杨忠语言学翻译

第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。

非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。

语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。

在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。

口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。

这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。

口语交际是一个复杂的过程。

可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。

也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。

根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。

对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。

对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。

对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。

2.2 发音机制语音是由各种发音器官（speech organ）而产生的。

因此，正确理解语音需要掌握相关的发音系统知识。

人体发声器官（见《语言学概论》杨忠主编，高等教育出版社2002：15）使流出的气流产生各种各样的变化，从而产生不同的音。

肺部的气流是发声的原动力。

肺部扩大时，空气从外流入，形成吸气音（ingressive sounds）。

肺部收缩时，气流流经气管(trachea)、喉头（larynx）、咽腔（pharyngeal cavity）再经口腔(oral cavity)或鼻腔(nasal cavity) 排除，形成呼气音(egressive sounds)。

Lg is a system—elements of lg are

combined according to rules.This explains why ―iblk‘ is not a possible sound combination in English, and also why ―Been he wounded has‖ is not a grammatically acceptable sentence in English.
The proportions in the final score

Presence is 10%. Performance in class is 10%. Final exam is 80%.
CONTENTS

Chapter One Chapter Two Chapter Three Chapter Four Chapter Five Review (1)Leabharlann 1.2.2 Duality



Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of lg can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meanings such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.

综合测试题（一）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points)( ) 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. ( ) 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology. ( ) 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children”is structurally ambiguous.( ) 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.( ) 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.( ) 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.( ) 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.( ) 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.( ) 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research.( )10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. displacementD. interchangeability2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A. analyticB. isolatingC. syntheticD. agglutinating3. The general roles language plays are termed .A. metalanguagesB. metafunctionsC. metadiscoursesD. metagrammar4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A. BlendingB. EponymsC. BackformationD. Clipping5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A. suffixB. prefixC. morphemeD. morph6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A. EnvironmentalistB. functionalistC. nativistD. both a and b7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.A. person deixisB. time deixisC. place deixisD. discourse deixis8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleusB. onsetD. code D. rhyme9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A. linguisticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongueof a speech community.A. pidginB. creoleC. EsperantoD. natural languageIII. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets: (10 points)A B( ) 1. Socialinguistics a. the analysis of sentence structure( ) 2. Applied Linguistics b. the analysis of meaning in context( ) 3. Morphology C. the analysis of meaning( ) 4.d Phonetics d. the study of sound systems and patterns( ) 5.Linguistics e. the application of linguistic theories to other spheres ( ) 6. Syntax f. the study of speech sounds( ) 7. Psycholinguistics g. the study of the relationship between language and society ( ) 8. Pragmatics h. the study of word structure( ) 9. Phonology i. the scientific study of language( ) 10 Semantics j. the study of the relationship between language and mindIV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s) they all share: (10 points)1.[t∫][dз]2.[m] [n] [ɡ]3.[f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h]4.[d] [n] [z] [l] [r]5.[i:] [i] [u:] [u]V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)VI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)1.The duck is too hot to eat.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________2.Visiting friends can be boring.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. derivation2.learner factorsVIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the difference between “a red and a redcoat” ?2.What are the features of modern linguistics?3. According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?综合测试题（二）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logicalmetafunction.( ) 2. Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human language. ( ) 3. Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation according to Halliday.( ) 4. Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.( ) 5. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning. ( ) 6. Second language acquisition is a complex process which involves social factors and learner factors.( ) 7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialets, sociodialects and registers.( ) 8. Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. ( ) 9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.( ) 10. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The language used to talk about language is called __________.A. languageB. metalanguageC. natural languageD. artificial language2. [+continuant] specifies ________________.A. all the fricativesB. all the fricatives and glidesC. all the fricatives and liquidsD. all the fricatives, liquids and glides3. _________ is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words.A. CoinageB. BlendingC. AcronmymsD. Clipping4. A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.A. morphemeB. wordC. phonemeD. allophones5.The word “multinationality has ___________ morphemes.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 56._________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varietiesaccording to use”, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are “varieties according to user”.A. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register7.__________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A. back-channel signalsB. adjacency pairsC. pre-sequencesD. insertion sequences8.The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalizedby Grice (1975) as ____________.A. the principle of relevanceB. cooperative principleC. the politeness principleD. the theory of prototypes9.Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they differ in__________.A. affective meaningB. styleC. collocationD. register10.“John explained the theory”is a ___________ process according toHalliday.A. materialB. mentalC. verbalD. behavioralIII. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points)1.Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative principlegeneralized by Grice.2.M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and languageteachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.3. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing ameaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act. The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act.The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.4.The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain isreferred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________ .5.C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deletingone or more syllables.6. A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a___________,7.The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of children’language development.8. A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from otherregional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.IV. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)( ) 1. This vet is very famous in the town. a. Conversion ( ) 2. This classroom is large and bright.. b. Derivation ( ) 3. He is watering flowers. C. Blending ( ) 4. Orlon is a kind of cloth material. d. Backformation( ) 5. Watt is the measurement unit of electricity. e. Acronym( ) 6. EEC is an important organization in the world. f. Compounding ( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage( ) 8. The road was enlarged last year. h. Eponym( ) 9. Some young people have brunch quite often. i. ClippingV. Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the sounds according to the natural class of sounds. And then name the feature(s) that define the one picked out and the group of sounds: (10 points)For example: [z] voiced/voiceless [f] [θ] [z] [s]1. [ ] ____________ ____ [m] [ŋ] [l] [n]2. [ ] ____________ ____ [p] [b] [m] [v] [w]3. [ ] ____________ ____ [s] [z] [∫] [dз] [з]4. [ ] ____________ ___________ [i:] [i] [æ] [u] [e]5. [ ] __________________________ [i:] [ə:] [e] [æ]VI. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “He found his book on Wall Street”: (10 points)VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)nguage and linguistics2.semantics and pragmaticsVII. Answer the following questions:(40%)1.How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human language?2.What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship betweenthem?3.What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?综合测试题（三）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets. (10 points)( ) 1. A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.( ) 2. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage. ( ) 3. The word “went” contains two morphemes.( ) 4. The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is called componential analysis (CA).( ) 5. Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or association with particular objects, action, or persons.( ) 6. The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.( ) 7. In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in Korean, they are allophones.( ) 8. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.( ) 9. Compounding is one type of word formation by combining both free morphemes and bound morphemes.( )10. The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The followings are all features of language except __________.A. dualityB. productivityC. changeabilityD. displacement2. The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.A. synonymyB. antonymC. polysemyD. homonymy3. ______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ConversionB. AbbreviationC. EponymsD. Blending4. Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.A. babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speechB. babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrasticC. babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speechD. babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word5. The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second language acquisition except _________.A. motivationB. nationalityC. ageD. learning strategy6. Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leech (1983) proposes _____________.A. the cooperative principleB. the principle of relevanceC. the politeness principle C. speech acts7.Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.A. moon/noonB. foot/foodC. she/sheetD. sea/sea8.The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or moresegments are called ___________.A. distinctive featuresB. non-distinctive featuresC. suprasegmental featuresD. free variation9.The ____________ function (sometimes also referred to as experientialfunction) is realized by the transitivity system of language.A. ideationalB. interpersonalC. textualD. logical10.Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound morphemes_________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. affixesD. inflectional morphemesIII. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)( ) 1. Most children like drinking Coca-cola. a. Conversion ( ) 2. UNESCO is a branch United Nations. b. Derivation ( ) 3. The police machineguned the gang. c. Blending( ) 4. I like sandwiches very much. d. Backformation ( ) 5. There are a lot of fruits in the fridge. e. Acronym ( ) 6. Infotech is popular nowadays. f. Compounding ( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage( ) 8. His stepmother is very kind to him. h. Eponym( ) 9. The street was widened last year. i. ClippingIV. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(10 points)1. labiodentals [ ]2. interdentals [ ]3. back vowels [ ]4. high vowels [ ]5. palatal affricates [ ]V. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket. (10 points)( ) 1. The noise annoyed him. a. Material process ( ) 2. The police caught him b. Relational process ( ) 3. There are two books on the table. c. Mental process ( ) 4. John explained the theory to me. d. Verbal process( ) 5. He watches TV every day. e. Behavioral process ( ) 6. The conference is on Monday f. Existential processVI. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1.arbitrariness2.voicingVII. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “They can fish”. (10 points)VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse?2.What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with examples.3.What are the components of metaphors?综合测试题（四）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. English is a tone language.( ) 2. Bound morphemes are always attached to free morphemes to form new words.( ) 3. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meanings. ( ) 4. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process.( ) 5. Overgeneralization is found universal in second language acquisition. ( ) 6. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are experiential metafunction, interpersonal metafunction anddiscourse metafunction.( ) 7. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage. ( ) 8. There are two types of language in the world: natural language and artificial language.( ) 9. Coinage is a process of inventing words based on existing morphemes. ( )10 Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contributions in learning a second language.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The word “antidisestablishmentariaism” is composed of ______ morphemes.A. sixB. sevenC. eightD. nine2. __________ refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A. VoicingB. VoicedC. NasalizationD. Aspiration3. Smog is a ___________ word.A. derivedB. clippedC. blendedD. compound4. The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importance. This kind of motivation may be termed ____ motivation.A. instrumentalB. integrativeC. cognitiveD. none of them5. [u:] possesses the features _____________.A. [+high][+back][+round][-tense]B. [+high][-back][+round][+tense]C.[+high][+back][+round][+tense]D. [-high][+back][+round][+tense]6. English is an example of _________ languages.A. VSOB. SVOC. SOVD. SVO7. A ________ is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrastwords in meaning and in form.A. phonemeB. phoneC. morphemeD. morph8.Free morphemes were traditionally called _________.A. affixesB. prefixC. suffixD. root9.The lexical sense relation between elephant and animal is __________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. antonymyD. homonymy10.Words like male and female, pass and fail, etc. are ________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. relativeIII. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracketbefore the sentence. (10 points)( ) 1. John is talking to Jane. a. Material process ( ) 2. Tom is the leader b. Relational process ( ) 3. There is a cat on the bed. c. Mental process ( ) 4. The bad news astonished her. d. Verbal process ( ) 5. Edward broke the window. e. Behavioral process ( ) 6. He waved his hands. f. Existential processIV. State what semantic property or properties are shared by the group of words. (10 points)For example: typewriter, ruler, notebook[ +stationary]1. king, bachelor, son ________________________2. bull, rooster, stallion ________________________3. pine, rose, elm4. bravery, charity, devotion5. car, bike, planeV. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and the describe it. (10 points)Example: far [a:] back low vowel1. thread [ ]2. beat [ ]3. important [ ]4. live [ ]5. stop [ ]VI. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10 points)1.She can not bear children.(1)(2)(3) ______________________________________________2.He hates old men and women.(1)(2)VII. Explain the following terms with examples. (10 points)pounding2.Free variationVII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the distinction between semantics and pragmatics?2.What are the four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicativecompetence according to Hymes (1972)?3.What are the three types of antonyms (lexical opposition) in English?综合测试题（五）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.( ) 2. Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meaning.( ) 3. The Swiss linguist Chomsky regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.( ) 4. Language can be used to refer to things real or false, past, present or future.( ) 5. Language is merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation.( ) 6. We use language as symbolic code to represent the world around us. ( ) 7. The ideatonal function of language binds individuals together. ( ) 8. When we speak or write we usually confine ourselves to single phrases or sentences.( ) 9. Language is mostly a natural phenomenon.( ) 10. Applied linguistic is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields.Ⅱ. Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it. (5 points)1.Geographic2.Red3.Song4.Clock5.PsychopathyⅢ. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions. (5 points) Initial Medial Finalpit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cabFind similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:1./k/-/g/2./m/-/n/3./l/-/r/4./b/-/v/5./b/-/m/Ⅳ. Each of the following columns illustrates a different morphological process. (10 points)Column ⅠColumn ⅡColumn ⅢA. chairs A. reality A. blackboardB. wider B. movement B. greenhouseC.looked C.malcontent C. makeshiftD. Tom’s D. stepmother D. paintwork(1) What morphological process is shown by Column Ⅰ, Ⅱand Ⅲ.(2) What is the morphological difference between a),b) and c),d) inColumn Ⅱ.Ⅴ. Tell whether polarity or modality is expressed in the following sentences if modality, then identify the type (modalization or modulation). (10 points)1.I have not finished the task.2.He often comes to my office.3.I will show you how to make up the bed.4.He hardly came back to see his mother5.The company ought to cut the price of the products.Ⅵ. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/-PAN], [+/-POT], [+/-OVEN], [+/-SIEVE], etC. (10 points)boil:fry:steam:stew:bake:Ⅶ. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved:(15 points)a).The professor’s appointment was shocking.b).The design has big squares and circles.c).The governor is a dirty street fighter.Ⅷ. What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B?What is the implicature? (5 points)a).The dress is lovely, isn’t it?b).The material is nice.Ⅸ. Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence the magician touched the child with the wand. Be sure you indicate which meaning goes with which tree. (10 points)Ⅹ. Answer the following question: (20points)1.What is the functioning of stress and intonation in English?2.How do you account for the relation between phonetics andphonology?综合测试题（六）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (20 points)( ) 1. In the study of the first step is the task of auditory phonetics.( ) 2. The sound source is the larynx.( ) 3. The oral cavity contains most of the articulators, namely, the uvula, the velum the hard palate.( ) 4. Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower lip are labialdentals.( ) 5. Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme. ( ) 6. Abbreviations are formed by putting together the final letters of some or all words in a phrase or title.( ) 7. Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.( ) 8. All members.of a speech community can send and take messages. ( ) 9.Traditional grammar was initially based on European language, particularly on Latin and German.( ) 10. One of the important concepts of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.( ) 11. Pragmatics is the analysis of meaning in context.( ) 12. The meanings communicated through language are or two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings( ) 13. An expression used by a s peaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.( ) 14. Chomsky theory of conversational implicature is regarded as a breakthrough in pragmatic study of language use.( ) 15. Relevance is a relative notion. It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.( ) 16. Modality can be categorized into modalization and intention.( ) 17. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the object and the finite. ( ) 18. Relational processes are linguistic processes that represent a relation being set up between two separate.( ) 19. Mental processes are processes of sensing.( ) 20. A TG grammar must account for all or only grammatical sentences.Ⅱ. Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes. (5 points)1.Retroactive2.Befriended3.Televise4.Margin5.EndearmentⅢ.Write the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part of each word in A. (5 points)A Ba. terrorized (1) free rootb. uncivilized (2) bound rootC. terrorize (3) inflectional suffixd. lukewarm (4) derivational suffixe. impossible (5) inflectional prefix(6) derivational prefix(7) inflectional infix(8) derivational infixⅣ. Write out at least ten structure rules that each of the following rules abbreviate. (5 points)V P→V (NP) (PP) (Adv)NP→(Det) (Adj) N (PP)Ⅴ .Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences: (10 points)a)The man found the letter.b)The students put the books in the classroom.Ⅵ. Write the semantic feature shared by the given words. (5 points)1.Bull, rooster, bachelor, boyk, water, alcohol, oil3.Squash, tennis, cricket, fencing, boxing4.Idea, concept, love, clarity, democracy5.Pine, elm, willow, birch, poplarⅦ.Each of the following words is a basic level term. Write its superordinate in the left blank and one of its subordinate in the right blank. (10 points)1.table2.willow3.cat4.blue5.dictionary6.painting7.driver8.verb9.chemistry10.juiceⅧ. The opposite of analytic is contradictory. A sentence that is false due to the meaning of its words alone is contradictory.Kings are female is an example. Write a C by the contradictory sentences and S for situational by sentences that are not contradictory. (10 points)1.My sister is a man.2.Witches are wicked3.My sister is an only child.4.The evening star isn’t the morning star.5.The evening star isn’t the evening star.6.Babies are adults.7.Babies can lift one ton.8.Puppies are human.9.My bachelor friends are all married.10.My bachelor friends are all lonely.Ⅸ. Pig Latin is a common language game of English; but even Pig Latin has dialects, forms of the “language game” with different rules. (10 points)Consider the following data from three dialects of Pig Latin, each with its own rule applied to words beginning with vowels:Dialect 1 Dialect 2 Dialect 3“eat” [itme] [ithe] [ite]“arc” [arkme] [arkhe] [arke]⑴ State the rule that accounts for the Pig Latin forms in each dialect.Dialect 1:Dialect 2:Dialect 3:⑵ How would you say honest, admire, and illegal in each dialect? Give thephonetic transcription of the Pig Latin forms.honest 1. 2. 3.admire 1. 2. 3.illegal 1. 2. 3.Ⅹ. Answer the following questions: (20 points)1.What is the function of phonological knowledge?2.Exemplify the differences between anaphoric and cataphoricreference.综合测试题（七）Ⅰ. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points)1.The term l a refers to the natural process ofchildren’s language development.2.It is found that children all undergo certain stages of languagedevelopment, namely the b stage, holophrastic stage,the two-word stage, and the telegraphic speech stage.3.The practice of error analysis is divided into i ,describing and explaining.4.S refers to the analysis of meaning.5.In the aspect of affective meaning, statesman is commendingin sense while politician is d .6. D synonyms are words which are similar in meaningbut used in different dialects of the language.7.In order to avoid repetition the writer needs to use a sto replace a word used in the previous co-text when he/shewants to continue to address that idea.8.The sentence “The bachelor is unmarried” is it t .9.The domain to be conceptualized is called t domain,while the conceptualizing domain is termed the sourcedomain.10.P deixis specifies the locations relative to the speechevent.Ⅱ. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions: (5 points)1.tense front mid vowelteral liquid。

