英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx

语言学概论期末考试范围语言学概论期末复习1. diachronic linguisticsLinguistics that studies language over a period of time, also known as historical linguistics, study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present.2. arbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning. The link between the linguistic signs and their meanings is a matter of convention, and conventions differ radically across languages.3. langueAccording to Saussure, langue refers to the abstract linguistic systems shared by all the members of a speech community. It can be thought of as the generalized rules of the language that members of a speech community seem to abide by.4. competenceChomsky defines competence as the abst ract ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. According to him, anyone who knows a language has internalized a set of rules about the sequences permitted in his language. This internalized set of rules is termed as a person’s competence.5. morphemeThe most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. The “morpheme’ is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.6. MorphologyMorphology studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation. So it refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed7. Semantic triangleAccording to Ogden an d Richard’s semantic triangle, there is no direct link between language and the world, or between the symbol ( the linguistic elements, the word, the sentence) and referent ( the object in the world of experience). The link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds.8. Lingua francaLingua franca is the general term for a language that serves as a means of communication between different groups of speakers.9. componential analysisComponential analysis is a way to analyze lexical meaning, and it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.10. Cooperative PrincipleCooperative Principle (CP) was proposed by Paul Grice, under which there are four maxims: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner. It means in communication, both parties involved will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning.11. acquisitionThe term “acquisition” is used to refer to picking up a language through exposure. It refers to the subconscious or conscious processes. It is learned in a natural or a tutored settings.12. interlanguageIt refers to the learner’s independent system of th e secondlanguage which is neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from native language to the target language.I.Students should be able to answer the following questions:1) Explain the three kinds of intersentential sematic relations: entailment, presupposition and implicature.Entailment is a relation of inclusion , If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.. X: I have been to Shanghai. Y: I have been to Chinaif x is true, then y is also true, If Y is false, then X is also X entails Y.X presupposes Y. ( Y is a pre-requisite of X).X: John’s brother has got married. Y: John has a brother.Implicature: The speaker may use implied meaning but not the literal meaning.2)According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performingwhile making an utterance Give an example.According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking. They are locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. For example: You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words. “you” , “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by ,asking such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, that is , asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance .If the then hearer g ets the speaker’s message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, then the speaker goes to close the door for the speaker.3) What are the major differences between acquisition and language learningRod (1985) and Krashen (1981) regard acquisition as the spontaneous internalization of rules and formulas. The term acquisition is often used to refer to first language acquisition and second language acquisition. First language acquisition is also called mother tongue acquisition.Acquisition takes place in the speech community where one's first language or second language is spoken. It is often natural, without much focus on form. Thelearning of English by speakers of other languages in the United States is an example of second language acquisition.Foreign language learning usually takes place in the speech community where one's first language is spoken. It is a conscious process through formal school-like settings and requires time for processing, with focus on linguistic form in addition to knowledge of the rules of language use. For example, the learning of English in China.4) What are the similarities and differences between Semantics and Pragmatics Semantics focuses on the meaning that comes from linguistic knowledge without considering the context. Pragmatics studies the meaning in a certain context taking our knowledge about the physical and social world into account. Semantic analysis look for rules which are black and white, . you are either right or wrong. Pragmatic analysis look for principles. You can obey them to some extent and violate them to some extent.5) Why do we say Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication Explain it in details.a. Language is systematic. Language must be a system since elements in the language are arranged according to certain rules. Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings.b. Language is symbolic. People use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs.c. Language is arbitrary. Language is arbitrary for the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.d. Language is primarily vocal. Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed their writing systems.e. Language is human specific. There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication systems of any other species.f. Language is used for communication.6) What is the Sapir –Whorf hypothesisThe hypothesis assumes that people’s habitual thoug ht patterns and ways of perceiving the world are conditioned to a certain extent by the categories and distinctions that are available to them in their native language. Speakers of different languages may therefore have rather different world-views, depending on how different the languages are from one another semantically and grammatically. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can be broken down into two basic principles: Linguistic Determinism and Linguistic Relativity.II.Students should be able to draw the tree diagrams for common simple sentences and complex sentences.III.Students should be able to analyze the formation of words.IV.Students should be able to identify errors in given sentences and be able to explain the causes for errors.1. He speaked to T om yesterday.This intralingual error is due to the overgeneralization of the rule about the English v erb’s past tense form.2. There were some people came to watch the football match.The relative pronoun at the beginning of the attributive clause is missing. The learner has made an inter-lingual error because of the influence of his mother tongue, that is the Chinese grammatical pattern.3. They are loving basketball very much.This sentence should be corrected as: They love basketball very much. The learner has made an intra-lingual error caused by the over-generation of the target language grammatical rule. The learner failed to realize that in English some verbs never appear in the continuous tense including the verb: love.。

英语语言学概论复习 Final approval draft on November 22, 2020《英语语言学概论》复习纲要1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。

第二，以各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。

第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。

2.各章节复习要点如下Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1)D efinitionsofthefollowingterms:language,linguistics,arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,descriptiveVSprescriptiv e,synchronicVSdiachronic,langueVSparole,competenceVSperforman ce2)S tudyoftheoriginoflanguage3)W hatarethefunctionsoflanguage4)W hichsubjectsareincludedinmacrolinguisticsChapter2SpeechSounds1)Definitionsofthefollowingterms:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics,phonetics,phonology,consonants,vo wels,allophones,broadtranscriptionVSnarrowtranscription2)Analyzethecomplementarydistribution,freevariationwithexamples3)TheclassificationofEnglishconsonantsandEnglishvowelsandthefeaturesinvolvedintheclassification4)Understandsomeprocessesofphonology:nasalization,dentalization,velarization5)DifferencesbetweenintonationandtoneChapter3Frommorphemetophrase1)Definitionsofthefollowingterms:morpheme,morphology,backformation,blending,classshift2)Differencesbetweenrootandstem,inflectionalVSderivationalaffix3)AnalyzethemorphemescontainedinEnglishwords,suchas internationalization,distempered,moonwalk,frienships4)Whatarethecharacteristicsofaword5)UnderstandtheclassificationofEnglishwords:variableVSinvariable,grammaticalVSlexical,closed-classVSopen-class,particles,auxiliaries,determiners6)Understandtheprocessesofwordformationwithexamples:blending,abbreviation,acronym,backformation,class-shiftChapter4FromwordtoText1)Definitionsofthefollowingterms:syntax,endocentricVSexocentricconstruction,coordinationVSsubordination2)SyntacticfunctionsofEnglishsentences:subject(agentVSpatient,grammaticalVSlogical),predicate,object3)CategoriesinEnglish:number,gender,agreementChapter5Meaning1)Definitionsofthefollowingterms:semantics,thereferentialtheory,semantictriangle,synonymy,antonymy,hyponymy2)Understandsynonymy,antonymy,hyponymywithexamples3)Subclassificationofantonymy4)Componentialanalysisinpractice:suchas boy,girl,woman,man,mother,father(entailmentandpolysemous)Chapter6Languageandcognition1)Definitionofthefollowingterms:psycholinguistics,cognitivelinguistics2)Understandthethreeissuesofpsycholinguistics:languageacquisition,languagecomprehension,languageproduction3)Understandexamplesconcerningconstrualoperations4)Understandexamplesconcerningcategorization(basiclevel,superordinateandsubordinatelevels)5)Understandexamplesconcerningmetaphor(targetdomain,sourcedomain)6)UnderstandexamplesconcerningmetonymyChapter7Language,Culture,andSociety1)Definitionofthefollowingterms:Sapir-WhorfHypothesis,thetheoryofcontextofsituation2)Understandthetwoexamples(Hopilanguageandstudyofcolorwords)concerningSapir-WhorfHypothesisChapter8LanguageinUse1)Differencesbetweenpragmaticsandsemantics2)UnderstandthetheoryofIllocutionaryAct(threesenses)3)UnderstandthetheoryofConversationalImplicature,thefourprinciplesofCooperativePrinciple(Maximsofquantity,qua lity,relationandmanner),andtheexamplesindicatingtheviolati onofCooperativePrinciple4)Understandthecharacteristicsofimplicature。

