lecture8语言学

专八语言学考点语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。

2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。

3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。

5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。

6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。

7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。

三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。

Chapter8语言学Chapter 8 Language in UseWhat is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speakerand the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.8.1 Speech act theory8.1.1 Performatives and constatives1. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, suchas Watch out (= a warning).2. Constative: An utterance which asserts something that is either true or force.E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity conditions of performatives:(1) There must be a relevant conventional procedure, and the relevantparticipants and circumstances must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very often, the relevant people must have the requisite thoughts, feelingsand intentions, and must follow it up with actions as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutionary act1. What is a speech act?A speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. In speechact theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning): This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and structureswhich the utterance contains.Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force): This is the effect the utterance or written text has on the reader or listener. E.g. in I’m thirsty, the propositionalmeaning is what the utterance says about the speaker’s physical state. Theillocutionary force is the effect the speaker wants the utterance to have on thelistener. It may be intended as request for something to drink.A speech act is asentence or utterance which has both propositional meaning and illocutionaryforce.A speech act which is performed indirectly is sometimes known as an indirectspeech act, such as the speech act of the requesting above. Indirect speech acts areoften felt to be more polite ways of performing certain kinds of speech act, such asrequests and refusals.2. Locutionary act: A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech actsbetween three different types of acts involved in or caused by the utterance ofa sentence. A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningfuland can be understood.3. Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform afunction.4. Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that areproduced by means of saying something.8.2 The theory of conversational implicature8.2.1 The cooperative principle1. The cooperative principle (CP)Cooperative principle refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims during the conversation. There are four conversational maxims:(1) The maxim of quantity:a. Make your contribution as informative as required.b. Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality: Try to make your contribution one that is true.a. Don’t say what you believe to be false.b. Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation: Say things that are relevant.(4) The maxim of manner: Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expression.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to implymeaning during conversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims[In fact this is taken from one of my essays. Only for reference. ^_^ - icywarmtea]1. Conversational implicatureIn our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with eachother, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to misleadthem. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having aconversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withholdrelevant information from one another.However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words iscalled conversational implicature. For example:[1] A: Can you tell me the time?B: Well, the milkman has come.In this little conversation, A is asking B about the time, but B is not answering directly. That indicates that B may also not no the accurate time, but throughsaying “the milkman has come”, he is in fact giving a rough time. T he answer Bgives is related to the literal meaning of the words, but is not merely that. That isoften the case in communication. The theory of conversational implicature is forthe purpose of explaining how listeners infer the speakers’ intention through thewords.2. The CPThe study of conversational implicature starts from Grice (1967), the American philosopher. He thinks, in daily communication, people are observing aset of basic rules of cooperating with each other so as to communicate effectivelythrough conversation. He calls this set of rules the cooperative principle (CP)elaborated in four sub-principles (maxims). That is the cooperative principle.We assume that people are normally going to provide an appropriate amount of information, i.e. they are telling the relevant truth clearly. The cooperativeprinciple given by Grice is an idealized case of communication.However, there are more cases that speakers are not fullyadhering to the principles. But the listener will assume that the speaker is observing the principles“in a deeper degree”. For example:[2] A: Where is Bill?B: There is a yellow car outside Sue’s house.In [2], the speaker B seems to be violating the maxims of quantity and relation, but we also assume that B is still observing the CP and think about the relationshipbetween A’s question and the “yellow car” in B’s answer. If Bill has a yellow car,he may be in Sue’s house.If a speaker violate CP by the principle itself, there is no conversation at all, so there cannot be implicature. Implicature can only be caused by violating one ormore maxims.3. Violation of the CP(1) The people in conversation may violate one or more maxims secretly. Inthis way, he may mislead the listener.For this case, in the conversation [2] above, we assume that B is observing the CP and Bill has a yellow car. But if B is intentionally trying tomislead A to think that Bill is in Sue’s house, we will be misled without knowing. In this case, if one “lies” in conversation, there is no implicature in the conversation, only the misleading.(2) He may declare that he is not observing the maxims or the CP.In this kind of situation, the speaker directly declares he is not cooperating. He has made it clear that he does not want togo on with the conversation, so there is no implicature either.(3) He may fall into a dilemma.For example, for the purpose observing the first principle of the maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as is required), he may be violating the second principle of the maxim of quality (do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence).For this case, Grice gave an example:[3] A: Where does C live?B: Somewhere in the south of France.In [3], if B knows that A is going to visit C, his answer is violating the maxim of quantity, because he is not giving enough information about where C lives. But he has not declared that he will not observe the maxims. So we can know that B knows if he gives more information, he will violate the principle “do not say that for which you lack ad equate evidence”. In other words, he has fallen into a “dilemma”. So we can infer that his implicature is that he does not know the exact address of C. In this case, there is conversational implicature.(4) He may “flout” one or more maxims. In other w ord s, he may beobviously not observing them.The last situation is the typical case that can make conversational implicature. Once the participant in a conversation has made an implicature, he or she is making use one of the maxims. We can see that from the following examples:[4] A: Where are you going with the dog?B: To the V-E-T.In [4], the dog is known to be able to recognize the word “vet” and to hate being taken there. Therefore, A makes theword spelled out. Here he is “flouting” the maxim of mann er, making the implicature that he does not want the dog to know the answer to the question just asked.[5] (In a formal get-together)A: Mrs. X is an old bag.B: The weather has been quite delightful this summer, hasn’t it?B is intentionally violating the maxim of relation in [5], implicating thatwhat A has said is too rude and he should change a topic.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature1. Calculability2. Cancellability / defeasibility3. Non-detachability4. Non-conventionality8.3 Post-Gricean developments8.3.1 Relevance theoryThis theory was formally proposed by Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson in their book Relevance: Communication and Cognition in 1986. They argue that all Griceanmaxims, including the CP itself, should be reduced to a single principle of relevance,which is defined as: Every act of ostensive communication communicates thepresumption of its own optimal relevance.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principlesThese principles were developed by L. Horn in 1984. The Q-principle is intended to i nvoke the first maxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principle the relation maxim,but the new principles are more extensive than the Griceanmaxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based) is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity);(2) Say as much as you can (given R).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your contribution necessary (cf. Relation, Quantity-2, Manner);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principlesThis tripartite model was suggested by S. Levinson mainly in his 1987 paper Pragmatics and the Grammar of Anaphor: A Partial Pragmatic Reduction of Bindingand Control Phenomena. The contents of these principles are: Q-principle:Speaker’s maxim: Do not provide a statemen t that is informationally weaker than your knowledge of the world allows, unless providing a stronger statement wouldcontravene the I-principle.Recipient’s corollary: Take it that the speaker made the strongest statement consistent with what he knows, and therefore that:(1) If the speaker asserted A (W), and form a Horn scale, such that A (S) ||(A (W)), then one can infer K ~ (A (S)), i.e. that the speaker knows that the strongerstatement would be false.(2) If the speaker asserted A (W) and A (W) fails to entail an embedded sentenceQ, which a stronger statement A (S) would entail, and {S, W} form a contrast set, thenone can infer ~ K (Q), i.e. the speaker does not know whether Q obtains or not.I-principleSpeaker’s maxim: the maxim of minimizationSay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your communicational ends.Recipient’s corollary: the enrichment ruleAmplify the informational content of the speaker’s utterance, by finding the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker’s m-intended point.M-principleSpeaker’s maxim: Do not use a prolix, obscure or marked expression without reason.Recipient’s corollary: If the speaker used a prolix or marked expression M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U –specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.。