《语言学概论》学习指导杨忠主编《语言学概论》学习指导主编杨忠副主编：林正军魏昆编者（按姓氏笔画排序）王泽霞王晶芝杨忠林正军《语言学概论学习指导》是为网络课程学历教育考生编写的学习指导书，既可用于网络语言学课程的大纲及教材辅导，亦可用作语言学课程教学的辅导材料。

语言学作为与外语教学密切相关的学科之一，在外语教学中的地位和作用越来越显著。

在大学英语本科专业，语言学已被当作一门重要的专业课开设。

同时，语言学也是外语教师职业发展和培训的必修课。

为了配合《语言学概论》（杨忠主编，高等教育出版社，2002）这本教材的教与学，我们组织编写了这本学习指导用书。

本书与教材相对应，共分为十章，每章包括导读、重点与难点、习题及语言学名家介绍四部分。

本书的编写体例由杨忠、林正军和魏昆共同商定。

具体分工如下：杨忠负责序言部分的撰写、以及全书的审校工作；王泽霞负责第一至三章及综合测试题一至四的编写；王晶芝负责第四至六章及综合测试题五至八的编写；林正军负责第七至十章及综合测试题九至十的编写、以及全书的统稿工作；魏昆负责全书的校对和编排工作。

本书语言学名家简介部分的编写参考了刘润青的《西方语言学流派》（外语教学与研究出版社，2004）、当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库的相关导读部分、以及中国学术期刊全文数据库的部分文章，在此我们向以上著作及文章的作者致谢！本书在编写过程中得到东北师范大学出版社魏昆老师以及出版社的大力支持，在此表示衷心感谢！编者2006年2月19日序第一章语言和语言学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—费迪南·德·索绪尔第二章语音学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—维伦·马泰休斯第三章音位学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—路易斯·叶姆斯列夫第四章形态学：词的构成研究导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—布龙菲尔德第五章句法：句子结构分析导读本章习题语言学名家介绍—乔姆斯基第六章语义学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—杰弗瑞·利奇第七章语用学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—约翰·塞尔第八章社会语言学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—威廉·拉波夫第九章第二语言习得导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—约翰·鲁珀特·弗斯第十章语言学与外语教学导读本章习题语言学名家介绍—韩礼德绪论漫谈外语教师学习语言学杨忠就“从语言学中学什么”和“怎样学习语言学”两个相关的话题与年轻的外语同行们交流一下学习语言学的体会，代为序。

