、法国的乔治·穆南（George Mounin）、德国的冉佩尔特（R·Jumpelt）、加拿大的维内（Jean-Paul Vinay），其中最有影响的是罗曼·雅可布逊和列维。

瓦特发明蒸汽机的英语作文The Invention of the Steam Engine by James WattThe steam engine is undoubtedly one of the most significant inventions in human history, revolutionizing the way we power our machines and transform our environment. At the forefront of this technological revolution was the brilliant Scottish engineer James Watt, whose groundbreaking work in the late 18th century laid the foundation for the widespread adoption of steam power.Born in 1736 in Greenock, Scotland, Watt's early life was marked by a keen interest in science and a natural aptitude for problem-solving. As a young man, he studied mathematics and engineering, honing his skills and developing a deep understanding of the principles of mechanics and thermodynamics. It was during this formative period that Watt first encountered the steam engine, a technology that had been in use for centuries but had yet to reach its full potential.The steam engine as it existed in Watt's time was a cumbersome and inefficient device, plagued by numerous design flaws and limitations. The Newcomen engine, which was the predominant model at the time, was known for its high fuel consumption and limited poweroutput, making it unsuitable for many industrial applications. Recognizing the need for a more efficient and versatile steam engine, Watt set out to revolutionize the technology.Watt's breakthrough came in 1765 when he was tasked with repairing a Newcomen engine at the University of Glasgow. As he worked on the engine, Watt observed that a significant amount of the steam's energy was being wasted in the process of heating and cooling the engine's cylinder. This realization led him to develop a radical new design that incorporated a separate condenser, which allowed the steam to be cooled and condensed without affecting the temperature of the cylinder.Watt's innovation was a game-changer. By separating the condensation process from the power stroke, he was able to dramatically improve the engine's efficiency, reducing fuel consumption by as much as 75%. This not only made the steam engine a more practical and cost-effective technology but also opened up a wide range of new applications, from powering factories and mills to driving steamships and locomotives.Watt's contributions to the development of the steam engine did not stop there. Over the next two decades, he continued to refine and improve his design, incorporating a series of additional innovations that further enhanced the engine's performance and versatility.These included the addition of a rotary motion mechanism, which allowed the engine to be used for a wider range of industrial applications, and the development of a more efficient and reliable valve system.The impact of Watt's work on the industrial revolution cannot be overstated. The steam engine, powered by his revolutionary designs, became the driving force behind the mechanization of industry, enabling the mass production of goods and the rapid expansion of transportation networks. Factories, mills, and mines that had once relied on water power or manual labor were now able to operate on a much larger scale, dramatically increasing productivity and output.Moreover, the steam engine's impact extended far beyond the industrial sector. The development of steamships and locomotives transformed the way people and goods were transported, shrinking distances and opening up new markets and trade routes. The steam engine also played a crucial role in the expansion of the British Empire, powering the ships that carried colonial administrators and resources to the far corners of the globe.Watt's contributions to the steam engine were not just technical in nature; they also had significant social and economic implications. The increased productivity and efficiency enabled by the steam engine helped to drive the growth of the middle class, as factoryowners and industrialists amassed wealth and power. At the same time, the engine's impact on transportation and trade had far-reaching consequences, contributing to the rise of global capitalism and the increasing interconnectedness of the world.Despite the undeniable impact of his work, Watt remained a humble and unassuming figure throughout his life. He was not driven by a desire for fame or recognition, but rather by a deep passion for science and a commitment to improving the lives of those around him. Watt's legacy is one of innovation, perseverance, and a profound understanding of the power of technology to transform the world.Today, the steam engine remains an iconic symbol of the industrial revolution, and Watt's contributions to its development are celebrated by engineers, historians, and the general public alike. His legacy continues to inspire new generations of innovators and problem-solvers, who seek to harness the power of technology to tackle the challenges of the modern world.。