语言学导论第8、9讲语言学导论第八讲Lexical ChangeNew words or expressions are created through the following processed, apart from compound and derivationInvention 新创词语Many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names, such as Kodak, Sony, Cadillac, Omega, Coke, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.Blending 混成法It is a process in which a compound is made by blending parts of two words.1) by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word.2) by joining the initial parts of the two words1) motel from motor+hotelbrunch from breakfast+lunchsmog from smoke+fogtelecast from television+broadcastpositron from positive+electrontransistor from transfer+resisterheliport from helicopter+airportcremains from cremated+remains2) telex from teleprinter+exchange(电传)modem from modulator+demodulator(调制解调器)anacom from analog+computer(分析计算机)digicom from digital+computer(数码计算机)glasphalt from glass+asphalt(玻璃沥青)insulac from insulating+lacquer(隔热漆)Abbreviation (Clipping) 缩写词It refers to the process whereby a word is shortened withouta change in the meaning and in the part of speech.1) the end of the word is removed.2) the beginning of the word is discarded.3) both ends of the word are dropped.1) ad from advertisementbike from bicycleexam from examinationfan from fanaticlab from laboratorymath from mathematicsprof from professortelly from television2) plane from aeroplanecopter from helicoptervan from caravanbus from omnibusphone from telephone3) flu from influenzafridge from refrigeratortec from detectiveAcronym 缩略语It is the process by which words are formed by putting the initial letters of several words together. 1）They are pronounced as a new word.TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign LanguageTESOL Teaching English to the Speakers of Other Languages ELTS English Language Testing Service2) They are pronounced as a sequence of letters:BBCBritish Broadcasting CorporationVOAV oice of AmericaWTOWorld Trade OrganizationBack Formation 逆构词法It is an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. It may be regarded as the opposite case of suffixation.difficult from difficultyhousekeep from housekeeperedit from editordonate from donationtelevise from televisiontypewrite from typewriterbabysit from babysitterhawk from hawkerenthuse from enthusiasmlase from laserAnalogical Creation 类推构词It is a process to apply already existed grammatical rules to all environments. This process can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(词型变化) of some English words.Examples:old newwork wrought workedbeseech besought beseechedslay slew slayedBorrowing 借词It is a process in which a language widens her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.Borrowing can be done directly or indirectlyMany English words of Greek origin are borrowed via Latin or French.1) loanwords(借词): The borrowing of LOANWORDS is a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.au pair, coup d’etat from French(平等的, 互惠的; 改变, 武力夺取政权)al fresco(露天的, 户外的) from Italiantea, Tai’chi from Chinese2) Loanblend (混合借词): It is a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.coconut (“coco” from Spanish, “nut” English)Chinatown (“China” from Chinese,“town” from English)) Loanshift (转移借词): It is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.Bridge: English form, Italian meaning of a card gameartificial satellite: English form, but the meaning borrowed from Russian “sputnik”.4) Loan translation(翻译借词) or Calque(仿造词): It is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.English almighty from Latin omnipotensEnglish free verse from Latin verse libreEnglish Black humour from French humour noirPhonological Change(音位变化)It refers to changes in sound leading to changes in form.1) Loss (脱落): It refers to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system. It may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels.Addition(添加):Sounds may be added to the original sound sequence.Ra p scallion(流氓,恶棍): “p” was added inside the root “rascal”.Japanese language is good at adding a vowel to each of the consonants to form syllables. “sutoraiki” is from English”strike”.3) Metathesis (换位): It is a process involving an alternation in the sequence of sounds. It had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.“bird” from “brid” in O.E.“ask” from “/aks/” in O.E.“tax” and “task” were etymologically ralated.4) Assimilation (同化): It refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound. It can be explained by “the theory of least effort”.For example:im mobile, ir revocable, il legal, etc.Morphological Change (形态变化)Words may change their forms on the side of inflectional affixes(屈折词缀形式的形态变化) The present tense of third person singular in O.E. was “-eth”, and the second person singular w as “-est”. E.g. “do(e)th, goeth, findeth”; “do(e)st, playest, hearest”.(…s) form in O.E. (of phrase) in M.E.(tendency to restore old forms now.)e.g. the university?s campusChina?s modernizationSyntactical Change (句法变化)The syntactical features of words have changed much.Split infinitive:I have tried to consciously stop, worrying about it.Postponed preposition:That person is impossible to work with.Objective case of relative pronoun:The girl who he talked about is a violinist.Semantic Change (语义变化)1)Broadening(词义扩大)It is a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one.2)Narrowing (词义缩小)The original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense.1）2）3) Meaning Shift (词义转移)The meaning of the word changed as a result of its metaphorical usage(隐喻用法).e.g. bead: 祈祷—念珠—玻璃、金属、或木头的小圆珠子4) Class Shift (词性转换)The meaning of the word changed from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution by shifting the word class.(conversion变换, zero-derivation零派生）e.g. stump: 树桩—挑战5) Folk Etymology (俗词源)It refers to a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular notion of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.e.g. wiz(wizard的缩写形式）:神汉，男巫—行家、能手—whiz极其聪明的人，奇才Counterpoint of Phonology and Morphology音位学和形态学的对立A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound.A morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar.Morphophonology or Morphophonemics is the subject to study the “joint venture” of the two levels.1.A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical.a) boysb) boy?s phoneme /z/c) raisea) represents the plural morpheme, b) represents the morpheme of the possessive case, c) represents nothing at all.2. Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structures other than a single phoneme.A morpheme may be monophonemic, monosyllabic or polysyllabic.3. The syllabic (phonological) structure of a word and its morphemic(grammatical) structure do not necessarily correspond.汉语新词的构词特点：一以汉语中既有的构词材料和构词方式作为语言基础。