1.Students should be prepared to be able to define the following linguistics terms:1)Linguistics语言学Linguistics should be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.2)Language语言it is a system of arbitrary ˈɑ:bitrəri主观的vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a means of verbal communication. It distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated.[səˈfistikeitid].精密的, 尖端的than animal communication system.3)Langue语言Langue refers to the abstract linguistic systems shared by all the members of a speech community.4)Parole言语refers to the actualized language5)linguistic competence语言能力Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language or the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relation6)linguistic performance语言运用Performance is the actual realization of his knowledge in utterances. It refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the indefinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors.7)Phonetics语音学The study of human speech sound.8)Phonology音位学The study of the sound patterning(sounds functioning)9)minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds combinations are said to form a minimal pair.10)deep structureThe syntactic structure which is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure11)surface structureThe syntactic structure ,which corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations is called surface structure.12)Semantics语义学the meaning of language13)Senseit is concerned with the inherent .[inˈhiərənt]固有的; 内在的meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.14)Referenceit means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.15)Pragmatics语用学it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.16)Register语域the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.17)Dialect方言A variety of a language used recognizably in a specific region or by a specific social class is called dialect.18)Acquisition获取First language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue. Second language acquisition refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.19)inter-lingual errorserrors result from language transfer, or caused by the learner’s mother tongue. i.e. caused by the learner’s NL e.g. “Elle regarde les”20)intra-lingual errorsThey mainly result form faulty or partial learning of the target language. It may be caused by the influence of one TL. Term upon another.21)applied linguisticsit refers to the application of linguistic theories, methods, and findings to the study of language learning and teaching22)the aptitude testit is designed to measure the learner’s aptitude or natural ability to learn languages.23)the achievement testit focus on assessing a testee’s mestery of the contents of a particular course.24)co-operative principleit refers to that the participants in a convasation normally communicate in a maximally efficient natual and cooperative way.2.Students should be able to answer the following questions:1)In what ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?The focus of research has been transformed from the language system to the use of language.The rise of the inter-displinery research and the borderline介于两者之间的subjects.2)For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? Speech is prior to writing；The writing system is invented when needed；Today there are languages which can only be spoken but not written；Speech plays a greater role than writing in daily communication；Each human being first acquires speech and then learns writing；Modern linguistics tends to pay more attention to authentic speech.3)What is a phone? How is it differ from a phoneme? How are allophones related to aphoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.These sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is a phonological unit . It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.in English the sounds (phones) that possess the distinctive value are called phonemes.Phonemes are said to be the distinctive sounds.4)What are the five sense relations between words? Please illustrate them. p1361. difference in origin answer-reply;2. difference in the shades不同程度的of meaning;3. difference in socio-expressive meaning;4. difference in stylistic meaning;5. difference in collocation and distribution.5)According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing whilemaking an utterance? Give an example.locutionary act (言内行为) illocutionary act(言外行为) perlocutionary act(言后行为)“Good Morning!What did he do ?”He produced a sound, word, or sentence.The act performed in this sense is called locutionary act.言内行为He offered a greeting. illocutionary act言外行为. Locationary act (言内行为) is the act of saying something . It is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.E.g. “John, it’s very cold outside! ”母亲说出这句话的本身就是言内行为；母亲说出这句话的意图是为了让JOHN穿上大衣再出去，这是言外行为；JOHN听了母亲的话后，穿上大衣在出门，这就是言后行为。

《英语语⾔学概论》期末考试docI．Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F). (10 points, 1 point each)1.Articulatory Phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds.2.Adjectives belong to open class words.3.John Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.4.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning the context of use is considered.5.English is a typical intonation language.6.Phones in complementary distribution should be assigned to the same phoneme.7.Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.8.There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regionaldialects.9.Transformations are the rules which can change the meaning of sentence.10.Sense and reference are two different notions of semantics, and they are related toeach other.II. Fill in the following blanks. (10 points, 1 point each)1.The word “and” is a c____________ conjunction.2.Linguistic c__________ is a native speaker’s linguistic knowledge of his language.3.The relationship between the sound and the meaning of a word is a________.4. A m________ is the smallest linguistic unit that carries meaning.5. A sentence is formed by phonological rules, m______ rules, syntactic rules andsemantic rules.6.The most recognizable difference between American English and British English arein p________ and vocabulary.7.Speech v________refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker ora group of speakers.8.P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.9.Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.10.As a type of linguistic system in L2 learning, i_______ is a product of L2 training,mother tongue interference, overgeneralization of the target language rules, and learning and communicative strategies of the learner..III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement. (20 points, 1 point each)1. Which of the following branch of linguistics takes the inner structure of word as its main object of study?A. Phonetics.B. Semantics.C. Morphology.D. Sociolinguistics.2. ________refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. DialectB. IdiolectC. PidginD. Register3. Which of the following is a voiceless bilabial stop?A.[w].B. [m].C. [b].D. [p].4. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called ________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy5. Which of the following words is NOT formed by blending?A. Smog.B. Botel.C. Brunch.D. Edit.6. What phonetic feature distinguishes the [p] in please and the [p] in speak?A.V oicingB. AspirationC. RoundnessD. Nasality7. The word boyguard is a ______.A. compound wordB. complex wordC. derivational wordD. free morpheme8. All words contain a _________.A. rootB. bound morphemeC. prefixD. suffix9. Of the following sound combinations, only ______ is permissible.A. kiblB. hkilC. ilkbD. ilbk10. Where is the primary stress of the word phonology?A. pho.B. no.C. lo.D. gy.11. Conventionally a ________ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme12. The plural affix in the word tables is a(n) _______.A. inflectional suffixB. derivational suffixC. free morphemeD. root13. Language is tool of communication. The symbol “highway closed”serves___.A. an expressive functionB. an informative functionC. a performative functionD. a persuasive function14. Which of the following groups of words is a minimal pair?A. but/pubB. wet/whichC. cool/curlD. fail/find15. Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experienced the world differently, that is relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of ______________.A. linguistic determinationB. linguistic relativismC. linguistic nativismD. linguistic behaviorism16. What are the dual structures of language?A. Sounds and letters.B. Sounds and meaning.C. Letters and meaning.D. Sounds and symbols.17. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic18. According to Krashen ______ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communication.A. learningB. competenceC. performanceD. acquisition19. Which of the following is one of the core branches of linguistics?A. Phonology.B. Psycho-linguistics.C. Sociolinguistics.D. Anthropology.20. The relationship between “flower” and “tulip” is _________.A. homonymyB. hyponymyC. polysemyD. synonymyIV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)A. From English to ChineseB. From Chinese to English1. acoustic phonetics 6. 应⽤语⾔学2. closed class words 7. 格语法3. componential analysis 8. 积极迁移4. distinctive features 9. 历史语⾔学5. Critical Period Hypothesis 10. 声调语⾔V. Draw a tree diagram for the following sentence by applying TG Grammar. (10 points)The man saw a horse.VI. Answer the following questions briefly. (20 points)1. Define phoneme. (4 points)2. Explain complementary distribution with an example.(5 points)3. What are the four criteria for classifying English vowels. (4 points)4. Analyze the following conversation by applying the Cooperative Principles.(7points)A: Teheran is in Turkey, isn’t it, teacher?B: And London is in France, I suppose.VII. Do the following analysis. (20 points)1. Write the one proper description from the list under B for the underlined part of each word in A. (5 points, 1 point each)A B(1) terroriz ed a. free root(2) un civil ized b. bound root(3) terror ize c. inflectional suffix(4) luke warm d. derivational suffix(5) im possible e. inflectional prefixf. derivational prefix2. Consider the following sentences in Swahili, and anwer the questions:(15 points) mtu amelala The man has slept. mtu analala The man is sleeping.mtu atalala The man will sleep.watu wamelala The men have slept.watu wanalala The men are sleeping.watu watalala The men will sleep.visu vinaanguka The knives are falling.kikapu kimeanguka The basket has fallen.watoto watafika The children will arrive.1)toto in Swahili means ______ in English.2)The meaning of the morpheme wa- in Swahili is _______.3)______ in Swahili means “sleep” in English.4)Translate mtoto anaanguka into English.5)Translate vikapu vimefika into English.台州学院_____学年第___学期___级____专业《英语语⾔学概论》期末试卷A卷（闭卷）参考答案及评分说明I．Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F). (10 points, 1 point each)II. Fill in the following blanks. (10 points, 1 point each)1. coordinate2. competence3. arbitrary4. morpheme5. morphological6. pronunciation7. variety8. performance9. scientific 10. interlanguage III. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement. (20 points, 1 point each)IV. Translate the following linguistic terms: (10 points, 1 point each)1. 声学语⾳学 6. applied linguistics2. 封闭词类7. case grammar3. 成分分析8. positive transfer4. 区别性特征9. historical linguistics5. 临界期假说10. tone languageV. Draw a tree diagram for the sentence by applying TG Grammar. (10 points)SNP Infl VPDet N pst V NPDet Nthe man saw a horseVI. Answer the following questions. (20 points)1. A contrastive phonological segment whose phonetic realizations are predictable by rules. (4 points)(or: A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.)2. The situation in which phones never occur in the same phonetic environment.（4 points）e.g. [p] and [p h] never occur in the same position. （1 point）3. the position of the tongue in the mouth(1 point), the openness of the mouth(1 point), the shape of the lips(1 point), and the length of the vowels. (1 point)4. According to the Cooperative Principle, the participants of the conversation should obey the four maxims of the principle: the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation, the maxim of manner. (2 points) In this conversation, B’s reply deliberately violated the maxim of quality, (2 points) because B wanted A to infer the information that Teheran is not in Turkey. The main purpose of B is to let A know that it is absurd to make such a mistake.(3 points)VII. Do the following analysis. (20 points)1. (1) c (2) a (3) d (4) b (5) f (1 point each)2. 1) child （2 points）2) human, plural （3 points）3)lala （2 points）4)The child is falling.（4 points）5)The baskets have arrived.（4 points）。