O c t .2023V o l .43N o .5语文学刊J o u r n a l o fL a n g u a ge a n dL i t e r a t u r eS t u d i e s 2023年10月第43卷第5期[基金项目]辽宁省社会科学规划基金项目 接口视阈下连动式信息结构的跨语言对比研究 (L 20B Y Y 012)阶段性研究成果㊂[作者简介]王晓娜,沈阳师范大学外国语学院副教授,博士,研究方向:理论语言学㊁汉英对比与翻译㊂文本类型理论视域下英语语言学教材翻译研究ʻ王晓娜(沈阳师范大学外国语学院,辽宁 沈阳 110034)[摘 要] 英语专业教材建设与翻译是外语教育改革与发展的一项重要课题㊂英语语言学课程具有抽象性㊁理论性㊁内容繁杂等特点,翻译好英语语言学教材对学生学好专业课程㊁教师达到良好教学效果至关重要㊂本文以戴炜栋㊁何兆熊主编的‘新编简明英语语言学教程“及其中文版学习指导教材㊁牟杨主编的‘新编简明英语语言学教程学习指南“为例,探究英语语言学教材翻译的重要性㊁翻译原则㊁翻译难点与对应策略,旨在为英语语言学教材翻译提供参考框架,提升翻译质量,助力英语语言学的教与学㊂[关键词] 英语语言学; 教材翻译; 翻译原则; 翻译难点与对策[中图分类号]H 319 [文献标识码]A [文章编号]1672-8610(2023)05-0110-09 d o i :10.3969/j.i s s n .1672-8610.2023.05.017 教材建设是外语教育改革与发展的一个重要课题,教材翻译是提高教材内容理解㊁内化㊁实践㊁创新的重要路径㊂戴炜栋㊁何兆熊主编的‘新编简明英语语言学教程“[1]是很多高校英语㊁英语师范㊁翻译专业语言学必修课程的指定教材㊂据笔者调查,发现该版本教材目前只有一本中文版学习指导教材,为西南交通大学出版社出版,牟杨主编的‘新编简明英语语言学教程学习指南“[2]㊂对近500名使用戴本英语语言学教材及牟杨中译本的本科生和10名任课教师开展调查,发现该中译本存在以下三大问题:重要术语误译㊁核心概念硬译㊁关键内容漏译,导致学生语言学学习困难重重㊁教师教学苦不堪言㊂基于以上现状背景,本文在文本类型理论的指导下,探讨英语语言学教材英译汉翻译过程中的难点及解决路径,旨在为提高英语语言学教材翻译质量,切实助力学生语言学理论学习与理解,进而有效提高英语语言学教学效果,全面提升语言学素养作出一点努力㊂一㊁英语语言学教材目前全国高校英语专业本科阶段语言学教材数目可观,比较有影响力的有北京大学出版社出版㊁胡壮麟主编的‘语言学教程“[3],目前已出版到第五版,也是很多高校外国语言学及应用语言学研究生入学考试的重要参考书目㊂还有中国人民大学出版社出版㊁杨忠主编的‘英语语言学导论“(第三版)[4],北京大学出版社出版㊁苗兴伟主编的‘语言学基础教程“(第二版)[5],北京师范大学出版社出版㊁文旭主编的‘语言学导论“[6],北京大学出版社出版㊁H u d s o nG主编的‘语言学入门纲要“[7],外语教学与研究出版社出版㊁蓝纯主编的‘语言导论“[8],高等教育出版社出版㊁杨信彰主编的‘语言学概论“[9],戴炜栋㊁何兆熊主编的‘新编简明英语语言学教程“[1],上海外语教育出版社出版㊁梅德明编著的‘现代语言学简明教程“[10],厦门大学出版社出版㊁黄清贯和肖晶主编的‘现代英语语言学“[11]㊂上述教材均适用于我国高校英语专业本科生,但难易程度㊁结构编排㊁内容安排㊁配套练习等方面都各有特色㊂自1984年以来,国内高等院校陆续为本科生开设了语言学课程㊂2000年,教育部颁布的英语专业教学大纲则把语言学课程列入英语专业高年级的专业必修课,其重要性不言而喻[1]㊂但语言学是一门理论性强㊁概念术语多㊁对逻辑抽象能力要求较高的课程,因此对教材编者以及课程授课教师来说都极具挑战性㊂目前依据高校英语专业课程教学指南与标准㊁专业培养目标㊁毕业要求以及学生特点,尤其是非重点高校本科生,大多数选择戴炜栋㊁何兆熊主编的‘新编简明英语语言学教程“为本校英语㊁英语师范㊁翻译专业大三本科生语言学课程教材㊂原因有三:第一,权威性㊂该教材为 十二五 普通高等教育本科国家级规划教材及新世纪高等院校英语专业本科生系列教材,该书累计印刷24次,发行近20万册㊂第二,简明易懂,内容丰富,适合中等偏下学生㊂该教材在系统介绍语言学基础理论知识的同时,考虑到了教学实践的需求,在编写中突出了 简明㊁易懂㊁实用 的特点㊂该教材前言特别指出,本教材语言流畅㊁内容丰富,涵盖了语言学的主要分支内容和经典理论,非常适合语言学入门级学生㊂第三,有课后练习,有拓展阅读,便于教师教学与学生自主学习㊂每个章节都有配套练习题,同时列出相关的拓展阅读书目与章节,有利于学生知识拓展与思维创新㊂二㊁文本类型理论文本类型理论最早是由德国功能主义学派卡塔琳娜㊃莱思(K.R e i s s)提出,旨在构建一个全面㊁客观的翻译批评与评估模式㊂莱思根据卡尔㊃布勒(K.Büh l e r)的语言功能三分法,将文本归纳为三种主要类型,即信息型㊁表情型和操作型,并论述了各种文本类型与翻译策略的总体关系[12,13],见表1㊂表1文本类型及其翻译方法之间的联系文本类型信息型表情型操作型语言功能信息的(表达事物与事实)表情的(表达情感)感染的(感染接受者)语言特点逻辑的审美的对话的文本焦点侧重内容侧重形式侧重感染作用译文目的表达其内容表现其形式引出所期望的反映翻译方法简朴的白话文,按要求做到简洁明了仿效㊁忠实原作者编译㊁等效从表1可以看出,莱思以翻译为核心,将语言功能㊁语言特点㊁文本焦点㊁翻译目的与翻译方法统一起来,为翻译质量评价,尤其是翻译实践过程中翻译策略的选择提供理论指导依据㊂莱思指出,信息型文本主要是表达事实信息㊁知识和观点等,其语言特点是逻辑性较强,文本的焦点是内容而不是形式[14]㊂翻译时应以简朴明了的白话文传递与原文相同的概念与信息㊂三㊁英语语言学教材翻译原则教材翻译要注重理论与实践结合,要确保内容的丰富性㊁知识性㊁趣味性㊁实用性和健康的思想性[15]㊂依据文本类型理论,英语语言学教材为典型的信息类文本,主要传递英语语言学理论相关的知识与信息,具有较强的逻辑性,内容繁杂㊂教材使用的对象主要是大三本科生,他们首次接触语言学,学习起来有一定的难度与挑战性㊂尤其是近三年受新冠肺炎疫情影响的学生,经历线上教学,学生学习主动性较弱㊁自律性较差,心理承受能力不强,面对一门新开设的专业课程,面对内容新㊁术语多㊁记忆量较大的课程,表现出明显的畏难情绪㊂此外,由于英语专业学生多为文科生,逻辑条理性基础薄弱,对英语语言学教材内容的阅读与理解较慢㊂大三本科生学习任务繁重,无论从知识容量㊁难度还是深度,相较于大一大二学段,都呈现了较大的提升㊂在时间有限㊁内容较多的背景下,教材的翻译显得尤为迫切,高质量的教材翻译不仅可以更好地服务于学生自主学习与内容理解,还可以帮助教师实现较好的教学效果,实现教学目标的达成㊂基于以上现状与实际需求,英语语言学教材的翻译应力求语言准确㊁简洁,力求服务于读者,做到可读性㊁易懂性㊂英语语言学教材的翻译至少要满足五性原则,即准确性㊁流畅性㊁趣味性㊁逻辑性与连贯性㊂第一,准确性㊂英语语言学教材为信息类文本,准确传递信息是翻译首要遵守的原则㊂准确性要求译者必须在充分理解原文内容的基础上,结合自身对语言学理论知识的理解与把握,准确传递原文信息以及相关语言学概念㊂坚决不能出现错误翻译㊁重要内容的漏译㊂第二,流畅性㊂在翻译过程中,注意词汇选择与词语搭配,注意词与词的组合以及句子与句子之间的组构顺序,力求语义内容衔接,读起来流畅自然,可读性高㊂第三,趣味性㊂在保证准确性与流畅性的基础上,尽量通过举例或通俗易懂的表达,增强教材译文的趣味性,提高学生语言学学习兴趣与学习动机㊂第四,逻辑性㊂译文段落与段落之间㊁章节与章节之间衔接自然㊂主题明确㊁内容突出,灵活运用逻辑关联词㊁同义词㊁反义词等词汇衔接手段,力求帮助读者在阅读过程中能够抓住核心逻辑,明晰主要内容,具有较好的阅读体验㊂第五,连贯性㊂章节与章节之间力求连贯有序,承上启下,语义连贯,信息接续自然㊂读者在阅读过程中时刻做到重点突出,核心内容心中有数,不断片㊁不模糊㊂四、翻译难点与解决策略自索绪尔1923年出版的‘普通语言学教程“以来,国内外语言学理论得到了长足发展,成果丰硕,在大多数语言问题上达成了共识,但也存在很多问题尚待进一步论证㊂英语语言学教材旨在介绍以英语为例的语言学理论知识体系,主要介绍国内外大多数学者公认的语言学理论知识,但不可避免涉及有争议的问题,尤其是与汉语语言学术语与研究成果不一致的内容㊂加之语言学理论性强㊁内容抽象㊁术语多,初学语言学的学生学起来有困难,无方法,常常感到迷茫㊂根据近三届高校大三本科生使用牟杨版英语语言学译本的反馈以及教材翻译实践发现,英语语言学教材翻译主要存在以下三个比较突出的问题:拘泥于原文英语句式,不能自拔;长难句的语义逻辑把握不准,语序结构选择困难;缺乏文体转换意识㊂下面将围绕这三个问题,逐一举例说明并提出解决策略㊂(一)充分理解原文,打破英文句式的束缚英语语言学教材翻译的一个难点就是拘泥于英文句式,逐词翻译,读者读起来生硬㊁不自然㊁不知所以然㊂这样的翻译,并未充分考虑读者的接受度,也并未考虑译文是否符合汉语表达习惯,仅仅是简单的英汉词语对应㊂这样处理,不仅不能起到缓解学生理解难度的作用,反而折损学生学习语言学的兴趣㊂下面举例说明㊂(1)S e m a n t i c sc a nb es i m p l y d e f i n e da s t h e s t u d y o fm e a n i n g.T h i sd e f i n i t i o nn a t u-r a l l y l e a d st ot h e q u e s t i o n:w h a t i s m e a n-i n g牟杨①:语义学被简单地定义为对意思的研究㊂这个定义很自然地引出一个问题:什么是意义译文1:语义学可以被简要地定义为对意义的研究㊂该定义自然而然地引出一个问题:什么是意义?译文2:语义学即对意义的研究,这自然而然地引出一个问题:什么是意义?改译:语义学即对意义的研究,那么什么是意义呢?(2)T h e p s y c h o l o g i s t s f o c u s t h e i r i n t e r-e s t o nu n d e r s t a n d i n g t h ew o r k i n g o fh u m a n m i n d t h r o u g h l a n g u a g e.牟杨:心理学家则把注意力集中在如何通过语言来理解人类思维的运行㊂译文1:心理学家关注人类思维如何通过语言来工作㊂译文2:心理学家注重理解人类语言思维㊂改译:心理学家对如何通过语言来探究人类思维工作机制感兴趣㊂(3)T h e p h i l o s o p h e r sa r ei n t e r e s t e di n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n l i n g u i s-t i c e x p r e s s i o n s a n dw h a t t h e y r e f e r t o i n t h e r e a lw o r l d,a n d i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e t r u t hv a l u e o f l i n g u i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n s.牟杨:哲学家关注的是语言表达和它们在现实世界所指之间的关系,以及如何评估语言表达的真实价值㊂译文1:哲学家关注对语言表达和其现实所指之间关系的理解及对言语表达真正价值的评估㊂译文2:哲学家注重理解语言表达及其现实所指之间的关系,注重评估语言表达的真正内涵㊂改译:哲学家们关注语言符号表达与其现实所指之间的关系㊁语言表达的真值判断㊂例(1)来自教材第五章,关于语义学(s e m a n t i c s)的定义㊂牟杨的译文完全拘泥于原文英语的句式表达,采用被动句㊁逐词翻译㊁语序与标点也与原文一致㊂读起来欧化汉语味道浓重,不仅不利于信息传递,还会影响学生汉语表达的纯粹性㊂此外, 意思 的措辞选择不符合语言学术语翻译规约,m e a n i n g一般译为 意义 ㊂译文1逐词硬译意味更甚, c a nb es i m p l y d e f i n e d 翻译为 可以被简要地定义为 ,译文2比译文1更好一些,但 这 完全可以省去,英语原句由两个独立句构成,因此第二句的主语必须强制出现为 t h i s ,而汉语为主语脱落型语言,语法上不强制要求主语必须出现,出于简洁表达的要求,可以省译 t h i s ,而不影响上下文衔接与语义表达的流畅性㊂例(2)和(3)也来自教材第五章语义学的第一段,主要说明意义研究的主体不仅有语言学家,还包括心理学家和哲学家,同时说明不同领域不同学科的学者们开展意义研究的维度与侧重点不同㊂牟杨和译文1和2都存在不同程度的欧化汉语现象,读来生硬晦涩,不易理解㊂而此处并非语义学章节的主要核心内容,容易造成学生读来不知所云,毫无兴趣,失去了继续阅读并理解语义学核心内容的信息与动力㊂比如 f o c u st h e i ri n t e r e s t o n 的翻译,牟杨版将其翻译为 把注意力集中在 ,拘泥于英语表达,逐词翻译,缺乏译者创造性㊂改译后重点信息突出,符合汉语表达,读起来更易于理解,也更自然流畅㊂(4)I tm i g h tb e p r e s u m e dt h a t t h e u n -R u l e i sn o ta s p r o d u c t i v ef o ra d j e c t i v e s c o m p o s e do f j u s t o n em o r p h e m e a s f o r t h o s e t h a t a r e t h e m s e l v e s d e r i v e d f r o ma v e r b.牟杨:我们可以假定: u n- 对一个由词素构成的形容词不像那些本身就是由动词派生而来的形容词能产㊂这条规则似乎能自由地适用于动词派生而来的形容形式㊂译文1:与那些由动词衍生出的形容词相比,单词素形容词里 u n规则 的多产性要逊色许多㊂译文2:这或许可以解释为,那些衍生于动词的形容词在应用 u n规则 时是非常能产的,但是单词素形容词则不然㊂改译:U n-规则同单语素形容词相比, U n-规则不如由动词派生而来的形容词那样能产,具有一定的局限性㊂例(4)来自教材第三章形态学,探讨构词规则的能产性问题㊂事实上,构词规则是否能产是一个相对概念,教材通过加u n-这一前缀构成反义词为例,说明形容词内部的异质性特征,单语素形容词不如由V-e d/-i n g类形容词能产㊂因此,在翻译此句时,牟杨通过一定的语序调整,基本把原文想表达的语义传递出来,译文1和译文2更加拘泥于原文句式,读起来比较生硬㊂改译在充分理解原文语义以及该句在教材所处的位置与语篇功能,采用符合汉语表达习惯的灵活句式,再现原句语义,既能满足译文的自然㊁通顺与流畅,同时也符合读者的期待㊂(二)理清原文逻辑,突破修饰语多长难句翻译瓶颈教材中存在修饰语较多的复杂长句,理解原文语义关系有一定难度,那么在翻译转换为汉语时,修饰语是否要翻㊁怎么翻㊁如何配置等问题,对译者造成不小的挑战,需要综合考虑㊂聚焦上述翻译五原则,在充分理解原文信息的基础上,用简洁㊁直接㊁明晰的汉语传递原文信息,同时根据学生易读易懂的要求,还要适当通过增译,补充必要的利于学生理解的信息㊂(5)T h e p r e c e d i n g e x a m p l e ss h o wt h a ta tl e a s ts o m es e n t e n c e s m u s tb ea n a l y z e d w i t h t h e h e l p o f t w o d i s t i nc t t y p e s o fm e c h a-n i s m s t h eX Pr u l e,w h i c hde t e r m i n e s t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r eof p h r a s a l c a t eg o r i e s,a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n swhi c h c a nm o d i f y t h e s e t r e e s t r u c t u r e sb y m o v i n g a ne l e m e n t f r o m o n e p o s i t i o n t o a n o t h e r.牟杨:前面的事例已经表明至少有些句子的分析必须借助两种截然不同的类型的机制 X P规则(决定短语范畴的内部结构)和转换(能通过将一个成分从一个位置转移到另一个位置,对这些树状结构进行修饰)㊂译文1:上述例子表明:至少在分析一些句子时,必须用到两种不同的策略 短语结构规则和转换㊂短语结构规则决定短语的内部结构;转换是把成分从一个位置转移到另一个位置,以此对树形结构加以修饰㊂改译:前面的例子说明一些句子(包括一般疑问句㊁特殊疑问句㊁定语从句等)的句法结构推导需要两类规则,一类是决定句子深层结构的短语结构规则X P规则,一类是改变语序的转换规则,也叫移位规则㊂例(5)来自教材第四章句法学,归纳总结某些句子的句法生成过程需要短语结构规则和转换规则两种规则的运用,并说明了两类规则的特点㊂这一部分内容对学生准确推演句法生成过程与绘制句法树至关重要,也对于学生准确理解乔姆斯基所代表的生成语法理论以及句法构造至关重要㊂该句修饰语较多,学生在原文语义关系处理与理解上存在较大困难㊂在翻译过程中,如何处理修饰语是合并还是分立,语序如何处理,是前置还是后置,都给译者造成不小的挑战㊂牟杨的译文主要采用直译,比如牟杨和译文1都将m o d i f y t h e s e t r e es t r u c t u r e sb y m o v i n g a n e l e m e n t f r o m o n e p o s i t i o n t o a n o t h e r翻译为 从一个位置转移到另一个位置,以此对树形结构加以修饰 ㊂译完之后,学生还是不明白修饰是什么意思,移位的动因是什么移位的后果是什么?在翻译此类理论性强㊁信息量大的句子,建议通过增译㊁注释等手段,将英文原文深层含义表达清楚,更利于读者理解与操作㊂改译译文通过增译,解释了哪些句子的生成会涉及两类规则的应用;通过调整语序,说明了短语结构规则与转换规则的特点与作用,更加清晰㊁明了地向读者说明画句法树时短语结构规则与转换规则如何运用㊁为何运用,以及运用后果㊂(6)L i k eo t h e rw h w o r d s,w h os u b s e-q u e n t l y m o v e s t o t h e s p e c i f i e r p o s i t i o nw i t h-i nC Pe v e nt h o u g ht h ea c t u a lw o r do r d e ro f t h ew o r d s i n t h e s e n t e n c e d o e s n o t c h a n g e a s a r e s u l t o f t h i sm o v e m e n t.牟杨:与其他w h词一样,w h o相应地移到了C P的标志语上,尽管句子的实际词序不会因为这个转移而改变㊂译文1:和其他的w h疑问词一样,在补语从句中,w h o移动到指示语位置之后,尽管句子中单词的实际顺序并未因这一移位发生改变,w h疑问词必须移位㊂改译:同其他W h词一样,w h o引导的特殊的疑问句及定语从句也要移位至C P指示语的位置,尽管移位前后语序并未改变㊂例(6)也来自教材第四章句法学,主要阐述w h o引导的特殊疑问句及定语从句的句法推导也同样要进行W h移位,也就是说W h移位规则适用于所有的W h成分㊂牟杨版译文比较全面㊁准确地表达了原文的语义,但是后半句的表达过于生硬㊁繁琐,太拘泥于原文句式表达,没有灵活处理㊂改译后 移位前后语序并未改变 更加直接㊁明晰㊂译文1主要问题在于错误翻译,如 在补语从句中 , w h o所引导的句子常常是特殊疑问句㊁定语从句或名词性从句,不是补语从句㊂最后一句强调的重点不是W h疑问词必须移位,根据上下文语境,此处强调w h o这一特殊疑问词也必须移位㊂(7)S y n t a x i s a b r a n c h o f l i n g u i s t i c s t h a t s t u d i e s t h er u l e st h a t g o v e r nt h ef o r m a t i o n o f s e n t e n c e s.T h e r ea r eh a l f ad o z e n m a j o r d i f f e r e n t s y n t a c t i c t h e o r i e s.W h a tw e a r e g o-i n g t o i n t r o d u c e h e r e i s t h e s i m p l e v e r s i o n o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a ls y n t a x b o t h b e c a u s ei ti s t h em o s t p o p u l a ra n db e s tk n o w na p p r o a c h t os y n t a c t i ca n a l y s i sa n d b e c a u s e m a n y o f t h eo t h e ra p p r o a c h e st h a te x i s tt o d a y h a v e d e v e l o p e d i n r e s p o n s e t o i t.牟杨:句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支㊂主要的句法理论有六种㊂在此我们将介绍转换句法的简单版,不仅因为它是最流行㊁最为人所知的句法分析的方法,而且因为当今存在的很多其他方法都是对应它而发展起来的㊂译文1:句法学属于语言学的一个分支,它研究支配句子构成的规则㊂主要有六种不同的句法理论㊂本章介绍的是简单的转换句法的简单版,不仅因为它是最受欢迎的㊁人们最了解的句法分析的方法,还因为当今存在的很多其他方法都是基于它才发展起来的㊂改译:句法学是语言学的一个分支学科,主要研究句子构成的规则㊂目前句法学理论成果丰富,在此我们主要介绍的是转换生成语法的简化版㊂原因有二:其一,转换生成语法理论是最具影响力的句法学理论;其二,其他有影响力的句法理论大多是基于转换生成语法理论发展而来㊂因此,本章主要介绍的是转换生成语法理论㊂例(7)来自教材第四章句法学,主要介绍句法学定义以及为何选择介绍转换生成语法理论下的句法分析成果㊂该句句式长㊁信息密,在翻译时如何做到既准确传达原文内容,又能做到前后承接自然㊁衔接有序是翻译时重点考虑的问题㊂牟杨版完全按照原文标点㊁断句,译文与原句的主语选择基本一致㊂但英汉两种语言语义衔接手段不同,若完全按照原文断句切分与主语选择,会导致话题链割裂,读来费劲费力,需要不断调整阅读主题,捋清前后语义关联,最终导致读不下去,内容也没读懂㊂译文1也存在类似问题,但相比牟杨译文稍好些,在探讨为何选择介绍转换生成语法理论时,由于不了解相关语言学理论发展背景,语言表达显得生硬,如 本章介绍的是简单的转换句法的简单版,不仅因为它是最受欢迎的㊁人们最了解的句法分析的方法,还因为当今存在的很多其他方法都是基于它才发展起来的 ㊂改译后,读起来更自然㊁流畅, 因此 部分的增译符合汉语表达,更是提示读者本段内容主要探讨的重点就是解释为何选择转换生成语法理论㊂(8)E v e r y u t t e r a n c eo c c u r s i na p a r t i c u-l a r s p a t i o t e m p o r a l s i t u a t i o n,t h em a i nc o m-p o n e n t so f w h i c hi n c l u d e,a p a r tf r o m t h e p l a c e a n d t i m e o f t h e u t t e r a n c e,t h e s p e a k e r a n dt h e h e a r e r,t h ea c t i o n st h e y a r e p e r-f o r m i n g a t t h e t i m e,t h e v a r i o u s o b j e c t s a n d e v e n t s e x i s t e n t i n t h e s i t u a t i o n.牟杨:话语产生于一个特定的时间㊁空间场景㊂除了话语发生的时间地点等因素,这个场景还包括说话人㊁听话人以及他们那时的动作,存在于场景中的各种各样的物体和事件㊂译文1:每一种话语都发生在一个特定的时空情境中,其主要组成部分除了话语发生的地和时间外,还包括说话者和听者,他们当时所做的行为,以及情境中存在的各种对象和事件㊂译文2:每一种话语都发生在一个特定的时空情境中,其主要组成部分除话语发生的地点和时间外的说话者和听者,他们当时所做的行为,以及情境中存在的各种对象和事件㊂改译:每一个话语都发生于特定时空情景之中,情景信息除包括话语事件的时间㊁地点外,还包括参与交际事件的听话者㊁说话者㊁事件发生时伴随事件及周围环境信息㊂例(8)来自教材第五章语义学内容,探讨F i r t h所提出的两种语境类型,及情境语境的定义和构成要素㊂牟杨版的译文过于口语化,比如 以及他们那时的动作 存在于场景中的各种各样的物体和事件 ,前后语言表述较为生硬,读来晦涩,意义表述不清晰㊂改译后直接交代任何一个话语一定发生于具体的特定时空情景框架中,情境信息包括交际事件发生的时间㊁地点㊁说话者㊁听话者㊁伴随事件㊁周围环境等㊂改译译文更加明晰㊁语言表述简洁,读来流畅自然㊁重点突出㊂(9)T h u s,aw o r d sd i s t r i b u t i o n a l f a c t s t o g e t h e rw i t h i n f o r m a t i o na b o u t i t sm e a n i n g a n d i n f l e c t i o n a l c a p a b i l i t i e sh e l p i d e n t i f y i t s s y n t a c t i c c a t e g o r y.牟杨:确定词的范畴的最后一个也是最为可靠的就是词的分布,即哪种成分与某个词同时出现㊂译文1:最后一个也是最可靠的确定词的范畴标准就是词的分布,即哪种成份能与该词同时出现㊂改译:因此,综合考虑一个词的句法分布㊁语义内涵及曲折变化三个特点,可以更准确地判定一个词的句法范畴或词类㊂例(9)来自教材第三章形态学,主要探讨词类范畴确定的标准㊂牟杨版译文读起来很拗口,主要原因是拘泥于原文英语的句式框架,逐词硬译㊂这样译文作为语言学参考书目,不但不能帮助学生理解原文,反而让学生。