专八语言学整理语言学——戴炜栋（牟杨译本的学习指南）重要人物汇总1. Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔the founding father of modern structural linguistics 现代结构主义语言学创始人●提出语言language和言语speech的区别●词的横组合及纵聚合是其句法理论的重要部分Syntagmatic and Paradigmaticrelations is important part of Saussure’s syntactic theory.2. Noam Chomsky乔姆斯基：the founder of generative grammar生成语法创始人●1957简作TG Grammar的研究模式●普遍语法的概念3．Daniel Johns琼斯：the most famous system of Cardinal vowels最有名的标准元音系统4．M.A.K. Halliday英国语言学家韩礼德：系统功能语法Systemic-functional Grammar，与Chomsky提出的转换生成语法：Transformational-Generative grammar相区分5. Geoffrey Leech利奇：提出语义学Semantics的七种意义6. C. Morris he R. Carnap美国哲学家:将符号学Semiotics划分为三个分支7. J. Austin 和 J. Searle英国哲学家： Speech Act Theory：20世纪50年代认为语言不仅可以用来表述，更可以用来“做事doing things”，即“to do things with words”8. P.Grice格莱斯——美国哲学家：合作原则The Cooperative Principles9. Ogden and Richards 奥登和理查兹——semantic triangle or triangle of significance语义三角理论p63Chapter one Introduction1.语言学的定义:对语言进行的科学研究(the scientific study of language)2.语言学的范围语音学音位学语言学内部的主要分支形态学句法学语义学语用学社会语言学跨学科分支心理语言学应用语言学规定性与描写性共时性与历时性言语与文字3.语言学中的一些重要区分语言与言语语言能力与语言运用传统语法与现代语言学4.语言的定义5.语言的识别特征6.语言的作用术语双解1.linguistics(语言学)：Linguistics refers to the scientific study of language.对语言进行科学研究的学科。