英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” intime.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性:One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that theforms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. Thebasic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.2.Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.3.Minimal pair最小对立体: When two different forms are identical in every way except for onesound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form aminimal pair.第三课1.Morphology形态学: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes派生词素:Some morphemes which change the category or grammatical classof words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes曲折词素: Some bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.第四课1.Syntax语法句法: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentencesand the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.Syntactic categories句法范畴: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small numberof classes, called syntactic categories.3.Deep structure 深层结构: Formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure or D- structure.4.Surface structure 表层结构: Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults from appropriate transformations, is called Surface structure or S- structure.第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings havethe same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology:It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology:A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a languageSyntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?The important characteristics which should be included in a good definition of language are separately: systematic, arbitrary and vocal.First of all, language is a system. It has its own set of rules for people to abide by, or people will use the language in a wrong way.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.3．What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1) Arbitrariness: no natural/motivated/logical relationship between the sign and what thesign stands for.2)Productivity:provides opportunities for sending messages that have never been sent beforeand for understanding novel messages.3) Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of stuctures, or two levels.4) Displacement: can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future5) Cultural transmission第二课1. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be moreinterested in the different between say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? Why? 语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromcalculable: able to be measured or assessedSuffix: -istMeaning: denoting a member of a profession or business activityStem type: added to nounsExamples: dramatist: a person who writes playsdentist: a person who treats the teeth disease2. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.1)prefix: un-meaning: denoting the absence of a quality or state; notstem type: added to nounsexamples: unacademic: not adopting or characteristic of a scholarly approach orlanguageunhappy: not happy2)prefix: anti-meaning: opposed to; againststem type: added to nounsexamples: anti-abortion: opposing or legislating against medically inducedabortionanti-art: against the traditional art3)prefix: re-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is calleda polysemic word. The more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired morethan one meaning. For example, the word table has at least six meanings when we look it up in the dictionary:1. a piece of furniture2.all the people seated at a table3.the food that is put on a table4. a thin flat piece of stone, mental, wood, etc5.orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc6.part of a machine-tool on which the work is put to be operated onHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example,Superordiante: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning golory第六课1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答： Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation.Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.3. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答： Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality① Do not say what you believe to be false.② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner① Avoid obscurity of expression.② Avoid ambiguity.③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④ Be orderly.。

语言学概论（A）期末考试复习题及参考答案一、单选题1.（2分）语言符号的任意性是指A.语言符号可以任意使用和创造B.绝大多数语言符号的能指和所指之间没有必然的理据关系C,可以任意使用语言符号给事物命名D.语言符号的能指和所指可以任意改变参考答案：B2.（2分）下列各组辅音中，发音部位相同的一组是A.image1.pngB.image2.pngC.image3.pngD.Image4.png参考答案：B3.（2分）“汽车”和“轿车”是A.上下位词B.同义词C.等义词D.近义词参考答案：A4.（2分）下列几种社会方言中，具有排他性的一项是A.阶级习惯语B.行话C.隐语D.学生腔参考答案：C5.（2分）下列关于亲属语言的表述中，不正确的一项是A.亲属语言是社会完全分化的产物B.亲属语言之间具有历史同源关系C.语言亲属关系有亲疏远近的分别D.亲属语言间不存在语音对应关系参考答案：D6.（2分）“老师鼓励我考大学”是A.主谓词组B.兼语词组C.连动词组D.复句词组参考答案：B7.（2分）目前已知的最古老的拼音文字是一A.古埃及文字8.古希腊文字C腓尼基文字D.中国的甲骨文参考答案：C8.（2分）划分词类的最本质的标准是A.分布标准B.意义标准C.形态标准D.逻辑标准参考答案：A9.（2分）外语学习中的后期阶段被称为A.中介语阶段B.目标语阶段C.低平期D.高原期参考答案：D10.（2分）英语“students”中的“・s”是.A.虚词语素B.词根语素C.构形语素D.构词语素参考答案：C11.（2分）认为“思维和语言各自发展，二者没有关系”的学者不包括A.古希腊哲学家柏拉图B.法国哲学家迪卡尔C.英国哲学家霍布斯D.苏联语言学家马尔参考答案：D12.（2分）以下不属于语言学的三大发源地的是A.中国B.埃及C.印度D.希腊・罗马参考答案：B13.（2分）下列语言学流派中集中研究语言本体的流派是A.功能语言学B.社会语言学C.认知语言学D.结构语言学参考答案：D14.（2分）下面词组中,结构类型与其他各组不同的一组是A.年轻漂亮/朴素大方B.我们大家/首都北京C.民航大厦/工人农民D.贯彻执行/讨论研究参考答案：C15.（2分）关于语言获得的原因，下列学说中偏重于内部条件解释的一项是A.天赋说B.摹仿说C.强化说D.刺激反应说参考答案：A16.（2分）传统上把汉字的单纯字符称为A.偏旁B.笔画C.记号D.独体字参考答案：D17.（2分）北京话“面”单念时读作[mi?n],但“面包”却读作[mi?mpαu],这种语流音变现象是A,弱化B.增音C.同化D.异化参考答案：C18.（2分）汉语中的词类（词的语法分类）可以首先分出的两个大类是一A.基本词和非基本词B.实词和虚词C.典型词和兼类词D.体词和谓词参考答案：B19.（2分）目前对于语言和思维的关系，比较一致的观点是A.有什么样的思维，就有什么样的语言B.有什么样的语言，就有什么样的思维C.思维对语言有一定影响，但更重要的是语言决定思维D.语言对思维有一定影响，但更重要的是思维决定语言参考答案：D20.（2分）听觉上最自然、最容易分辨的最小语音单位是A.音素B.重音C.音位D.音节参考答案：D21.（2分）首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是A.洪堡特B.索绪尔C.乔姆斯基D.萨丕尔参考答案：B22.（2分）判断两种话是不同语言还是同一种语言的不同方言应该主要参考A.相互理解程度B.语言结构的差异程度C.共同的历史文化传统和民族认同感D.地域临近程度参考答案：C23.（2分）语言符号具有可变性的根本原因在于语言符号的A.任意性B.强制性C.离散性D.系统性24.（2分）下列各项中，谓词和变元之间属于动作与结果关系的是A.写黑板B.打篮球C.织毛衣D.寄包裹参考答案：C25.（2分）从词的构造类型上看，汉语“动人”一词属于A.单纯词B.复合词C.派生词D.简缩词参考答案：B26.（2分）语法的演变之所以比语汇缓慢，是因为A.语法规则比较简单B.语法规则数量较少C.语法规则具有强制性D.语法规则具有抽象性参考答案：C27.（2分）构形语素属于A.虚词语素B.词根语素C.自由语素D.黏着语素参考答案：D28.（2分）下列各组中,三个复合词构词类型不一致的一组是A.席卷耳鸣地震B.打倒切断推翻C.发光散热出气D.天地欢乐爱好29.（2分）在语言谱系分类的层级体系中,最大的类别是—A.语族B.语支C.语系D.语群参考答案：C30.（2分）从语音的社会功能角度划分出来的最小语音单位是A.音位B.音素C.音节D.音渡参考答案：B31.（2分）人类语言和动物的交际方式A.完全一致B.有根本区别C.有一定的差别D.基本一样参考答案：B32.（2分）“我知道你很聪明。

英语语言学概论复习题集一、选择题1. 语言学是研究什么的学科？A. 语言的发音B. 语言的结构C. 语言的社会功能D. 所有以上2. 下列哪项不是语言学的分支？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 词汇学D. 化学3. 英语中的“语言学”一词来源于哪个希腊词？A. LogosB. PhoneC. GlossaD. Syntax4. 英语的音素有多少个？A. 20个B. 44个C. 100个D. 取决于方言5. 英语中的“辅音”和“元音”有何区别？A. 辅音是浊音，元音是清音B. 辅音是清音，元音是浊音C. 辅音可以单独发音，元音不可以D. 辅音不可以单独发音，元音可以二、填空题6. 语言学的主要研究对象是_________。

7. 语言学的三大分支包括语音学、语法学和_________。

8. 英语中的音素数量因_________而异。

9. 英语中的“辅音”和“元音”的区别在于_________。

10. 英语语言学中，“语用学”研究的是语言的_________。

三、简答题11. 请简述语言学的定义及其研究范围。

12. 描述语音学和音系学的区别。

13. 举例说明英语中的音节结构。

14. 解释什么是形态学，并简述其研究内容。

15. 什么是社会语言学？它研究哪些方面？四、论述题16. 论述英语语言学中“语义学”的重要性及其研究内容。

17. 描述英语中的词类系统，并解释它们各自的功能。

18. 论述英语语法的复杂性及其对学习者的影响。

19. 讨论英语作为国际语言对全球语言生态的影响。

20. 分析英语中的双关语现象及其在语言使用中的作用。

五、案例分析题21. 阅读以下对话，并分析其中的语用学现象。

- A: Can you pass the salt?- B: Sure, here you go.22. 观察以下句子，并讨论其语法结构：- The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.23. 分析以下广告语中的修辞手法：- Just do it.24. 考虑以下情景，讨论社会语言学在其中的应用：- 在一个多语言社区中，不同语言群体如何交流？25. 研究以下英语习语，并解释其在不同文化背景下的含义：- Break the ice.六、综合应用题26. 设计一个英语语言学的课程大纲，包括至少五个主要模块及其子主题。

英语语言学概论期末复习English Linguistics Overview Final ReviewIntroduction:1. Phonetics:Phonetics deals with the physical sounds of human speech. It examines speech sounds, their production, transmission, and perception. It includes articulatory phonetics (how sounds are produced), acoustic phonetics (how sounds are transmitted), and auditory phonetics (how sounds are perceived).2. Phonology:Phonology focuses on the systematic organization of sounds in a particular language. It studies phonemes—the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish meaning—and phonological rules, which determine how sounds interact in a language. It also explores the distribution of sounds, syllable structures, and phonological processes like assimilation and vowel harmony.3. Morphology:4. Syntax:Syntax explores the structure of sentences and the rulesthat govern their formation. It analyzes the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses to create well-formed sentences.Syntax also investigates sentence constituents, grammatical relations, word order, and sentence types.5. Semantics:6. Pragmatics:7. Sociolinguistics:Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society. It investigates how language varies and changes based on social factors such as gender, age, social class, and geographical location. Sociolinguistics also examines language attitudes, language variation, language contact, and dialectology.8. Psycholinguistics:Conclusion:。

