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Gesture language,also known as sign language,is a fascinating form of communication that transcends the barriers of spoken language.It is a visualmanual mode of communication that involves the use of hand gestures,facial expressions,and body language to convey meaning.This form of language is particularly important for the deaf and hard of hearing community,as it allows them to communicate effectively in a world that is predominantly auditory.The Origin and Evolution of Sign LanguageSign languages have been around for centuries,with evidence of their use dating back to ancient civilizations.The modern form of sign language,however,began to take shape in the18th century with the establishment of schools for the deaf in Europe.One of the earliest and most influential figures in the development of sign language was AbbéCharlesMichel de lÉpée,who founded the first public school for the deaf in Paris in1755. He is credited with creating a systematic sign language to teach French Sign Language LSF to deaf students.Types of Sign LanguagesThere are many different sign languages around the world,each with its own unique set of signs and grammar rules.Some of the most wellknown sign languages include:1.American Sign Language ASL:Widely used in the United States and parts of Canada, ASL is a complete language with its own grammar and syntax,separate from English.2.British Sign Language BSL:The primary sign language used in the United Kingdom, BSL is distinct from ASL and has its own linguistic structure.3.French Sign Language LSF:As mentioned earlier,LSF has a rich history and is used in France and other Frenchspeaking countries.4.International Sign:This is a simplified form of sign language used at international events,such as the Deaflympics,to facilitate communication among sign language users from different countries.Learning Sign LanguageLearning sign language can be a rewarding experience,not only for those who wish to communicate with the deaf community but also for anyone interested in linguistics or communication studies.It is a language that emphasizes visual and spatial awareness,making it a unique challenge for those accustomed to auditory and textual communication.The Role of Sign Language in SocietySign language plays a crucial role in the lives of the deaf and hard of hearing,providing them with a means to express themselves and participate fully in society.It is used in educational settings,professional environments,and social interactions.Additionally, sign language interpreters are essential in making events,services,and media accessible to those who rely on sign language.Challenges and MisconceptionsDespite its importance,sign language is often misunderstood or undervalued.Some people may view it as a mere set of gestures rather than a fullfledged language.This misconception can lead to a lack of support for sign language education and accessibility, which in turn affects the quality of life for the deaf community.In conclusion,sign language is a powerful tool for communication that deserves recognition and respect.It is a testament to the human ability to adapt and create systems of communication that can bridge the gap between different ways of experiencing the world.As we continue to strive for a more inclusive society,it is essential that we support and promote the use of sign language,ensuring that everyone has the opportunity to communicate and be understood.。
手势交流英文作文Nonverbal communication, also known as body language, is a fundamental aspect of human interaction that goes beyond the spoken word. Among the various forms of nonverbal communication, hand gestures play a significant role in conveying meaning, expressing emotions, and enhancing the overall communication process. This essay aims to explore the significance of hand gestures in English language communication and their impact on interpersonal interactions.Firstly it is important to understand the versatility of hand gestures in the English language. Hand gestures can serve a variety of purposes ranging from emphasizing a point, providing visual aids, or even replacing verbal communication altogether. For instance a simple hand wave can be used to greet someone or bid farewell while a thumbs up gesture can convey a sense of approval or agreement. More complex hand movements such as pointing or cupping the hands can be used to direct attention or provide spatial cues. These gestures often complement and reinforce the verbal message being conveyed adding depth and nuance to the overall communication.Moreover hand gestures can be instrumental in overcominglanguage barriers. In situations where individuals may not share a common spoken language hand gestures can serve as a universal medium of exchange. A person can use hand motions to pantomime an action describe an object or convey an idea even if the verbal component is missing. This can be particularly useful in tourism settings where travelers may need to communicate with locals who do not speak English fluently. By relying on hand gestures individuals can bridge the linguistic gap and engage in meaningful exchanges.Hand gestures also play a crucial role in regulating conversational flow and maintaining effective communication. Through hand movements speakers can signal when they are ready to begin speaking pause for a response or conclude their thought. Listeners can likewise use hand gestures to indicate that they are following the conversation nodding in agreement or requesting clarification. These gestural cues help to synchronize the back-and-forth of