综合测试题（一）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points) ：() 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.() 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.() 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.() 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.() 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.() 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.() 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.() 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.() 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research. ()10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. displacementD. interchangeability2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A. analyticB. isolatingC. syntheticD. agglutinating3. The general roles language plays are termedA. metalanguagesB. metafunctionsC. metadiscoursesD. metagrammar4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A. BlendingB. EponymsC. BackformationD. Clipping5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A. suffixB. prefixC. morphemeD. morph6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A. EnvironmentalistB. functionalistC. nativistD. both a and b7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.A. person deixisB. time deixisC. place deixisD. discourse deixis8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleusB. onsetC. codeD. rhyme9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A. linguisticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.A. pidginB. creoleC. EsperantoD. natural languageIII. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets: (10 points)A( ) 1. Socialinguistics( ) 2. Applied Linguistics( ) 3. Morphology( ) 4. Phonetics( ) 5. Linguistics( ) 6. Syntax( ) 7. Psycholinguistics( ) 8. Pragmatics( ) 9. Phonology( ) 10 SemanticsBa. the analysis of sentence structureb. the analysis of meaning in contextc. the analysis of meaningd. the study of sound systems and patternse. the application of linguistic theories to other spheresf. the study of speech soundsg.the study of the relationship between language and societyh.the study of word structurei. the scientific study of languagej. the study of the relationship between language and mindIV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s) they all share: (10 points) 1. [t∫][dз] 2. [m] [n] [ɡ] 3. [f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h] 4. [d] [n] [z] [l] [r] 5. [i:] [i] [u:] [u]V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)Words analyzed number of morphemes troublesome free morphemesstepmother psycholinguistics understatement antidisestablishmentarianismVI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)1. The duck is too hot to eat. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________2. Visiting friends can be boring. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. derivation2. learner factors。

语言学概论主编：杨忠目录第一章语言和语言文化 (2)第二章语音学 (8)第三章音位学 (13)第四章形态学 (19)第五章句法 (23)第六章语义学 (36)第七章语用学 (41)第八章社会语言学 (47)第九章第二语言习得 (52)第十章语言学与外语教学 (57)第一章语言和语言学一、导读1.1 什么是语言？我们在醒着的大多数时间里运用语言（在梦里也会用到）。