语言学概论期末复习题（1）Ⅰ. Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and choose the letter A, B, C or D. (20%)1. When language is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than forexchanging information or ideas, it serves a _____ function.A. expressiveB. evocativeC. performativeD. phatic2. Language serves the ________ function when it is used to express the speaker‟s feeling orattitude or to arouse a certain feeling or attitude in the hearer.A. phaticB. informativeC. emotiveD. directive3. A ______ is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.A. rootB. free morphemeC. stemD. suffix4. _____ studies the changes in language and language use with respect to social factors.A. SociolinguisticsB. Comparative linguisticsC. SyntaxD. Computational linguistics5._________ studies the total stock of morphemes of a language particularly those items which have clear semantic references.A. PhonologyB. LexicographyC. LexicologyD. Morphology6. ________studies the mental processes that a person uses in producing and understanding language, and how humans learn language.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. NeurolinguisticsD. Anthropology7. The fact that ability to speak a language is transmitted from generation togeneration by a process of learning, and not genetically is usually referred to as ___________.A. performanceB. language acquisitionC. cultural transmissionD. competence8. _________ a term used to characterize any approach which attempt to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used.A. Descriptive grammarB. Prescriptive grammarC. Pedagogical grammarD. Universal Grammar9. Which branch of linguistics studies the similarities and differences among languages?A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics10. The study of the linguistic meaning of words, phrases, and sentences is called__________.A. semanticsB. phonologyC. syntaxD. morphology11. ___________ covers the study of language use in relation to context, and in particular thestudy of linguistic communication.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Stylistics12. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of the rules by which words areformed and the ___________ of words.A. affixationB. bond morphemesC. internal structureD. free morphemes13. ________ is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.It isthe rules of how words are combined together to form sentences.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics14. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The “ed”in the word “learned”isknown as a(n) ________.A. derivative morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. stem15. The semantic triangle holds that the meaning of a word _________.A. is interpreted through the mediation of concept.B. is related to the thing it refers to.C. is the idea associated with that word in the minds of speakers.D. is the image it is represented in the mind.66. Which of the following underlined parts is a bound morpheme?A. relationshipB. bedroomC. milkmanD. childlike17. The word unreliable consists of _____ syllables as against _____ morphemes.A. five/twoB. four/threeC. five/threeD. three/five18. Which of the following underlined parts is an inflectional morpheme?A. activeB. renameC. booksD. sleepy19. Which of the following is the correct componential analysis of the word “milk”?A.[+DRINKS-LIQUID-COUNTABLE]B.[+FOOD-SOLID+COUNTABLE]C.[+FOOD+SOLID+COUNTABLE]D.[+DRINKS+LIQUID-COUNTABLE]20. The relation between …furniture‟ and …chair‟ is ___.A. homophonyB. homographyC. hyponymyD. polysemyⅡ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for true and F for false. (20%)1. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. ( f)2. By arbitrariness Saussure means that the forms of linguistic signs bear some natural relationship to their meaning.( )3. Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free.( )4. Language marks our identity, physically in terms of age, sex, and voiceprints; geographicallyin terms of accents, dialects.( )5. The sentencing of criminals is an example of emotive function of language.( )6. Synchronic linguistic is the study of a language through the course of its history.( )7. V oicing is a distinctive feature for English consonants.( )8. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly prefixes.( )9. In the word “illegal”, “il” is an allomorph of the negative morpheme.( )10. Componential analysis can not help explain the sense relations of words.( )11. The sentence I pour some liquid into the tube is a performative one.( )12. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. ( )13. Componential analysis is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected intomeaning components, called semantic features. ( )14. The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by Halliday. ( )15. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning or the context of use is considered.( )16. Hyponymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the sameform. ( )17. Language is primarily written.( )18. English is a tone language while Chinese is an intonation language.( )19. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in differentsituations.( )20. Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell ushow to speak correct language.( )III. Fill the blanks (10%)1.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combinedinto innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed asp__________.nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function isM__________.3.One general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s_________ over writing.nguage is p________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.nguage is a system of a___________ vocal symbols used for human communication.6.Modern linguistics began from the Swiss linguist ____________ (1857-1913), who is oftendescribed as “father of modern linguistics”.7.M__________ refers to using the name of part of an object to talk about the whole thing,and vice versa.8.the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments arecalled the a__________ of that phoneme.9.C________________ antonyms are pairs that express absolute opposites, like mortal andimmortal.10.H_______________ refer to the two words that are identical in sound ( such as …piece‟ and…peace‟)IV. Explain the following linguistic terms or notions in English. (20%)1. parole2. displacement3. diachronic linguistics4. performance5. DualityV. Give brief answers to the following questions. (30%)1. What is componential analysis? How is it used in semantics?2. What are the basic distinctions between modern linguistics and traditional grammar?。

一、名词解释1、语言类型：词根语——又称孤立语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示。

汉语就是一种比较典型的词根语，例如，“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语，“他”是宾语，主要取决于词序。

又如，“买菜”是述宾结构，“买的菜”是偏正结构，主要取决于虚词。

除汉语外，属词根语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。

屈折语一屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。

屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折两种。

内部屈折是通过词的语音交替（改变部分语音）来构成不同的语法形式，表示不同的语法意义。

如英语的foot （脚，单数），feet （脚，复数）。

外部屈折是通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。

如英语的book （单数，书）在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books （复数，书）。

屈折语的一个构形词缀可以同时表示几种不同的语法意义。

印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等，一般都属于屈折语，德语和俄语最为典型。

2、条件变体与自由变体：条件变体一一音位的条件变体是指那些出现条件受环境限制的音位变体，即一个音位的各个变体从不在相同的语音环境中出现，只出现在不同的语音环境下，处于互补分布的状态。

例如英语的/p/、/〃、/k/三个辅音音位，当它们出现在词首时是送气的（如kill[k'il]）,而出现在/s/后就变为不送气的了（skill[skil] ）。

自由变体一一音位的自由变体是指那些在相同的语音环境中可以无条件变读的音位变体，即一个音位的各个变体可以自由替换而不会造成意义的改变。

3、语法形式与语法范畴语法形式一语法形式是反映词语的组合规则和语法类别的形式标志，是表示语法意义的形式手段，又称语法手段。

语法形式可分显性和隐性两种。

显性语法形式可以直接感知，主要包括语序、虚词、词缀、重叠以及各种语音形式。

隐性语法形式不能直接感知，但可通过能否组合、替换、扩展、变换等方式分析抽象出来。

语法范畴一一语法范畴有广义和狭义之分，广义的语法范畴是各种语法形式表示的语法意义的概括。

英语语言学概论复习资料（2）《英语语言学概论》复习资料1I. Definitions.Directions：Define the following terms. Explain them with examples if necessary.1.arbitrariness2.morpheme3.endocentric construction4.construal5.principle of compositionalityII..Do the following according to the requirements.1. Identify the manner of articulation of the initial sounds in the following words(a) cheery (b) funny (c) loony (d) crazy (e) happy2. Make distinctions between the following pair of terms.descriptive vs. prescriptive3. What are the allomorphs of the morpheme ‘plural’ in this set of English words?criteria, dogs, oxen, deer, judges, stimuli4. Create a tree diagram and also make a bracketed analysis of the following sentence:The thief stole a wallet.5. What are the features of women register?III. Discussion.1. How do you understand Grice’s CP and its maxims? Give an example to theviolation of each of its maxims?2. What will you say to a statement like “one culture’s meat is another culture’spoison”?答案及评分标准I.Definition. 共5题1. arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bears no naturalrelationship to their meaning.2.morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between。