专八加油↖(^ω^)↗语言学（缩略版）1 语言的四个特征:任意性（Arbitrariness），二重性（Duality），创造性（Creativity），移位性（Displacement）2 语言的七个功能：信息功能（Informative），人际功能（Interpersonal Function），施为功能（Performative），感情功能（Emotive Function），寒暄功能（Phatic Communion），娱乐功能（Recreation Function）元语言功能（Metalingual Function）3 语言学的主要分支：语音学（Phonetics），音系学（Phonology）形态学（Morphology），句法学（Syntax)，语义学（Semantics），语用学（Pragmatics），4 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）的分支：心理语言学（Psycholinguistics），社会语言学（Sociolinguistics），人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics，计算机语言学（Computational linguistics）5 规定式（Prescriptive）---描述事情应该是怎样的（describe how things ought to be）描写式（Descriptive）---描述事情本是怎样的（describe how thing are）6 共时研究（Synchronic）---以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象（takes a fixed instant as its point of observation）历时研究（Diachronic）---研究语言各个阶段的发展变化（Study of a language through the course of its history）7 语言（Langue）---说话者的语言能力(the linguistic competence of the speaker）言语（Parole）---语言的实际现象或语料（the actual phenomena or data of linguistic）----索绪尔（Saussure）区分8 语言能力（Competence）---理想语言使用者关于语言的知识储备（underlying knowledge)语言运用（Performance）---真实的语言使用者在实际场景中语言的使用（Actual use ofLanguage)----乔姆斯基（Chomsk）区分9 语音学主要分支:发音语言学（Articulatory Phonetics），声学语言学（Acoustic Phonetics）。