人们经常把语言看成是理所当然。

在与他人交往过程中，我们很少思考是什么让我们可以谈论宇宙和我们心灵世界的一切。

作为一名外语学习者，你是否对语言的本质进行过思考？作为一名职业英语教师，你是否对你所教授学科的本质有过探索？深入这个问题，去理解语言的多面性。

语言包括很多作用：语言是交流手段，是符号系统，是文化载体，是思维工具。

正是由于语言的多面性，解释了语言的的定义不能被普遍接受的原因。

语言学家们必须要直面这个问题，在他们课题中，语言作为他们的研究对象。

过去，数以百计的这类定义被提出。

在这里，我们要引用一些来做讨论。

语言是一个系统，它的要素可以并且一定能被考虑到它们的共时等同中。

（de Saussure，1916）语言是语句的一种心向（限定词或者非限定词），每一个限定词在词长以及构建出自限定词的要素的心向。

（Chomsky，1957）语言仅仅是人类非本能的通过自主产生的符号，来交流思想，情绪，要求的一种手段。

（Sapir，1921）不同的语言学家从不同的视角对语言进行了定义，反映了语言本质的不同侧面，但与此同时，也遗漏了一些问题。

在语言学界，“语言是人类用于交际的任意有声符号系统”的定义得到了广泛的接受。

这一定义是建立在理论的假设上的。

就其本身而言，语言是被看做是人类所特有的。

换而言之，就是假定语言只有人类才有。

动物的交流系统（比如鸟的吱吱叫，蜜蜂的舞蹈，狗的叫声等等）都被排除在外。

交流系统是否也被被定义为不同于人类的其他生物所掌握了？1.2人类语言的本质特征许多哲学家和语言学家都相信语言是人类所独有的。

综合测试题（一）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points) ：() 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.() 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.() 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.() 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.() 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.() 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.() 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.() 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.() 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research. ()10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. displacementD. interchangeability2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A. analyticB. isolatingC. syntheticD. agglutinating3. The general roles language plays are termedA. metalanguagesB. metafunctionsC. metadiscoursesD. metagrammar4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A. BlendingB. EponymsC. BackformationD. Clipping5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A. suffixB. prefixC. morphemeD. morph6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A. EnvironmentalistB. functionalistC. nativistD. both a and b7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.A. person deixisB. time deixisC. place deixisD. discourse deixis8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleusB. onsetC. codeD. rhyme9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A. linguisticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.A. pidginB. creoleC. EsperantoD. natural languageIII. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets: (10points)A( ) 1. Socialinguistics( ) 2. Applied Linguistics( ) 3. Morphology( ) 4. Phonetics( ) 5. Linguistics( ) 6. Syntax( ) 7. Psycholinguistics( ) 8. Pragmatics( ) 9. Phonology( ) 10 SemanticsBa. the analysis of sentence structureb. the analysis of meaning in contextc. the analysis of meaningd. the study of sound systems and patternse. the application of linguistic theories to other spheresf. the study of speech soundsg.the study of the relationship between language and societyh.the study of word structurei. the scientific study of languagej. the study of the relationship between language and mindIV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s) they all share: (10 points) 1. [t∫][dз] 2. [m] [n] [ɡ] 3. [f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h] 4. [d] [n] [z] [l] [r] 5. [i:] [i] [u:] [u]V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)Words analyzed number of morphemes troublesome free morphemesstepmother psycholinguistics understatement antidisestablishmentarianismVI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)1. The duck is too hot to eat. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________2. Visiting friends can be boring. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. derivation2. learner factorsVIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. What is the difference between “a red and a redcoat”?2. What are the features of modern linguistics?3. According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?综合测试题（二）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)() 1. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logical metafunction.() 2. Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.() 3. Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation according to Halliday. () 4. Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.() 5. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning.() 6. Second language acquisition is a complex process which involves social factors and learner factors.() 7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialets, sociodialects and registers.() 8.Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.() 9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.() 10. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The language used to talk about language is called __________.A. languageB. metalanguageC. natural languageD. artificial language2. [+continuant] specifies ________________.A. all the fricativesB. all the fricatives and glidesC. all the fricatives and liquidsD. all the fricatives, liquids and glides3. _________ is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words.A. CoinageB. BlendingC. AcronmymsD. Clipping4. A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.A. morphemeB. wordC. phonemeD. allophones5. The word “multinationality has ___________ morphemes.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 56. _________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use”, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are “varieties according to user”.A. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register7. __________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A. back-channel signalsB. adjacency pairsC. pre-sequencesD. insertion sequences8. The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized by Grice(1975) as ____________.A. the principle of relevanceB. cooperative principleC. the politeness principleD. the theory of prototypes9. Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they differ in __________.A. affective meaningB. styleC. collocationD. register10. “John explained the theory” is a ___________ process according to Halliday.A. materialB. mentalC. verbalD. behavioralIII. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points) 1. Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative principle generalized by Grice.2. M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and language teachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.3. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act. The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act. The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.4. The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________.5. C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.6. A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a___________,7.The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of children’ language development.8. A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from other regional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.IV. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)A() 1. This vet is very famous in the town.() 2. This classroom is large and bright..() 3. He is watering flowers.() 4.Orlon is a kind of cloth material.() 5. Watt is the measurement unit of electricity.() 6. EEC is an important organization in the world.() 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.() 8. The road was enlarged last year.() 9. Some young people have brunch quite often.Ba. Conversionb. Derivationc. Blendingd. Backformatione. Acronymf. Compoundingg. Coinageh. Eponymi. ClippingV. Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the sounds according to the natural class of sounds. And then name the feature(s) that define the one picked out and the group of sounds: (10 points)For example: 1. [ 2. [ 3. [ 4. [ 5. [ [z] voiced/voiceless ____ ____ ____ ___________ [f] [θ] [z] [s] [m] [?] [l] [n] [p] [b] [m] [v] [w] [s] [z] [∫] [dз] [з] [i:] [i] [?] [u] [e] [i:] [?:] [e] [?] ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________] __________________________VI. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the se ntence, “He found his book on Wall Street”: (10 points)VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. language and linguistics2. semantics and pragmaticsVII. Answer the following questions:(40%)1. How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human language?2. What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship between them?3. What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?综合测试题（三）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets. (10 points)()1. A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.() 2. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.() 3. The word “went” contains two morphemes.() 4. The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is called componential analysis (CA).() 5. Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or association with particular objects, action, or persons.() 6. The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.() 7. In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in Korean, they are allophones. () 8. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.() 9. Compounding is one type of word formation by combining both free morphemes andbound morphemes.()10. The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The followings are all features of language except __________.A. dualityB. productivityC. changeabilityD. displacement2. The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.A. synonymyB. antonymC. polysemyD. homonymy3. ______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ConversionB. AbbreviationC. EponymsD. Blending4. Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.A. babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speechB. babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrasticC. babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speechD. babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word5. The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second language acquisition except _________.A. motivationB. nationalityC. ageD. learning strategy6. Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leech (1983) proposes _____________.A. the cooperative principleB. the principle of relevanceC. the politeness principleD. speech acts7. Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.A. moon/noonB. foot/foodC. she/sheetD. sea/sea8. The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called ___________.A. distinctive featuresB. non-distinctive featuresC. suprasegmental featuresD. free variation9. The ____________ function (sometimes also referred to as experiential function) is realized by the transitivity system of language.A. ideationalB. interpersonalC. textualD. logical10. Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound morphemes _________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. affixesD. inflectional morphemesIII. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)A( ) 1. Most children like drinking Coca-cola.( ) 2. UNESCO is a branch United Nations.( ) 3. The police machineguned the gang.( ) 4. I like sandwiches very much.( ) 5. There are a lot of fruits in the fridge.( ) 6. Infotech is popular nowadays.( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.( ) 8. His stepmother is very kind to him.( ) 9.The street was widened last year.Ba. Conversionb. Derivationc. Blendingd. Backformatione. Acronymf. Compoundingg. Coinage h. Eponym i. ClippingIV. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(10 points)1. labiodentals2. interdentals3. back vowels4. high vowels5. palatal affricatesV. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket. (10 points)A( ) 1. The noise annoyed him.( ) 2. The police caught him( ) 3. There are two books on the table.( ) 4. John explained the theory to me.( ) 5. He watches TV every day.( ) 6. The conference is on MondayBa. Material processb. Relational processc. Mental processd. Verbal processe. Behavioral processf. Existential processVI. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. arbitrariness2. voicingVII. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “They can fish”. (10 points) VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. 2. What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse? What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with examples.3. What are the components of metaphors?综合测试题（四）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. English is a tone language.( ) 2. Bound morphemes are always attached to free morphemes to form new words.( ) 3. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meanings.( ) 4. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process.( ) 5. Overgeneralization is found universal in second language acquisition.( ) 6. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are experiential metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and discourse metafunction.( ) 7. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.() 8. There are two types of language in the world: natural language and artificial language. ( ) 9. Coinage is a process of inventing words based on existing morphemes.( )10 Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contributions in learning a second language.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The word “antidisestablishmentariaism” is composed of ______ morphemes.A. sixB. sevenC. eightD. nine2. __________ refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A. VoicingB. VoicedC. NasalizationD. Aspiration3. Smog is a ___________ word.A. derivedB. clippedC. blendedD. compound4. The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importance. This kind of motivation may be termed ____ motivation.A. instrumentalB. integrativeC. cognitiveD. none of them5. [u:] possesses the features _____________.A.[+high][+back][+round][-tense]B. [+high][-back][+round][+tense]C.[+high][+back][+round][+tense]D. [-high][+back][+round][+tense]6. English is an example of _________ languages.A. VSOB. SVOC. SOVD. SVO7.A ________ is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.A. phonemeB. phoneC. morphemeD. morph8. Free morphemes were traditionally called _________.A. affixesB. prefixC. suffixD. root9. The lexical sense relation between elephant and animal is __________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. antonymyD. homonymy10. Words like male and female, pass and fail, etc. are ________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. relativeIII. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracketbefore the sentence. (10 points)A( ) 1. John is talking to Jane.( ) 2. Tom is the leader( ) 3. There is a cat on the bed.( ) 4. The bad news astonished her.( ) 5. Edward broke the window.( ) 6. He waved his hands.Ba. Material processb. Relational processc. Mental processd. Verbal processe. Behavioral processf. Existential processIV. State what semantic property or properties are shared by the group of words. (10 points)For example: typewriter, ruler, notebook 1. king, bachelor, son 2. bull, rooster, stallion 3. pine, rose, elm 4. bravery, charity, devotion 5. car, bike, plane [ +stationary] ________________________ ________________________V. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and the describe it. (10 points)Example: far [a:] back low vowel1. thread2. beat3. important4. live5. stop [ [ [ [ [ ] ] ] ] ]VI. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10 points)1. She can not bear children.(1) (2)(3) ______________________________________________2. He hates old men and women.(1) (2) ______________________________________________VII. Explain the following terms with examples. (10 points)1. 2. Compounding Free variationVII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. 2. What is the distinction between semantics and pragmatics? What are the four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence according to Hymes (1972)?3. What are the three types of antonyms (lexical opposition) in English?综合测试题（五）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)() 1. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.( ) 2. Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meaning.() 3. The Swiss linguist Chomsky regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.( ) 4. Language can be used to refer to things real or false, past, present or future.( ) 5. Language is merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation.( ) 6. We use language as symbolic code to represent the world around us.( ) 7. The ideatonal function of language binds individuals together.( ) 8. When we speak or write we usually confine ourselves to single phrases or sentences. ( ) 9. Language is mostly a natural phenomenon.() 10. Applied linguistic is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields.Ⅱ. Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it. (5 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Geographic Red Song Clock PsychopathyⅢ. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions. (5 points)Initial pit/bit Medial rapid/rabid Final cap/cabFind similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. /k/-/g/ /m/-/n/ /l/-/r/ /b/-/v/ /b/-/m/Ⅳ. Each of the following columns illustrates a different morphological process. (10 points) Column ⅠA. chairs B. wider C.looked D. Tom’sColumn ⅡA. reality B. movement C.malcontent D. stepmotherColumn ⅢA. blackboard B. greenhouse C. makeshift D. paintwork(1) What morphological process is shown by Column Ⅰ, Ⅱand Ⅲ.(2) What is the morphological difference between a),b) and c),d) in Column Ⅱ.Ⅴ. Tell whether polarity or modality is expressed in the following sentences if modality, then identify the type (modalization or modulation). (10 points)1. I have not finished the task.2. He often comes to my office.3. I will show you how to make up the bed.4. He hardly came back to see his mother.5. The company ought to cut the price of the products.Ⅵ. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/-PAN], [+/-POT], [+/-OVEN], [+/-SIEVE], etc. (10 points)boil: fry: steam: stew: bake:Ⅶ. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved: (15 points)a). The professor’s app ointment was shocking.b). The design has big squares and circles.c). The governor is a dirty street fighter.Ⅷ. What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B? What is the implicature? (5points)a). The dress is lovely, isn’t it?b). The material is nice.Ⅸ. Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence the magician touched the child with the wand. Be sure you indicate which meaning goes with which tree. (10 points)Ⅹ. Answer the following question: (20 points)1. What is the functioning of stress and intonation in English?2. How do you account for the relation between phonetics and phonology?综合测试题（六）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (20 points)( ) 1. In the study of the first step is the task of auditory phonetics.( ) 2. The sound source is the larynx.( ) 3. The oral cavity contains most of the articulators, namely, the uvula, the velum the hard palate.( )4. Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower lip are labialdentals.( ) 5. Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.( ) 6. Abbreviations are formed by putting together the final letters of some or all words in a phrase or title.( ) 7. Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. ( ) 8. All members.of a speech community can send and take messages.( ) 9.Traditional grammar was initially based on European language, particularly on Latin and German.( ) 10. One of the important concepts of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.( ) 11. Pragmatics is the analysis of meaning in context.( ) 12. The meanings communicated through language are or two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings( ) 13. An expression used by a speaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.( ) 14. Chomsky theory of conversational implicature is regarded as a breakthrough in pragmatic study of language use.( ) 15. Relevance is a relative notion. It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.( ) 16. Modality can be categorized into modalization and intention.( ) 17. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the object and the finite.( ) 18. Relational processes are linguistic processes that represent a relation being set up between two separate.( ) 19. Mental processes are processes of sensing.( ) 20. A TG grammar must account for all or only grammatical sentences.Ⅱ. Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes. (5 points)1. Retroactive2. Befriended3. Televise4. Margin5. EndearmentⅢ.Write the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part of each word in A. (5 points)Aa. terrorizedb. uncivilizedc. terrorized. lukewarme. impossible B(1) free root (2) bound root (3) inflectional suffix (4) derivational suffix (5) inflectional prefix (6) derivational prefix (7) inflectional infix (8) derivational infixⅣ. Write out at least ten structure rules that each of the following rules abbreviate. (5 points)VP→V (NP) (PP) (Adv) NP→(Det) (Adj) N (PP)Ⅴ .Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences: (10 points)a) The man found the letter.b) The students put the books in the classroom.Ⅵ. Write the semantic feature shared by the given words. (5 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bull, rooster, bachelor, boy Milk, water, alcohol, oil Squash, tennis, cricket, fencing, boxing Idea, concept, love, clarity, democracy Pine, elm, willow, birch, poplarⅦ.Each of the following words is a basic level term. Write its superordinate in the left blank and one of its subordinate in the right blank. (10 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. table willow cat blue dictionary painting driver verb chemistry juiceⅧ. The opposite of analytic is contradictory. A sentence that is false due to the meaning of its words alone is contradictory.Kings are female is an example. Write a C by the contradictory sentences and S for situational by sentences that are not contradictory. (10 points)1. My sister is a man.2. Witches are wicked.3. My sister is an only child.4. The evening star isn’t the morning star.5. The evening star isn’t the evening star.6. Babies are adults.7. Babies can lift one ton.8. Puppies are human.9. My bachelor friends are all married.10. My bachelor friends are all lonely.Ⅸ. Pig Latin is a common language game of English; but even Pig Latin has dialects, forms of the “language game” with differen t rules. (10 points)Consider the following data from three dialects of Pig Latin, each with its own rule applied to words beginning with vowels: Dialect 1 “eat” “arc” [itme] [arkme] Dialect 2 [ithe] [arkhe] Dialect 3 [ite] [arke]⑴State the rule that accounts for the Pig Latin forms in each dialect. Dialect 1: Dialect 2: Dialect 3: ⑵How would you say honest, admire, and illegal in each dialect? Give the phonetic transcription of the Pig Latin forms. honest admire 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3.Illegal1.2.3.Ⅹ. Answer the following questions: (20 points)1. What is the function of phonological knowledge?2. Exemplify the differences between anaphoric and cataphoric reference.综合测试题（七）Ⅰ. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points) 1. 2. The term l a refers to the natural process of children’s language development. It is found that children all undergo certain stages of language development, namely the b 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. stage, holophrastic stage, , the two-word stage, and the telegraphic speech stage. The practice of error analysis is divided into i describing and explaining. S refers to the analysis of meaning . In the aspect of affective meaning, statesman is commending in sense while politician is d D synonyms are words which are similar in meaning but used in different dialects of the language. In order to avoid repetition the writer needs to use a s to replace a word used in the previous co-text when he/she wants to continue to address that idea.8. 9. The sentence “The bachelor is unmarried” is it t The domain to be conceptualized is called t domain.10. P event.Ⅱ. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions: (5 points)。