LinguistsFerdinand de Saussure: Course in General LinguisticsEdward Sapir: Language: An Introduction to the Study of SpeechNoam Chomsky: Syntactic StructuresJohn Lyons: Language and LinguisticsR. H. Robins: General LinguisticsStuart C. Pool: An Introduction to LinguisticsWhat is language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System: Elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary: no close connection between a word and the object it refers to. Vocal: all human languages have sound and speech.Symbolic: Words are associated with objects, actions, ideas, concepts etc. by nothing but convention.Human: language is human specific.Design Features of LanguageArbitrarinessDualityCreativityDisplacementArbitrariness: --The forms of language signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (Saussure)--Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words.--Language has 2 levels of structures: sounds & meanings.-A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning.--The units of meanings can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences, (lyons)Creativity:-We can understand and create sentences that we never heard before.--It comes from 2 features: duality & recursiveness (递归性) Displacement: People can use language to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.What is linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.The sounds and the sound system orpatternsMain branches of linguisticsPhonetics （语音学）、Phonology （音系学）- Morphology （形态学）：the structure of wordsSyntax （句法学）：the structure of phrases and sentencesSemantics （语义学）：the meaning of words and sentencesPragmatics （语用学）：the way language is used to communicate Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs. Prescriptive 描写式 VS 规定式Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性 VS 历时性Langue vs. Parole 语言 VS 言语Competence and Performance 语言能力&语言运用Etic vs. Emic 非位学（素学）VS 位学 Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveDescriptive: how things arePrescriptive: how things ought to beModern linguistics is mostly descriptive, not prescriptive. Why?--Objective description helps to see the nature of language.--Language changes through time.Svnchronic vs. Diachronic （Saussure ）Synchronic Study: the study of language in a fixed instant, take language as unchanged.Diachronic Study: the study of language through the course of its historyLangue vs. Parole (Saussure)Language: the linguistic competence of the speaker, abstract, stable, systematic Parole: the exact way of speaking, specific and changeableSaussure's purpose to distinguish 'langue' and 'parole': To discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of the study of linguistics.Competence and Performance (Chomsky)Competence: A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to and different from Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?--Similarities: both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Saussure's parole and Chomsky's performance are essentially the same thing.-Differences: Saussure's notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psycholoRical point of view. Thus, langue is quite different from competence.Etic vs. Emic (Pike)Chapter 2Major branches of phonetics：1.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学)2.Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学)3.Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学)Phone [ ] Phoneme / /The IPAInternational Phonetic AssociationInternational Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888. Consonants and vowelsRP: Received English (BBC English, Oxford English, King's / Queen's English) GA: General AmericanIn what ways consonants differ from vowels?1)Air-stream in Articulation--consonants (24): the flow of air comes out with some obstructions.--vowels (20): the flow of air comes out freely2)Function: --consonants are used to separate the vowels. --vowels are used to help the speech organs to get from one consonant position to the next. Consonants[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricativeVowelsCoarticulation and Phonetic TranscriptionCoarticulation: Sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.E.g. map, lambAnticipatory coarticulation 先期协'同发音lambPerseverative coarticulation 后滞协'同发音map[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].Broad transcription [ ] Narrow transcription / / or []Phone and PhonemeA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't, e.g. [tin— [t] [i] [n]A phoneme can be defined as a minimal unit of sound that can distinguish words of different meanings. E.g. [tin] [din] 9 /t/ /d/ 9 tin dinDifferences Between Phone & PhonemeMinimal Pairs: e.g. "pat" "bat”, “pig" "big”Allophone: the phonetic variants of a phoneme, e.g. the 2 allophones of the same phoneme /p/ are [p h] as in pin and [p] in spin.SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal suprasegmentals are: syllable, stress, tone, intonationThe syllable structureoMonosyllabic word: cat, dogPolysyllabic word: festival, transplantOpen syllable: a syllable without coda, bar, tieClosed syllable: a syllable with coda, bard, tiedChapter 3 LexiconWhat is word?Definition: It is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition, whether in spoken or written form.Identification of wordsStability: the internal structure is the most stable e.g. chairman namirahc Relative uninterruptibility: new elements can not be inserted into a word e.g. dis appoint mentA minimum free form (Bloomfield):maximum 9 sentenceminimum 9 wordClassification of words1)Variable vs. Invariable Words:Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats. (n. v.) Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.2)Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns. Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.3)Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:Closed-class words —grammatical words): New members cannot normally be added, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.Open-class words (=lexical words): New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.4)Word class: known as Parts of Speech (词性)in traditional grammar, noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.Some new word class: -Particles (小品词):Infinitive "to",Negative "not”,Subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”, “look back”, etc.-Auxiliaries: do, have-Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.-Pro-form-DeterminersPre-determiners (coverage): all, both, twice, one-fifth, etc.Central- determiners (所指):this, that, every, my, etc.Post-determiners (cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, general ordinals and quantifiers): last, past, many, little, etc.Morpheme and MorphologyMorpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, its meaning will change if further divided. E.g. dis appoint ment (3)Morphology: the study of word-formation (the internal structure of words).A phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology; a morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.(1)Free morphemes & Bound morphemes-Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Content words (open-class words)Function words (close-class words)Compounds: polymorphemic words consisting wholly of free morphemes, e.g.mooncake-Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, unBound morphemes are mainly affixes.(2)Root, affix and stemRoot: the free morpheme inside of the wordE.g. friend as in unfriendlinessAffix: the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.prefix (dis-, un-)suffix (-en, -ify) andlnfix( feet, goose)Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.E.g. friend (friends), friendship (friendships)(3)Inflectional and Derivational AffixInflectional affixes (all are suffix): number, tense, degree (-er. -est), and case(-s') Derivational affixes: e.g. -tion, -ness, un-, en-, -less etc.Inflection and Word FormationInflection: adding inflectional affix, such as number, person, case, (tables, opens, boy's ) do not change the grammatical class of the stemsDerivation (a relationship between roots and affixes):lengthen, foolish, (word class changed)nonsmoker, disobey (word class unchanged)Word FormationCompounds: to join two or more separate words to produce a new word. Endocentric & Exocentric compounds向心复合词和离心复合词Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of "a kind of〃E.g. self-control: a kind of control; armchair: a kind ofchairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of "a kind of something"E.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crow; breakneck: not a kind of neckWritten forms of compounds-Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard-Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length -Open: coffee table, washing machine Chapter 4Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)the girl (NP)ate the apple (VP)The girl ate the apple (S)The girl ate the appleIf two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A.Syntactic FunctionNames of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.Subject: "what the sentence is about" (i.e., topic)John was bitten by a dog.u grammatical subject" (John) and 'logical subject" (a dog)Predicator: verb or verbs included in a predicate, it usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.Object:Direct Object and Indirect ObjectMother gave my sister a doll.IO DOThe accusative case （受格）for direct objectThe dative case （与格）for indirect objectObject can become subjectJohn broke the glass. 9 The glass was broken by John.Peter saw Jane. 9 Jane was seen by Peter.Category-Number: singular, dual, pluralIn Englishnouns: dog, dogspronouns and verbs: He laughs: They laugh; this man: these men.-Gender: contrasts as "masculine : feminine : neuter", "animate : inanimate", etc. In English gender only in pronouns and nouns:he: she: itprince: princess author: authoress-Case: teacher: teacher'swith/ to a manJohn kicked Peter: Peter kicked John-Agreement:a pronoun agrees with its antecedent: Whose is this pen? --Oh,Ji's the one I lost.a verb agrees with its subject: Each person has one coin.number between nouns and verbs:This man runs. The bird flies.These men run. These birds fly.Chapter 5 Meaning (semantics)SemanticsDefinition: Semantics is the study of meaning in language.Geoffrey Leech. Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning 9 DenotationConnotative meaning 、9 Connotation (unstable, vary according to culture)Social meaningAffective meaning > Associative meaningReflected meaningJCollocative meaningThematic meaningDenotation & ConnotationE.g. words with the same denotation, but differ in the connotative meanings: politician (derogatory)statesman (favorable)The Referential TheoryReferential theory: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for.Leech's conceptual meaning has 2 sides:Sense (Connotation): the abstract properties of an entity;Reference (Denotation): concrete entities;Concept: the abstract thing, no entity.Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. E.g. "but ", “if”, “God”,“dragon”.Sense Relations--Synonymy:buy/purchaseautumn/fall flat/apartmenttube/underground--Antonymy(1) Gradable antonymy (degree)分级反义词good ---------------------- badlong ----------------------- shortbig ------------------------- small(2) Complementary antonymy (Not A = B; not B= A)互补反义词一个个体的两种情况alive : dead odd : evenmale : female pass : failpresent: absent boy : girlinnocent: guilty hit: miss⑶Converse antonymy回转反义词两方两个事物buy : sell teacher: studentlend : borrow above : belowgive : receive before : afterparent: child host: guesthusband : wife employer: employeeChapter 8 Language in Use (Pragmatics)Definition of Pragmatics:The study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers' meaning, utterance meaning, & contextual meaning. Utterance Meaning vs. Sentence MeaningSentence meaning: What does X mean?Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X?Contextual Meaning: meaning in contextSpeech Act TheoryJohn Austin (1911-1960)How to Do Things with Words (1962)Speech acts: actions performed via utterancesIllocutionary Act TheoryJohn Searle (1932-)Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels:the locutionnary act 发话行为the illocutionnary act 行事行为the perlocutionnary act取效行为/言后行为E.g.lIt's cold here.Locutionary act: the literal meaning, the sentenceIllocutionary act: a request of the hearer to shut the window.Perlocutionary act: the hearer's shutting the window or his refusal to shut it. E.g.2Conversations between The illocutionary act:husband and wife:H: That's the phone. 9 Not describing something. Just making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.W: I'm in the bathroom.— Not describing her action in the bathroom, just (i) a refusal to comply with the request and (ii) issuing a request of her husband to answer it.H : Okay. 9 Accepting his wife's refusal and accepther request, meaning "all right, \'\\ answer it."Conversational ImplicatureHerbert Paul GricePeople do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.The Cooperative Principle (CP)A speaker can mean a lot more than what he says, most the time the hearer could understand that, then the problem is how the speaker can convey more than what is said and how the hearer can arrive at the speaker's meaning. Grice believed there exists a set of mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of these utterances, this is what he called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Grice introduced 4 categories of maxisms:--Maxim of Quality:Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence;--Maxim of Quantity: no more, no less--Maxim of Relation: Be relative.--Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous.Pragmatics violates CP. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature. 会话含义E-g.He is made of iron.CP (quality) > He is strong-willed.He (lecturer) is a good cook.CP (relation'The lecturer is no good.Violation of the maxims (Quantity)1.No lessA:昨天上街买了些什么？B:就买了些东西。