语言学概论一.语言的甄别特征（Design Features）：语言的甄别特征（Design Features）包括：1. 任意性（Arbitrariness）2. 能产性（Productivity）3. 双层性（Duality）4. 移位性（Replacement）5. 文化传承（Cultural transmission）二．语言学的主要分支（the Main Branches of Linguistics）：1. 语音学（phonetics）：用以研究语音的特点，并提供语音描写、分类和标记方法的学科。

2. 音系学（phonology）：研究语言中出现的区别语音及其模式是如何形成语音系统来表达意义的学科。

3. 形态学（morphology）：研究词的内部结构和构词规则。

4. 句法学（syntax）：用以研究词是被如何组成句子，以及支配句子构成的学科。

5. 语义学（semantics）：研究语言意义的学科。

6. 语用学（pragmatics）：研究语言的意义在语境中如何被理解、传递和产出的学科。

7. 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）：主要包括社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）、心理语言学（Psycholinguistics）、人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics）、计算机语言学（Computational Linguistics）。

三．语言学的流派（Different Approaches of Linguistics）：1. 结构主义语言学（Structural Lingustics）：1.1 布拉格学派（The Prague School）1.2 哥本哈根学派（The Copenhagen School）1.3 美国结构主义学派（American Structuralism）以上三个学派都受到索绪尔（Saussure）的影响，例如都区分语言和言语（Langue vs. Parole），共时和历时（Synchronic vs. Diachronic）。

第三章英语语言学第一节语言学基本概念知识点较多，但是多集中于基本概念和运用，不需要深入挖掘，记住基本概念即可。

1 语言的特点和功能特点：Creativity 可创造性Duality 两重性（声音和意义）Arbitrariness 任意性Displacement 移位性Cultural Transmission 文化传递性Interchangeabilty 可交换性Reflexivity 自反性人类的语言可以描述语言本身功能：Informative 信息功能（功能语言学中称之为ideational function）Interpersonal 人际功能通过语言来建立社会联系Performative 施为功能通过语言来完成任务，来自于语用学Emotive 感情功能可以改变听者的感情Phatic Communion 交感功能特定的表达方式来维护关系，例如打招呼Recreational 娱乐功能，例如唱歌Metalingual 元语言功能可以用语言来谈论语言本身2 语言学的主要分支内部分支：Phonetics 语音学Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学语音产生Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学研究物理特性Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学发音的潜在机制Consonants / VowelsPhonology 音系学研究语音和音节结构分布和排列Phone 音素语言的一个单元或是音段Phoneme 音位在语言中具有区别意义的最小的语言单位Allophones 音位变体put spanContrastive Distribution 对立分析能够找到的最小的语音对bear pearComplementary Distribution 互补分析从不在相同环境出现的音位变体peak speakFree Variation 自由变体同一个词由于某个原因发了两个音，这种差异可能来源于方言或是习惯increaseSuprasegemental Features 超音段特征（音节、重音、音调、语调）Morphology 形态学研究英语中最小单位——语素和成词过程，即单词的内部构造Morpheme 词素最小的有意义的语言单位Free Morpheme 自由语素（有自己构成英语单词的称为此，是单词root/stem）和BoundMorpheme 粘连语素（需要和自由语素联合构成单词的称为此，是词缀，进一步分为Inflectional Affixes 屈折词缀，在现代英语中主要指单复数，时态比较级等等和Derivational Affixes 派生词缀，这是形成新词的关键）。