北京外国语大学1.《中式英语之鉴》Joan Pinkham 、姜桂华著，2000年，外语教学与研究出版社。

2.《英汉翻译简明教程》庄绎传著，2002年，外语教学与研究出版社。

3.《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》叶子南著，2001年，清华大学出版社。

4.《非文学翻译理论与实践》罗进德主编，2004年，中国对外翻译出版公司。

5.《非文学翻译》，李长栓著，2009年9月外语教学与研究出版社出版。

6.《非文学翻译理论与实践》，李长栓著，中国对外翻译出版公司。

广东外语外贸大学初试无参考书，以下为复试参考书目：1.《实用翻译教程（修订版）》，刘季春主编，中山大学出版社，2007年。

2.《英汉翻译基础教程》，冯庆华、穆雷主编，高等教育出版社，2008年。

3.《英语口译教程》，仲伟合主编，高等教育出版社，2007年。

4.《商务英语口译》（第二版），赵军峰主编，高等教育出版社，2009年。

5. 有关英语八级考试的书籍，以及英美政治、经济、文化等方面百科知识的书籍湖南师范大学暂无，复试科目为：听力、英语写作南京大学暂无，可用近年来国内出版的英语专业高级阅读、翻译、写作教材，以及任何大学语文教材南开大学暂无，参考《全日制翻译硕士专业学位（MTI）研究生入学考试指南》，外研社同济大学翻译硕士英语：暂无参考书，建议考生多阅读国内外英文报刊杂志，扩大词汇量，扩宽视野，培养中西文化比较意识。

汉语写作与百科知识：不设具体参考书目，希望考生关注时事，加强人文知识的学习和积累。

英语翻译基础：1.《文体与翻译》,刘宓庆,中国对外翻译出版公司,20072.《实用翻译教程》,冯庆华,上海外语教育出版社,20073.《翻译基础》，刘宓庆，华东师范大学出版社，2008西南大学1．《实用汉英翻译教程》，曾诚编，北京：外语教学与研究出版社。

2．《英译汉教程》，连淑能编著，北京：高等教育出版社。

中南大学翻译硕士英语，暂无英语翻译基础：1.《英汉—汉英应用翻译教程》，方梦之编，上海外语教育出版社，2004年2.《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》，叶子南编，清华大学出版社，2008年汉语写作与百科知识：1.《应用文写作》，王首程主编，高等教育出版社，2009年中山大学翻译硕士英语：1.英美概况部分参见《英语国家社会与文化入门》上、下册，朱永涛编，高等教育出版社，2005；2.其它部分不列参考书汉语写作与百科知识: 参照教指委公布的考试大纲北京航空航天大学翻译硕士英语：不根据某一教科书命题英语翻译基础：1. Dictionary of Translation Studies 上海外语教育出版社（2004年）2.《翻译研究词典》外语教学与研究出版社（2005年）3.《英汉互译实用教程》武汉大学出版社（2003年）汉语写作与百科知识：不根据某一教科书命题北京师范大学1.庄绎传，《英汉翻译简明教程》。

东北师范大学外国语言学及应用语言学考研经验考研其实是一件非常枯燥和艰辛的过程，这段时间也非常感谢high研APP 的伙伴们的鼓励和支持，没有你们我可能都坚持不下来。

只有一个建议：选择自己喜欢且擅长的，剩下要做的就是朝着这个方向努力啦。

关于初试一、参考书及资料政治：肖秀荣精讲精练，肖秀荣1000题，肖秀荣历年真题，李凡政治新时器，肖秀荣四套卷，八套卷，时政小册子，风中劲草德语：德语四级练习册，新编大学德语教材前三册，东师真题专业课：杨忠语言学，杨忠对应练习册，胡壮麟语言学（没看完），英语国家概况（下册没看），星火语言学，东师真题基础英语：精读56册，专八阅读，东师真题二、各科准备情况1.政治由于我高中是理科生，政治几乎是零基础，所以还是花费了很多时间在政治上面的。

马克思不懂的那部分看看加深一下理解，最开始看的是政治新时器和配套的1000题，1000题能做几遍是几遍，虽然到最后也有很多记不住，但我觉得做题能加深我的记忆。

不赞同买好多本习题册，一本书看得精比看好多本书有用多了。

到了后期可以看看风中劲草，有人是直接背，我剩的时间很少，就只是把做题中不会的知识点给看了。

大题就只是背了肖四，还是就剩几天才背的（心痛的回忆呀），全押中了也是幸运哈哈哈！第一轮的复习，是最为基础的复习。

刚开始，不需要给自己的复习太大压力，主要的任务是熟悉考点。

政治学科和其他学科不同，不必要静下来来看很长时间书才开始做题。

政治科目的复习，可以把看书和做题交叉在一起，配套进行。

边看书边做题，通过做题来强化自己看书的效果。

能够做到熟知考点，遇到考点不觉得陌生，就可以了。

这一轮的复习，建议以单项选择题为主，因为多项选择题需要有一定知识积累才能开始做题。

第二轮的复习，可谓是最艰难的。

经过一轮对知识点的熟悉，处在夹生半熟的状态。

多项选择题刚好可以检测知识点的复习情况。

这一轮的复习，是最为关键的。

在政治选择题中，最为关键的就是多项选择题，分值高、难度大，要想拿到不错的分数，务必好好练习。

hedge名词解释杨忠语言学Hedge（名词）是指一种由词语、短语或句子组成的修饰性语言结构，用于减少陈述句的强度或保留解释的余地。

它可以用来表达迟疑、推测、条件、可能性、不确定性等含糊不清的语气或态度。

英文解释：Hedge (noun) refers to a modifier linguistic structure composed of words, phrases, or sentences, used to reduce the intensity of a statement or to leave room for interpretation. It can be used to express hesitation, speculation, conditions, possibilities, uncertainties, or ambiguous tones or attitudes.双语例句：1. I think, maybe, it could be possible that he will come to the party.（我认为，也许，他有可能会来参加派对。

）2. We might need to consider some changes in the plan.（我们或许需要考虑一些方案的改变。

）3. She seems to be somewhat upset about the news.（她似乎对这个消息有点不高兴。

）4. I'm not entirely sure, but it could potentially rain tomorrow.（我并不完全确定，但明天有可能会下雨。

）5. It's possible that the package got lost in transit.（很可能是包裹在运送过程中丢失了。

）6. He probably won't finish the project on time.（他很可能无法按时完成这个项目。

1. What are the categories of lexical meaning？Lexical meaning includes：a) referential meaning （also denotative meaning)。

b) Associative meanings. Referential meaning is the central meaning and it is more stable and universal. Associative meanings are meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning, which are less stable and more culture-specific.Types of associative meanings：connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collective meaning2。

What are the components of metaphor？There are two positions on the function of metaphors: a）the classical view sees metaphor a rhetorical device；b) another view holds metaphor a cognitive device。

Metaphors 一s possible precisely because there are metaphors in a person’s conceptual systems。

All metaphors are composed of two domains：target domain (also tenor) and source domain （vehicle）.3. How does transformational grammar account for sentence- relatedness?1）According to Chomsky, a grammar as the tacit shared knowledge of all speakers is a system of finite rules by which an infinite number of sentences can be generated。