英语语言学概论期末复习第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。

（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。

这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。

1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。

将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。

法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。

汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。

1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。

汉语是典型的孤立语。

（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。

在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。

日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。

（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。

英语是不太典型的屈折语。

（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。

因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。

根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。

《英语语言学1》期末复习题(4)一、判断题（每小题1分，共20分）得分：分Part I.Directions: Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write “T” for true and “F” for false in the Bracket. (1 point each, 20 points)1.Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentences patterns of a language. ( )2.According to semantic triangle, there is no direct link between a symbol and referent, i.e.between a word and a thing it refers to.( )3.Constituents that can be substituted for one another with loss of grammaticality belong to thesame syntactic category.( )4.Among the approaches to the study of meaning, the naming theory is better than others. ( )5.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. ( )6.IC Analysis can be used to analyze all kinds of ambiguous structures ( )7. A morpheme must convey a lexical meaning ( )8.All words can said to contain a root morpheme. ( )9.Free morpheme can be further classified into inflectional and derivational morphemes. ( )10.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth,the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. ( )11.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning,they are said to be in complementary distribution. ( )12.The word “modernizations” is made up of three morphemes. ( )13.The English spelling exactly represents its pronunciation.( )14.Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentences patterns of a language.( )15.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tonguethat is raised the highest. ( )nguage is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situationalconstraints.( )17.Constituents that can be substituted for one another with loss of grammaticality belong to thesame syntactic category. ( )18.onomatopoetic words are found in almost all human languages, which shows the arbitrarynature of languages.( )19.Allophones are described in phonetic terms.( )20.Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning. ( )二、选择题（每小题 1分，共20分）得分：分Part II. Directions: choose the best answer from the four choices to complete the following sentences or answer the questions. Mark the corresponding letter. (1 point each, 20 points)1. language is a system of arbitrary _________ symbols used for human communication.A. culturalB. conventionalC. decodedD. vocal2. A word with several meanings is called _________.A. an abnormal wordB. a polysemous wordC. a synonymous wordD. none of the above3. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed” in the word “learned” is known as a(n) __________.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form4. The syntactic rules of any language are ________ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite5. “I picked some tulips.” __________ “I picked some flowers.”A. entailsB. presupposesC. is inconsistent withD. is synonymous with6. Cold and hot is a pair of ________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. converse7. “Can I borrow your bike?” _____ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes8. The study of language at one point of time is a _______ study.A. synchronicB. historicC. diachronicD. descriptive9. Which of the following is a typical tone language?A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. All of the above10. Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in ___________.A. phonemic contrastB. complementary distributionC. minimal pairD. none of the above11. Bloomfield drew on __________ psychology when truing to define the meaning of linguistic forms.A. contextualB. conceptualistC. behavioristD. naming12. Transformational Generative Grammar was introduced by _______ in 1957.A. L. BloomfieldB. N. ChomskyC. F. SaussureD. M. A. K. Halliday13. Which of the following is a correct description of reference?A. a relationship between an expression and other expressions which have the same meaningB. the set of all objects which can potentially be referred to by an expressionC. a relationship between a particular object in the world and an expression used in anutterance to pick out that objectD. an intra-linguistic relationship between lexical items14. What is function of the sentence “How do you do’?A. DirectiveB. PhaticC. InformativeD. Evocative15. Dialectal synonyms are synonyms used in different ________ dialectsA. personalB. regionalC. socialD. professional16. Which of the following languages has the syllabic writing system?A. ChineseB. JapaneseC. EnglishD. French17. Which descr iption of the meaning components of the word “father” is right?A. [+human, +adult,-male]B. [+human, -adult, +male]C. [–human, +adult, -male]D. [+human, +adult, +male]18. Once the notion of ________ was taken into consideration, semantics spilled into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content19. The classic semantic triangle reflects__________.A. ComponentialB. PredicationC. SyntacticD. none of the above20. The noun tear and the verb tear are __________.A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. none of the above三、填空题（每空1分，共10分）得分：分Part III. Directions: Complete the following sentences by filling in the blank with the most appropriate word. (1 points each, 20 points)1)The three branches of phonetics are labeled as a____________ phonetics, auditory phoneticsand acoustic phonetics respectively.2)One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over w_________.3)S_________ studies the sentence structure of language.4)C____________ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dividedinto meaning components.5)The noun “tear” and the verb “tear” are h_____________.6)The modern linguistics is d____________, not prescriptive, and its investigations are based onauthentic and mainly spoken language data.7)M___________ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.8)Langue refers to the language system shared by a community of speaker while p________contrasted with langue is the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker.9)The transformational component has transformational rules, which change the deep structuresgenerated by the phrase structure component into s________ structure. (surface)10)In semantic triangle, the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct, and it ismediated by c___________.四、解释专业术语（每小题4分，共20分，）得分：分Part IV. Directions: Define the following terms. Write the definitions of each term in the following required space: (2 points each, 10 points)1. Syntactic category:2. deep structure:3. semantic triangle:4. true condition:5. componential analysis:五、论述题（每题15分, 共30分）得分：分Part V. Essay Question: (30%)1. What are the seven types of meaning proposed by G. Leech in his Semantics?2. What are the differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar?3. Draw a surface structure and the deep structure for the following sentence.“the girl put the toys in the box”。

英语语言学概论笔记（期末复习资料）【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?―Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like ―book‖) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languag es have different ―books‖: ―book‖ in English,―livre‖ in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, ―check‖ in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or―new‖. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?―Design features‖ here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell thedifference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By ―arbitrariness‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like ―bang‖, ―crash‖, ―roar‖, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. ―Type‖ and ―write‖ are opaque orunmotivated words, while ―type-writer‖ is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguist s refer ―duality‖ (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning.According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into aninfinite更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person totalk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking si tuation. No one has ever said or heard ―A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon‖, but he cansay it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called ―rule-bound creativity‖ (byN.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?―Displacement‖, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless,has a small share of ―displacement‖, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. Ifa human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak thewolf’s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, ―Please do something to make me happy.‖ Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that 更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 ―speaking‖ and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six ―design features‖ whichanimal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F.Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a hum an child. She was taught ―American sign Language‖, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the ―Wolf Child‖in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three ―Macro-Functions‖: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin etal., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The ―phatic function‖ refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic langua ge (e.g. ―How are you?‖ ―Fine, thanks.‖) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say ―Hello‖ to a friend you meet, orif you don’t answer his ―Hi‖, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The ―directive function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., ―Tell me the result whenyou finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin an d J.Searle’s ―indirect speech act theory‖(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278)at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an ―informational function‖ when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s―Cooperative Principle‖(see HuZhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the ―Maxim of Quality‖, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an―interrogative function‖. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the ―indirect speech act theory‖, may have this function as well, e.g., ―I’d liketo know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I’m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urgecustomers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to ―do things‖ or perform actions. On certain occasions theutterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, ―OK‖, which means more than speech, and more than an average socialindividual may do for the construction. The j udge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?―Linguistics‖ is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, butto investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave nolinguistic ―stone‖ unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjectivein the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective,matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes partof the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if itstopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled ―On the Use of THE‖, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle oflinguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speechis primary; because it existed long long before writing systems cameinto being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds:更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing aswritten codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches? A linguistic study is ―descriptive‖ if itonly describes and analyses the facts of language, and ―prescriptive‖ if it tries to lay down rules for ―correct‖ language behavior. Linguisticstudies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on ―high‖ (literary or reli gious) written records. Modernlinguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believesthat whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers ―langue‖to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers ―parole‖ to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. Thelangue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, ―competence‖ is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and ―performance‖ is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. Aspeaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence,rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造native language.(3) C homsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as,though similar to, F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product,and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on manytopics. What he actually says (i.e. his ―actual linguistic behavior‖) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means ―knowing‖, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for ―doing‖ or―performing actions‖. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?―Phonetics‖ is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making,especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods fortheir description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin etal., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch ofphonetic research from the hearer’s point ofview, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and theresonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g.Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h]. Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed ―labial-velar‖.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The ―manner of articulation‖ literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unroundvowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of ―International Phonetic Alphabet‖, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phoneticvariation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between―narrow‖ and ―broad‖ transcriptions, which he called ―Narrow Romic‖. The form er was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology? (1) ―Phonology‖ is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speechsounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the更多精华请登陆考研1号网 【考研1号】专为英语基础一般及薄弱者打造characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they areconceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign ―accent‖, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A ―phone‖ is a phonetic unit or segment. T he speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and threedifferent[p]’s, readily making possible the ―narrow transcription or diacritics‖. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A ―phoneme‖ is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its ―allophones‖,i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are theallophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random.In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a ―minimal pair‖, e.g.,―pill‖ and ―bill‖, ―pill‖ and ―till‖, ―till‖ and ―dill‖,―till‖ and ―kill‖, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in ―free variation‖. Theplosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation.更多精华请登陆考研1号网 。