2019年北京交通大学外国语言文学考研经验分享【关于研究方向的选择】一战的失败让我对择校产生了阴影。

二战的择校显得格外艰难。

不能否认跨考有非常多的成功案例，但是相较于打了四年基本功的同学来说，确实没有特别大的优势。

跟家里人商量之后，二战决定考回英语专业。

英语专业的研究生方向大概可以分为以下几类：外国语言文学（也就是英美文学），外国语言学及应用语言学，翻译学，学科教学（英语），MTI翻译硕士…如有遗漏，欢迎大家进行补充～【不成熟的择校建议】根据自己的经验，下面有几条建议可供大家参考①选择可以找到近5-10年真题的学校；、②选择可以联系到在读学长学姐的学校（新祥旭专业课一对一辅导课程，直系学长一对一指导）；③明确目标院校报录比；④关注近年来分数线/招生简章/参考书目及考试范围…当然有些考研党可能会问该如何去找到这些资料，指路「研招网，各校研究生院网站，考研帮」。

如果问什么是“报录比”，麻烦出门右转找度娘。

先确定大范围（去哪个城市读研），再逐步按上面四条建议开始缩小范围。

列一张表格，然后一个个学校进行排除。

这里推荐一下环球时代的名校真题集，里面提供了十余所院校近年来的真题，可以大概浏览一下，各所学校难度如何心里也有底了。

也是在这本真题集里，偶然看到了北交大的题目，觉得难度比较适中，所以查完资料之后，拍板定下了北交大。

3.【各科目复习】北交大外国语言文学学硕内含三个子研究方向：语言学/文学/翻译学，但是初试内容都一样的。

其中：政治100分，二外100分，专业课1（语言学及英美文学）150分，专业课2（基础英语）150分。

A.「政治」：网上经验贴已经很多了，这里便不再赘述。

这两年我用的都是徐涛全套资料（包含网课及习题）肖四肖八，二战后期还关注了一些腿姐的内容，这三位老师都是考研界的良心，可以放心跟～今年选择题做的不好，只有34分，之前又听说帝都公共课压分（其实没有想象中的严重），还怕过不了单科线，所以考到这个分数还是挺满意的。

从认知角度分析“hand”一词的多义性摘要：一词多义不仅是一种语言现象，也是一种认知现象。

本文运用认知语言学的理论，以“hand”一词为例分析了一词多义现象的原因和生产机制。

一词多义是以原型范畴为基准，通过隐喻、转喻而形成的。

关键词：一词多义原型范畴隐喻转喻1.引言一词多义现象普遍存在于人类的语言中。

“多义是人类话语的一个基本特征。

”（ullmann， 1962：159）关于一词多义，david cristal （1980：274）是这样定义的，“ a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings.”即一个词语有多个不同却具有相互联系的意义认知语义学认为多义现象是一个词语有多种具有相互联系意义的语言现象，其研究表明多义现象是通过人类认知手段（如隐喻、换喻）有一个词的中心意义或基本意义向其他意义延伸的过程，是人类认知过程和概念化的结果（赵艳芳，2000：36）。

2.一词多义现象的产生一次多义现象是指一个单一的语言形式具有两种或两种以上的密切相关意义的聚合。

从语言词汇的发展演变来看，词汇意义可以分为本义和延伸义（或拓展义）。

词汇的本义是词汇的原义，一般是具体的，是人类对事物的最初认识；而词汇的延伸义是指从原义派生和演化来的词义。

人们不可能无限制地创造新的词汇来描述不断发展变化的客观世界，于是人们用已有的词汇去命名新事物或描述新现象。

词汇的意义就在本义的基础上得到延伸或扩展，一个词便带有两个或两个以上的意义，形成一词多义现象。

3.一词多义的认知理据“认知是语言历时发展的必备条件，没有人的主观认知能动性，语言不可能发展”。

（林正军，杨忠，2005：5）认知语言学强调人的认知对概念形成的作用，认为多义现象是一个词语有多种相互联系意义的语言现象，其研究表明一词多义现象是人类通过认知手段用一个词的基本意义向其他意义延伸的过程，是人类认知范畴化和概念化的结果。

Session One1. Branches of linguistics and schools of linguistics●Branches of linguistics are divided by reference to object of study, i.e.the subject matter of language as a phenomenon, seen as composed of many aspects or facets.●Schools of linguistics are divided by perspectives and methodology.2. Formalism and functionalism of Post-Saussurean Western linguistics●Logico-philosophical vs. rhetorical-ethnographic orientations oflinguistic studies in Western countries---language as rule or language as resource●Differences in perspectives between formalism and functionalism3. Functionalism as a stream of linguistics●Functionalism in EuropeThe Prague School:Major achievement — phonemic analysisRepresentatives — V. Mathesius （马西/泰修斯）N.S. Trubetzky（特鲁别茨科依）[Russian]A. Martinet （马丁内）[French]The Copenhagen School:Major achievement — text/ discourse analysisRepresentative — L. Hjelmslev (1899 -1965) [叶尔姆斯列夫] The London School:Major achievement — theory of contextSystemic-functional grammar Major representatives —J. R. Firth (1890-1960) [弗斯] (British)M.A.K. Halliday（1925-）●Functionalism in the U. S. A.Major achievement—linguistic relativity;Conitive grammar;Cognitive semantcs;Conceptual metaphorRepresentatives — F.Boas (1858-1942)E.Sapir (1884-1939)B.L.Whorf (1897-1941)FillmoreLangackerLakoffTalmy●Functionalism in China11 annual conferences held(7th held in NENU); China Association of Functional Linguistics4. The meaning of the term function●Organic/ constitutive function●Role function●Speech functions (as purpose or intention)●Metafunctions (as broad categories of meanings)The theory of metafunctions is the cornerstone of systemic- functional linguistics5. Tenets of functional approach to language(as generalised by Butler, C.S. 2003. Sturcture and Function: A Guide to Three Major Structural-functional Theories. Amsterdam/Philodelphia: John Benjamins)(1) An emphasis on language as as means of human communication in social and psychological contexts;(2) Rejection of the claim that the language system(the grammar) is arbitrary and self-contained, in favour of functional explanation in terms ofcognition, socio-cultural, physiological and diachraonic factors;(3) Rejection of the claim that syntax is a self-contained system, in favour of an approach where semantic and pragmatic patterning is regarded as central;(4) Recognition of the importance of non-discreteness in linguistic description and, more generally, of the importance of the cognitive dimensions;(5) A consern for the analysis of texts and their contexts of use;(6) A strong interest in typological matters;(7) The adoption of a constructionist rather than an adaptionist view of language acquisition.Session Two1.What is system?●Definition“A group of related parts that work together as a whole for a particular purpose” ( Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English)“同类事物按一定的关系组成的整体”(《现代汉语词典》)---Traffic lights as system of symbols：Stopping --- redSlowing down --- amberGoing --- green( Now at main crossroads there are also arrows for right and left turns, so the system is changed )---Chess as a system---The difference between chess and language●Features---Elements---Wholeness1) The idea of system as a concept in linguistics is first expounded in Course in General Linguistics, where system refers to langue, understood as the syntagmatic relation(linear).“What is language?“Language,[……], is a self-contained whole and a principle of classification”（Saussure1959:9）But the meaning of system is different in Halliday’s theory of grammar.2) The conception of system appeared in Halliday’s early publications:Halliday, M.A.K(1956 )Grammatical Categories in Modern Chinese. Transitions of the Philological Society, 1956. pp. 177-224. Reprinted in Kress(ed.)( 1976).Halliday, M.A.K, 1961 Categories of the Theory of Grammar. In Word, vol. 17, 3: 241-292.Halliday, M.A.K, 1963. ‘Class in relation to the axes of chain and choice in language’.Linguistics.No.2In these articles, Halliday put forward four fundamental categories of grammar: unit（单位）, class(类别), structure （结构）and system（系统）. In addition, there are three scales（阶）: rank（级）, exponence（标示）, delicacy(精密度).“韩礼德对语法的两大部分‘范畴’和‘阶’做了比过去全面成熟的归纳和阐述，对语言学界产生深远的影响，被公认为‘阶与范畴’（scale and category grammar）语法的发端。

LINGUISTICSLOGOClick to add contents1.Conversion(zero derivation)转类构词法2.Backformation逆向构词法3.Clipping截短构词法3.4.34.Blending混成构词法5.Acronym首字母拼音词6.Initialism(abbreviations)首字母拼写法7.Eponyms有由来的名词.(《语言学概论》杨忠)8.Coinage杜撰.(《语言学概论》杨忠)●Conversion is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.(more frequently between nouns and verbs ) .(《语言学概论》杨忠)●Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.Some compounds are also converted. Eg: The police machinegun the gang.●Some types of conversionⅠ名词与动词之间的词性转换a.noun→ verb:eg to butter the breadb.verb →noun:eg take a lookⅡ动词与形容词之间的词性转换a.adjective →verb：eg to open the door天将降大任于斯人也，必先苦其心志，劳其筋骨···b.verb→adjective：eg a stand-up comedianⅢ 其他adjective →noun:eg a nasty，the poor 亲爱的preposition→verb：eg to up the price●Backformation is a process that createsa new word by dropping a real supposedsuffix.(《语言学概论》杨忠)●Eg:donation →donate emotion →emote●This process by which parts of a word have been cut off is called clipping.(P61)●Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables. (《语言学概论》杨忠)●Eg:veterinarian→vet gymnasium →gym●Blending:a single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms.(P61)●Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words.(《语言学概论》杨忠)●Eg:smog=smoke+fogtelecast=television+broadcastbrunch=breakfast+lunchおはにちは=おはよう+こんにちは●Acronym is formed from the first letters ofa series of words. They can be read as a word.●Eg: AIDS: acquired immune deficiency syndromeradar: radio detecting and ranging超女快男毛概●Initialism: some new words are composed of the first letters of series of words and pronounced by saying each other in them.●Eg: CD: compact diskWTO:World Trade Organization●AIDS----------CPU●APEC---------GPS●The differences between acronym and initialism : acronyms can be read as a word, while initialism cannot.●Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.●Eg: sandwich: form the forth Earl of Sandwith who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.●Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.●Eg: Coca-cola Orlon Nike恒源祥Exercises●Find as many words as you can and form them in the same way and tell which process of word formation they are.a. to up the price g. to open the doorb. gym h. editc. smog i. AIDSd. bike j. BASICe. telecast k. IDf. opine l. UNKeys●ag: conversion●bd: clipping●ce: blending●fh: backformation●Ij: inicialism(BISIC:biginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction code初学者通用符号指令代码）●kl: acronymLOGO。