语言学概论考试复习资料.docxLanguage is a system of arbitrary,vocal symbols used for human communication. Impoilant f eatures that are typical of the nature of human language: Language is systematic/symbolic/arbitrary/primarily vocal/human specific/used for communication Linguistics is generally defined as the systematic study of language?General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language?Metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use. Metafunctions of language: ideational/interpersonal/textual functionSeven general functions of language: physiological/phatic/recording/identifying/reasoning/communi catin/pleasure function Sounds arc units which combine to make words or parts of words.Signs,three major types:Icon(We say a sign is an icon when an object and its sign are related to each other by a physical resemblance. eg. a photo that is taken of a video cassette) Indcx(A sign is called an index when an object and its sign are associated to each other by physical proximity.eg. in the case of thunder and lighting, thunder is an index.)Symbol(If a sign and the object it signifies are associated by social convention, the sign is called a symbol.eg, traffic lights, wedding rings, national flags.)The origin of language: creation, evolution, invention Language families: Genetic Classification, Typological Classification Some important distinctions in linguistics: langue and parole, prescriptive and descriptive, synchronic and diachronic, speech and writing, syntagmatic and paradigmatic,competence and performance, functionalism and formalism The diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a language?The synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.Paradigmatic relation refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative tcrms(foot as opposed to feet). Syntagmatic relation refers to the relations between units which combine to form sequences?Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract fornial relations. Performance refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors?Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds?Phonology is the study of sound patterning?Semantics is the study of meanin g?use of linguistics: pragmatics, anthropological lingustics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics, applied linguistics, computational linguisticsAll vowels are voiced, as are the following consonants: d，b，g，q,、，six plosives: p,b,t,d,k, g three nasals: m,n, rj eight fricatives: f,v，0, 6，s,z，J, 3Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity. However, vowels are more difficult than consonants to describe articulatorily? According to Sloat et al (1978:10-11), the primary criteria for the classification of vowels are: (1) the distance between the top of the tongue and the roof of the mouth and (2) the retraction andextension of the tongue. A secondary criterion is the rounding of the lips. 分类：1 分为close/ open / low/ high vowels2 分为vowels with tongue retraction are called back vowels /Vbwels made with the tongue body extended to toward the front of the oral cavity are called front vowels另一种分类：Vowels may be subdivided into monophthongs and diphthongs. 单元音和双元音2.1.3 Characteristics of English Speech Sounds元咅和4甫咅：Like other languages, English has both vowels and consonants. As we have discussed, vowels are produced by shaping the oral cavity through which air from the lungs is allowed to flow more or less freely. Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.English has many vowel sounds? According to Roach (1991)，there arc seven short vowels、five long vowels，eight diphthongs and five triphtho ngs.eia, ais, oia, sua, auaConsonants arc usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation. English is said to have twenty-four consonants?音标2.1.4 The Transcription of Sounds音标字母：A phonetic alphabet can represent speech in the fonn of segments, or individual speech sounds like [p], [s] or [m]. 标音法：A phonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on pape匚国际音标：The best-known system, the InternationalPhonetic Alphabet (IPA), has been developing since 1888. This system of transcription attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol.The sounds symbols allow us to represent many nuances of articulation. There are two kinds of transcription: narrow transcription and broad tTanscription .严式音标[]A transcription records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording is called a narrow transcription.宽式音标〃A transcription that omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation is called a broad transcription. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns in human language. Thus, the term phonology is used in two ways, either as the study of the sound patterns in language or as the sound patterns of a language?Phoneme is minimal meaningful linguistic unit.(Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzablc into smaller units.In Sloat et al's definition, each lexical entry includes, along with information about the semantic and syntactic nature of the morpheme, an underlying representation. The segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes.)(distinctive sounds) However, a phoneme may have its variants. These phonetic variants of a phoneme arc known as allophones.A pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair. In other words, when two different fbnns arc identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs.区别性特征2.2.3 Distinctive FeaturesEvery language has a limited number of phonological oppositions. In order to find out these oppositions, distinctivefeatures can be use to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Distinctive features are often shown in the form of a binary opposition. The features can be shown either present [+] or absent [-].Tongue Body Features ? The Features Rounded ? The Features High and Back in Consonants ? Manner Features We can also use features such as voicedness, tenseness, and place of articulation to describe a number of speech sounds?语音模式：2.3 Sound PatternsSound patterns refer to the set of sounds that occur in a given language, the pennissible arrangements of these sounds in words, and the processes for adding, deleting, or changing sounds?Sequential Constraints:All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes, though different languages have different constraints.However, it is not difficult to show that speakers have knowledge of such sequential rules. Another sequential constraint in English pertains to clusters (one or more consonants) of nasal consonants followed by nonnasal (oral) stops within words. There arc restrictions on the order in which sounds can occur in a given language? The permissible orders arc generally quite limited. The simplest and most natural arrangement is the alternation of consonants and vowels in the pattern ^consonant- vowel- consonant- vowel...11. Every syllable begins with a single consonant and ends with a vowel.4 Another common constraint is that every word must contain at least one vowel-like segment?When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they arc said to be in complementary distribution. Complementary distribution refersto the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s)?即是语位变体：According to Wardhaugh (1977:65), phonetically similar sounds in complementary distribution are allophones of a single phoneme?Although the occurrence of sounds in complementary distribution is a prerequisite to these sounds being allophones of one and the same phoneme, this is not the sole condition □ T he other necessary condition to be met is the criterion of phonetic similarity. The sounds in complementary distribution must be phonetically similar to each other for them to be regarded as allophones of one and the same phoneme. This latter condition is not met in the example of [h] and 〔引，which are subsequently considered to belong to separate phonemes. Suprasegmental Features：Syllable /Stress /Pitch/ Intonation and TonePhonetically, the syllable consists of a center which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this center there is greater obstruction to airflow and/or less loud sound? According to Roach (1991:67), a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation?Stress is generally defined as syllable prominence? In other words, a syllable that is more prominent than the other syllables in a word or phrase is said to be stressed. In many languages, including English, some syllables within a word are relatively more prominent thanothers.Stress is a conventional label for the overall prominence of certain syllables relative to others within a linguistic system? Itrepresents the total effect of factors such as pitch, loudness, and duration.Some words may have a primary stress and one or more than one secondaiy stresses.However, no word has more than one primary stress. English syllables seem to be stressed by a combination of raised pitch and increased loudness and length.When words are combined into phrases and sentences, one of the syllables receives greater stress than all others? Only one of the vowels in a phrase or sentence receives primary stress. All the other stressed vowels are reduced to secondaiy stress. According to Clark and Yallop (1990:287), patterns of stress are highly important in a language such as English.Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech. Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound wave. Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound? The relationship between pitch and fundamental frequency is nonlinear and varies with the frequency involved?In many languages, some syllables or vowels are produced with a change in pitch, more loudly, and longer than other vowels in the word or sentence. They are referred to as stressed. Pitch patterns are essentially either steady, rising or falling .Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllable. By means of intonation, syllables arc grouped into phrases, and phrases into sentences? In English a phrase usually has one or two different terminations. The most common phrasal intonation ends on a falling pitch; the other ends on a more or less level pitch?分类：As noted by Sloat et al (1978:76?78), intonation serves several functions in verbal communication. Grouping of Words /Emphasizing Words / Differentiating Meanings单词分组.Grouping of WordsFirst, intonation contours may indicate the possible groupings of words in phrases, resulting in different meanings of these phrases. In the following two phrases, the first one means a boys1 school that is small, while the second means a school for small boys?强调单词.EmDhasizing WordsIntonation may also serve to emphasize a certain word within a phrase or sentence. The first of the following sentences has a neutral intonation contour. The second has higher pitch on one word than would normally be expected. That word therefore takes on special importance in the sentence? Thus, the second sentence means John only kissed Mary. He did not do anything else to her意义区分?Differentiating MeaningsFurthemiore, in English, the same sentence may mean quite different things when spoken with different intonations. For the most part declarative sentences terminate with a falling pitch and questions requiring a yes or no answer terminate on a rising pitch. Exclamations are often characterized by a high pitch throughout.音调：Tone refers to pitch variations .In some languages, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches? The function of tone is quite different from that of stress. Tones do not mark the beginning and ending of words, nor do they even indicate to the speaker how many words there are in an utterance.声调语占：Languages that use pitch in this way arc called tone languages?语音语调注册：T one languages with the majority of syllables maintaining the same level or register are called register tone languages ?纯音单音：Register tones and falling and rising tones are called simple tones?声调轮廓：T ones that rise, fall or change direction within a syllabic arc called contour tones.The four characteristics of a word: 1A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we produce voluntarily with our vocal equipment.2A word is symbolic.3Words are part of the large communication system we call language.4Words can help human beings interact culturally with one another.How to identify a word:lFirst, to recognize its series of meaningfully separable sound segments or letters in the stream of speech in the written tcxt.2Sccond, to recognize the accumulated experiences with which its sound segments or letters arc associated.3Third, to recognize its fimetion in a sentence or an utterance as it works grammatically with other words.4Lastly, to relate words to the social and cultural context in which they are uttered so as to figure out the speaker's intention or illocutionary force?A preposition is a word used with the prepositional complement(which is characteristically a noun phrase, a pronoun, a nominal wh?clause, or a nominal-ing clause) to show its grammatical connection with another part of the sentence.A pronoun is a word in place of a noun or a noun phrase? A conjunction is a word that connects parts of sentences or phrases? Anoun is the name of an object, a happening and an idea. A full verb is a word that tells what someone or something is，does,or experience.A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that carries grammatical and/or semantic meaning. The different variants of a morpheme arc called allomorphs?Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes according to whether they can be used independently as free forms or not. If a morpheme can constitute a word by itself it is called a free morpheme. If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound?The best known definition of word is given by Bloomfield, who defines a word as “a minimum free fdrnV\ that is9 the smallest form that can occur by itself. English words can be classified into closed class, open class and two lesser categories and words of unique function. Closed class includes: preposition，pronoun, determiner^ conjunction, modal verb，primary verbA determiner refers to an item which determines the references of a noun phrase in the linguistic or contextual context.Modal verbs like can, could, may, might, must, need, dare, will, would, shall, should .etc. cannot function independently as predicate verbs. They should go with the base fomiPrimary verbs like be, have, do cannot function independently as predicate verb in the clause?Open class includes: Nouns, Full verbsAdjectives，AdverbsA full verb is a word that tells what someone or something is, does, or experiences? Full verbs can be further divided transitive (put, give) and intransitive verbs (arrive)?Speak: either transitive or intransitive Regular full verbs: work, have four morphological forms.Irregular full verbs: a verb like undergo has five, cast has only three whereas the primary verb be has as many as eight.The two lesser categories are numerals 数次(cardinal numerals 基数词and ordinal numerals 序数词)and interjections 感叹词. Numerals are words that denote numbers or the order.Interjections are words or phrases used as a sudden remark usually expressing feelings, such as exclamation, sorrow, surprise, regret There are also a number of words of unique function, like the negative particle not and the infinitive marker to.Open class: we can add new words to these classes? E.g. cybernation(n), stonewall(v), clone(v), biodestnictible(adj), weatherwise(adv) and salewise(adv).Closed class: prepositions, relatives 关系词，auxiliary verb 助动词,the linking verb 系动词/o be, pronouns and other pro-verbs.A pro-form 替代形式is a word or expression used as a substitute for another fbrm.A pro?verb is a verb form like do or do so which is used as the substitute of a verb phrase, usually for the sake of avoiding an undesired repetition in the clause?According to their variability, words can also be classified into variable 易变的and invariable 不变的words.Variable words can take inflectional ending and thus have ordered and regular series (called paradigm) of grammatically different word forms.Invariable words do not take inflectional 曲折变化的endings?English has the least variable words. In modern English, only a few lexical categories, including nouns, verbs, gradable 可分类的adjectives and adverbs, have paradigms 范例as follows: N: book books boy's V: work works working worked Adj/Adv fast faster fastestAccording to where they denote lexical or grammatical meanings, words fall into two categories: lexical words 词V匚词and grammatical words 语法词.①Nouns, pronouns, full verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals always denote objects, happenings, ideas, their properties and other lexical meanings and thus are generally labeled as lexical words or content words?②Conversely, conjunctions, prepositions, primary verbs and modal auxiliaries, inteijections and particles denote one grammatical meaning or another and arc thus called grammatical words or functionHowever, lexical words and grammatical words are closely related?The syntactic criteria for assigning words to lexical categories very often rely on specific types of grammatical function words. For example, nouns can be preceded by a definite the or indefinite article a(n), and the function of the article is to indicate what the noun refers to is either more or less specific. Such words present problems of segmentation 分害山different in degree or in kind? These words included 1) the irregular plurals like men, mice, children, oxen, sheep, deer, etc.;(2) the past form and/or -ed participle of certain verbs like went, came, took, cut, etc.; (3) the irregular comparatives and superlatives like better, best, further, furthest.Allomorphs 语素变体:can be phonologically or morphologically conditioned? ed 发咅When the selection of an allomorph is determined by the lexical form of the base word with which it is combined, it is moq?hologically-conditioned. Examples include: irregular plurals: oxen, children, sheep, deer, geese, feet the past form of certain verbs: went,took, bought, cut the -ed participle of certain verbs: gone, taken,bought, cut Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes 自由词素and bound morphemes 黏着词素according to whether they canbe used independently as free forms or not.If a morpheme can constitute a word(free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme, like room, bottle.standjarge.If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound, like tin- in unlucky and the plural 一s in bags?A bound morpheme is also called an AFFIX in the sense that it is always added to another morpheme.The stem 词干can be a free morpheme?Boy in boys, boyhood,boyish?Affixes can be further divided into prefixes 前缀，suffixes 后缀and infixes 中缀. Prefix可能改变单词意思un?, mono?,mini-,bi?,macro-,也可能只是改变语法意义cn- Most suffixes have two functions: to add some grammatical meanings to the stem -s or change its grammatical categories -ly -fill.一种也不变的：n+ly->n daily, monthlyn+lul->n mouthful, handfulSome affixes Jikc the suffix YC，may denote different lcxical/grammar meanings:Employee; escapee(a person who has escaped);refugee;standeeBound morphemes can be divided into two types according to whether they provide the lexical item to which they are added any further grammatical meaning and/or lexical meaning.①An inflectional morpheme 曲折词素provides further grammatical infbnnation about an existing lexical item. English inflectional morphemes are largely in the form of suffix.② A derivative morpheme 派生词素refers to one that creates an entirely new word? It may take the form of a prefix or a suffix.3.3inflcction and word?fbimationInflection 曲折refers to the process of adding an affix to aword or changing it in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language?Compared with other Indo-European languages, Modem English has relatively f^vv inflectional morphemes, including: the plural {s} the third-person singular {s}the -ing participle {ing} the past form and past participle {ed} the comparative {er} the superlative {est}the genetive case {5s} (as in "the girfs doll") the feminine gender {ess} (as in "actress”)CompoundingRefers to the process of conjoining two or more tree morphemes to fomi a new word.Semantic features 语义特征When two or more free morphemes arc combined into a compound, a new meaning arise, which is in most eases no longer a simple combination of the meanings of the component elements.Greenhouse ->not necessarily green in colorOrthographic Matures 平面特征Most compound words are either hyphenated 带有连字符的or completely conjoined 联合的，like ^rass-blacle, grass-plot, grassland and grasshopper.Phonological features 语音特征The stress of compound noun usually falls on the first constituent morpheme?Grammatical features 语法特征Compound words have special internal structures, which are normally unacceptable in free phrases.Normally do not take comparative and superlative fbrms 无比较级牙口最高级?Plural marker always fall on the last component,as in flowerpots, conveyor belts, daughters-in-law and women doctors.Derivation根据词源发展而來3?Conversion转化(词性转化，多半是一个词素的单词)Abbreviation 缩写Clipping (等同于cutting)Blending 组合Back formation 逆构词(onomatopoeia 拟声,象声法)Neolozism 新词(也称new coinage)Borrowing 夕卜来词Analogy and contrast 类比和对比Lexeme 词位：A lexeme is an abstract unit and thus may occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts.The verb lexeme speak may take five forms: speak, speaks, speaking, speak, spoken.Homonyms 同形同音异义词：lexical items which sound the same but differ in grammatical and lexical meanings. Collocation 搭配：refers to the acceptable combination between individual lexical items.Four kinds of rules govern or restrict the selection of lexical items allowable to co-occur:Rules of the first kind are logical, which arise from the extra-linguistic world.(break this rule leads to false or contradictoiy utterances) When talk about football, we may expect the occurrence of verbs like garb, rebound, sink and shoot.Rules of the second this kind are semantic, which are generally language-specific.(break this rule produce semantically unacceptable utterances)Dog may take adj. like devoted, intelligent, brave, considerate and lovely.Rules of the third kind are lexical, which apply only to the expressional aspect and so relate to the choice of words or the co-occurrence of lexical items of one category with those of anothe匸We say take a walk instead of make a walk?Rules of the last kind arc grammatical.Abide by,adhere to,remind ...of....restrain fromPhrasal lexemes which have relatively regular lexical meaning and restricted grammatical variation are referred to as IDIOMS. English idioms have two characteristics: (a) semantic unity 语义的统一性and (b) structural stability 结构的稳定性.These two characteristics distinguish an idiom from a free phrase. According to its grammatical functions and internal structure, an idiom may fiinction as a verb、noun、adjective or adverb ?Proverb is often a short sentence that people quote and use to give advice and state some general human life experience and problem?Proverbs can also be one kind of idioms.Constituents arc structural units, i.c. any linguistic form, such as words or word groups.Ultimate constituents are the minimal grammatical elements, of which the sentence is composed?Immediate constituents: After a sentence is cut into constituent elements, the two parts that are yielded are called xx.The advantage of IC analysis(Immediate Constituent Analysis) lies in its function that shows not only linear relationship, but also hierarchical ones?A construction is a relationship between constituents. Constructions arc divided into two types: cndoccntric constructions and exocentric constructions.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalentto that of one or more of its constituents? A word or a group of words act as a definable center or head. Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole. There is no definable center or head inside the group?“Definable，' here behaves like an attribute in the construction. Endocentric construction can further be divided into two types: subordination and coordination. If only one immediate constituent is of the same form class as the whole construction, it is the subordinating type. If both constituents are of the same form class as the whole construction, it is the coordinating type.A simple sentence is a group of words which expresses a single independent thought.A coordinate sentence or compound sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more connected and coordinate thoughts ?A complex sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more unified thoughts, one of which is the main or principal thought dependent on it one or more subordinate thoughts?Seven basic clause types of English: SV,SVO,SVC,SVA,SVOO,SVOC,SVOA(subject,verb,object,comple ment,adverbial) Declaratives are sentences in which the subject is present and generally precedes the verb.Interrogatives arc sentences that arc fonnally marked in one of two ways: either yes-no interrogatives with the operator placed before the subject or wh-interrogatives with the interrogative wh-clcmcnt positioned initially.Imperatives are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb has the base form. Exclamatives are sentences which have an initial phraseintroduced by what or how, usually with subject-verb order. Four classes of discourse functions: Statements are primarily used to convey infonnation, questions are primarily used to seek information of a specific point, directives arc primarily used to instruct somebody to do something, exclamations arc primarily used for expressing the extent to which the speaker feel about or is impressed by something.Assertion, prediction and apology are pragmatic categories that indicate how sentences are used in actual utterances? Five functional categories of clause constituents: subject,verb,/doc/cb6173657.html plement and adverbial.Subject refers to the noun which serves as the doer or agent of the agent.The grammatical subject in English can govern the predicate in terms of person,number,and tense, and can be checked by a tag?qucstion.Thc predicate is what is said about the subject. Object is the non-subjcct argument of a transitive verb. A transitive verb is a verb that can take a direct object and an intransitive verb is one that does not.Category in syntax usually refers to classes and functions.A syntactic category refers to a word, a phrase or a clause that performs a particular grammatical function, such as subject in a sentence. Primary grammatical categories: Parts of speech Secondary grammatical categories:numbcr, gender, tense, mood, case, person,concord,government.Funcional catrgories: subject, predicate, object. Number is a grammatical category for the analysis of such contrasts as singular and plural of certain word classes?Gender demonstrates such contrasts as masculine, feminine and neuter, animate and inanimate,etc. for the analysis of certain word classes?The case category is often used in the。