1. What are the categories of lexical meaning?Lexical meaning includes: a) referential meaning (also denotative meaning). b) Associative meanings. Referential meaning is the central meaning and it is more stable and universal. Associative meanings are meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning, which are less stable and more culture-specific.Types of associative meanings: connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collective meaning2. What are the components of metaphor?There are two positions on the function of metaphors: a) the classical view sees metaphor a rhetorical device; b) another view holds metaphor a cognitive device. Metaphors 一s possible precisely because there are metaphors in a person’s conceptual systems.All metaphors are composed of two domains: target domain (also tenor) and source domain (vehicle).3. How does transformational grammar account for sentence- relatedness?1) According to Chomsky, a grammar as the tacit shared knowledge of all speakers is a system of finite rules by which an infinite number of sentences can be generated. He attempts to account for this aspect of syntax by postulating that deep structures and surface structures.2) Deep structures are the basic structures generated by phrase structure rules.3) Surface structures are derived structures, the structures of sentences that we actually speak. Surface structures are derived from deep structures through transformational rules which include replacement, insertion, deletion and coping, etc.4. On what basis do linguists regard human language as species-specific (unique tohumans)?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Many philosophers and linguists believe that language is unique to man. Language is a human trait that sets us apart from other living creatures. They spell out a number of features of language which are not found in animal communication systems. These features: creativity, duality, arbitrariness, displacement, cultural transmission, interchangeability and reflexivity. These are universal features possessed by all human languages. Although some animal communication systems possess, to a very limited degree, one or another of these features except creativity and duality, none is found to have all the features. On this basis linguists tend to conclude that human languages are qualitatively different form animal communication systems.5. What part of syntax can phrase structure rules account for and what they cannot?Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. These rules are part of speakers’ syntactic knowledge, which govern the construction of sentences.There are a lot of part of syntactic knowledge, including structural ambiguity (which strings of words have more than one meaning), words order (different arrangements of the same words have different meanings), grammatical relations (what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly), recursion (the repeated use of the same rules to create infinite sentences), sentence relatedness (sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related), and syntactic categories (a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality) etc. Phrase structure rules canaccount for structural ambiguity, word order, grammatical relations, recursion, and syntactic categories; but they cannot account for sentence relatedness.6. How do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?The term variety is the label given to the form of a language used by any group of speakers or used in a particular field. A variety is characterized by the basic lexicon, phonology, syntax shared by members of the group. Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialects, sociolects and registers.A regional dialect is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area. The English language has many regional dialects. British English, American English, Australian English. Indian English, South African English, etc. are all regional varieties of the language. One dialect is distinctive from another phonologically, lexically and grammatically.7. What are the functions of supra-segmental features?The phonetic features, distinctive or non-distinctive, that we have discussed so far may be properties of single segments. In this section we will look at features that are found over a segment or sequence of two or more segments, which are called suprasegmental features. These features are also distinctive features. They are found in such units of syllables, words, phrases and sentences. The most widely found suprasegmental features are stress, intonation and tone.Stress is defined as the perceived prominence (comparative loudness) of one or more syllable elements over others in a word. This definition implies that stress is a relative notion. Intonation: when we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas. The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker. In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise and fall-rise. Toneis the variation of pitch at the word level to distinguish words. The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones. English is not a tone language. Chinese is a typical tone language.Intonation and stress generally occur simultaneously in utterance. When intonation contour falls on a syllable, the nucleus is stressed and the vowel is naturally lengthened a bit. In the meantime, there is a little pause after the syllable. This simultaneous functioning of the features serves to highlight the information focus, or to eliminate ambiguity (double interpretations of the same phrase or sentence).8. What are aspects of syntactic knowledge?Syntactic knowledge is the knowing of which strings of words are grammatical and which are not. In addition, it includes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammatical relations 4) recursion 5) sentence relatedness 6) syntactic categories.9. The advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?1st, it is a breakthrough in the formal representation of meaning. Once formally represented, meaning components can be seen. 2nd, it reveals the impreciseness of the terminology in the traditional approach to meaning analysis. Looking at the semantic formula of man and woman again you can see that it is not true that the total meaning of one word contrasts with that of the other. It is merely in one semantic feature that the two words contrast. When we look at the semantic formulae of man and father, we find that all the semantic features of man are included in the semantic formula of father. Then we reach a different conclusion from common sense in regard to the relation between man and father. Is this contradictory? The answer is No. The obvious fact that man includes father is derived from the perspective of reference. Componential analysis examines thecomponents of sense. The more semantic features a word has, the narrower its reference it is.The limitations of componential analysis are also apparent. It cannot be applied to the analysis of all lexicon, merely to words within the same semantic field. It is controversial whether semantic features are universal primes of word meanings in all language. Nevertheless, CA is so far a most influential approach in the structural analysis of lexical meaning.11. Why is linguistics a vast field of study?Linguistics is a broad field of study, because language is a complicated entity with many layers and facets. There are a number of divisions of linguistics, which can be put into two categories. 1) Intra-disciplinary divisions: the study of language in general is often termed general linguistics. It is based on the view that language as a system is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. 2) Inter-disciplinary divisions. a) Sociology deals with language and culture. b) Psycholinguistics deals with the relation between language and mind c) applied linguistics is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields. All above three belong to sociolinguistics.12. How is linguistics different from traditional grammar?1)Traditional grammar is prescriptive and modern linguistics is descriptive.2)Traditional grammatical categories are merely based on European language but linguistic studies all languages.3)Traditional grammar lacks a theoretical framework, while modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.13.How are speech sounds described?The study of speech sounds is phonetics which includes 3 parts: 1) articulatory phonetics 2) acoustic phonetics 3) auditory phonetics. Articulatory phonetics is the primary concern in linguistics, in which speech sound is described within 3 sides:The description of consonants: a) place of articulation b) manners of articulation c) voicing d) aspirationThe description of vowels: a) monophthongs b) diphthongs c) lip rounding d) tensity14. Difference between linguistic competence and communicative competence1) Linguists like Chomsky who are not concerned with language use propose the term linguistic competence to account for a speaker’s knowledge of his or her language.2) Sociolinguists like Dell Hymes propose communicative competence as the most general term to account for both the tacit knowledge of language and the ability to use it. According to Hymes, there are 4 parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence, namely the ability to judge: a) whether sth is possible. b) feasible c) appropriate 4) done.15. How are words decomposed into their constituents1) Words are composed of one or more than one morphemes.2) Morphemes are the smallest meaningful unit of language.3) Morphemes can be categorized into 2 kinds. a) free morphemes( they constitute words by themselves) b) bound morphemes( they are never used independently)4) Bound morphemes include inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes.16. What are aspects of syntactic knowledge?Syntactic knowledge is the knowing of which strings of words are grammatical and which are not. In addition, it includes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammaticalrelations 4) recursion 5) sentence relatedness 6) syntactic categories.17. What are the two classes of phonetic features? What is the fundamental difference?The two classes of phonetic features are distinctive features and non-distinctive features. Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, in other words, those distinguishing phonemes. Non-distinctive features do not distinguish meanings, i.e. the features belong to allophones. However, whether a phonetic feature is distinctive or non-distinctive varies from one language to another language.18. How do you account for the relation between phonetics and phonology? Phonology and phonetics are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but the two differ in perspectives. Phonetics, particularly articulatory phonetics, focuses on how speech sounds are produced, what phonetic features they have, and how to transcribe them. In phonetics, sound segments are assumed to be invariable; variations are overlooked.Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions. What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language? 19. What are the components of communicative competence？According to Hedge, there are mainly five components of communicative competence. They are linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence, and fluency.1. Analyze the sentence in terms of type of process, mood structure, and theme and rheme:The academician will address the issue of the legitimacy of cloning at the conference.It is the verbal process. In this sentence, the sayer is the academician, the receivers are the people at the conference though it is not mentioned but we can infer it from the sentence. The verbiage is the issue of the legitimacy of cloning.This sentence is the realization of linguistic interaction, it is the giving of information. Its syntactic form is statement. The subject is the academician, the finite is the verbal operator “will”.The constituent that stands for the starting-point for the message is termed theme; all the rest of the sentence is labeled rheme. In this sentence, the theme is the academician and “the issue of the legitimacy of cloning at the conference” is the rheme.2. Analyze the two English sound segments【K】and 【Kh】in terms of distribution and the phonetic feature that distinguish them.1) Both are in complementary distribution. They are the allophones of the phoneme【K】. 【K】: fricative, voiceless, alveolar.【Kh】: elsewhere2) the phonetic feature that distinguish them is aspirationWhat are aspects of syntactic knowledge?Syntactic knowledge is the knowing of which strings of words are grammatical and which are not. In addition, it includes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammatical relations 4) recursion 5) sentence relatedness 6) syntactic categories.3. Point out the semantic problem of the sentence "the orphan is staying with his parentsThere are some sentences which sound grammatical but meaningless. The sentence "theorphan is staying with his parents” is just one example. This sentence is always false which is called contradiction. An orphan is a child whose parents are dead, or a child who has been deprived of parental care. The theme (the orphan) and the rheme (is staying with his parents) are incompatible.4. Analyze the change of feature concerning the liquids and nasals in flight, snow, smart, pray and generalize the rule.Liquids /l/ /r/ appear after a voiceless consonant /f/ and /p/ respectively, they are devoiced.Nasals /n//m/ appear after a voiceless consonant /s/, they are devoiced.Rule: Devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant.Or: When the English liquids, glides and the two anterior nasals appear after a voiceless consonant, it is devoiced. This rule can be expressed as follows: devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant，that is, [+voiced+consonantal] [-voiced] / [-voiced+consonantal]-. The phonology /l/ /r/ belong to liquids, and /m/ /n/ belong to anterior nasals. All these four are voiced consonant, but in these words, they change to the voiceless, for they appear after voiceless consonants.6. Analyze the cooking term stew as a verb by way of componential analysis and mark the feature that you think is distinguisher.stew: +cook +hot +close dish +juice (+ juice: semantic distinguisher)7. Analyze the cause of the error that some Chinese speakers of English use although and but within one sentence.In the process of analyzing learners' language, error analysis is a milestone. Explaining errors is the final but very important step in error analysis. In terms of sources, errorsare divided into interlingual errors and intralingual errors. Interlingual errors are caused by mother tongue interference which means the negative role one's knowledge of L1 to L2 learning. In Chinese, we can use “不但”，“而且”in the same sentence, so some Chinese speakers transfer this expression directly to English. But according to English grammar, “although” and “but” can not appear in the same sentence. This phenomenon is a kind of negative transfer of learners' syntactic knowledge. This is a typical phenomenon of interference in learning.9. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/- WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/- PAN], [+/- POT], [+/- OVEN], [+/- SIEVE], etc. boil: [+WATER] [-FAT] [- PAN] [+ POT] [- OVEN] [- SIEVE]fry: [- WATER] [+FAT] [+ PAN] [- POT], [- OVEN] [+SIEVE]steam: [+WATER] [-FAT] [- PAN] [+POT] [-OVEN] [- SIEVE]stew: [+WATER] [+FAT] [- PAN] [+ POT] [- OVEN] [- SIEVE]bake: [- WATER] [+FAT] [- PAN] [- POT] [+ OVEN] [- SIEVE]10. Write the type of reference of it in each of the following sentences:(1)It is rather foggy these days.(2)It is so far hard to tell how many lives are claimed in the catastrophe..(3)The most powerful earthquake triggered massive tidal waves that slammed into coastlines across Asia yesterday. It killed over 30,000 people in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Maldives.(1)“It” here refers to the weather. It is an exphoric reference, referring to the world outside linguistic forms.(2)“It” refers to the following expression, “how man lives are claimed in the catastrophe”,which is a linguistic form.. Thus, it is an endophoric reference, specifically, cataphoric reference (cataphora).(3)“It” refers to the preceding expression, that “massive tidal waves slammed into coastlines across Asia yesterday”. Therefore, it is an endophoric reference, specifically, anaphoric reference (anaphora).11. Analyze the ambiguity of the two sentences, telling the difference:(1)Flying planes can be dangerous.(2)She cannot bear children.1. a. The behavior of flying planes can be dangerous.b. Planes which is flying can be dangerous.2. a. She cannot endure children.b. She cannot give birth to children.1 Analyze the relation of –er –est and more most in English and generalize their distribution.-er est are the inflectional affixes of adj. or adv . –er and more are allomorphs of a same morpheme indicating comparative. –est and most are allomorphs of a same morpheme indicating superlative. Distribution of more most is before a adj. which has at least two syllables. –er –est are used as the affixes of adj. and adv. which has one ore two syllables.2 analyze the semantic difference of father and daddy in the given sentence, using Leech `s classification of lexical meanings.Classification: connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning and collocative meaning. Daddy has an affective meaning. When you use the term,you are in intimate relationship with your father. So a father is just who has a child, but daddy is the one loved by his child.3 analyze the difference between summon and call in terms of register.Register refers to varieties according to use. Summon is a formal word, used in court of law to order sb to appear, while call is widely used in daily life.4 point out the maxim flouted and the implicature of B `s utterance:A: Did you notice something odd between the host and hostess?B: Have another glass of beer?It flouted the maxim of relevance. The implicature of B` s utterance : the hearer doesn `t want to gossip about those people .5 point out the degree of formality of :It is gratifying that the cooperative program has been proceeding smoothly formal.6 what is distinctive featureDistinctive features are features that distinguish meanings.7 How do you account for the relation between semantics and pragmatics.They are two separate fields. Both study meaning, but semantics studies the conventional meaning of a word while pragmatics studies the international meaning, the meaning in use. Semantics is bilateral while pragmatics is trilateral. Semantics studies the relationship between sign and meaning, but pragmatics studies the sign, meaning and user.8 What are the two main schools of contemporary western linguistics? What are the fundamental differences between them?TG grammar v.s systematic-functional grammarTG based on UG, studies the general principles while systematic-functional grammarstudies language functions.。