dialogue ensuring a seamless flow of information.Furthermore hand gestures can be instrumental in enhancing the emotional expressiveness of communication. Certain hand movements can convey feelings of excitement frustration or confusion adding an extra layer of nonverbal information to the verbal message. For example a person might use an open palm gesture to emphasize a point or a clenched fist to express anger. These gestural displays can provide valuable insights into thespeaker's internal state and foster a deeper level of interpersonal connection.It is also important to note that the cultural context plays a significant role in the interpretation and usage of hand gestures. What may be considered a common and innocuous gesture in one culture could be perceived as offensive or inappropriate in another. Therefore it is crucial for individuals engaging in cross-cultural communication to be mindful of the nuances and variations in gestural norms. By developing an understanding of these cultural differences individuals can navigate the complexities of hand gesture usage and avoid potential misunderstandings.In conclusion hand gestures are a vital component of nonverbal communication in the English language. They serve to enhance the clarity and expressiveness of verbal exchange regulate conversational flow and bridge linguistic gaps. As a universal medium of exchange hand gestures can facilitate meaningful interactions even in the absence of a shared spoken language. However it is essential to be cognizant of the cultural context in which these gestures are employed to ensure effective and respectful communication. By embracing the power of hand gestures individuals can cultivate more dynamic and engaging interactions in the English language.。
肢体语言重要意义英语作文初二Nonverbal communication, or body language, plays a crucial role in our daily interactions and social relationships. It encompasses a wide range of subtle cues and gestures that can convey a wealth of information, often without the use of spoken words. The importance of body language cannot be overstated, as it can profoundly impact our personal and professional lives.One of the primary benefits of understanding and effectively utilizing body language is its ability to enhance communication. Verbal communication, while essential, can sometimes be ambiguous or open to misinterpretation. Body language, on the other hand, can provide valuable context and clarity, allowing us to better understand the underlying meaning and emotions behind spoken words. By paying attention to a person's posture, facial expressions, and gestures, we can gain deeper insights into their true thoughts and feelings, leading to more meaningful and productive conversations.Moreover, effective use of body language can be a powerful tool in building and maintaining strong interpersonal relationships. When we engage with others, our nonverbal cues can convey a sense ofopenness, confidence, and trustworthiness, which can be instrumental in establishing a positive rapport and fostering emotional connections. Conversely, poor body language, such as crossed arms or avoidance of eye contact, can inadvertently signal disinterest, discomfort, or even hostility, potentially hindering the development of meaningful relationships.In the professional realm, the importance of body language cannot be overstated. In job interviews, for instance, a candidate's body language can greatly influence the interviewer's perception of their suitability for the role. A firm handshake, steady eye contact, and an upright posture can convey confidence, enthusiasm, and professionalism, increasing the likelihood of a successful outcome. Similarly, in business negotiations or presentations, effective use of body language can help individuals appear more authoritative, persuasive, and credible, ultimately increasing their chances of achieving their desired objectives.Beyond interpersonal relationships and professional settings, body language also plays a crucial role in our personal lives. In the context of romantic relationships, nonverbal cues can be instrumental in conveying attraction, interest, and emotional intimacy. A simple gesture, such as a gentle touch or a tender gaze, can communicate volumes, often more effectively than words alone. Additionally, understanding and interpreting body language can be invaluable invarious social situations, from networking events to cultural celebrations, allowing individuals to navigate these interactions with greater confidence and sensitivity.It is important to note that the interpretation of body language can be highly context-dependent and may vary across different cultures and social environments. What might be considered a positive gesture in one culture could be perceived as rude or inappropriate in another. Therefore, developing a nuanced understanding of cultural differences and adaptability in our use of body language is essential for effective communication and building meaningful connections with people from diverse backgrounds.In conclusion, the importance of body language cannot be overstated. It is a powerful tool that can enhance communication, foster stronger interpersonal relationships, and contribute to professional success. By cultivating an awareness of our own nonverbal cues and those of others, we can become more effective communicators, better equipped to navigate the complexities of social interactions and achieve our personal and professional goals. As we continue to navigate the ever-evolving landscape of human interaction, the mastery of body language will undoubtedly remain a crucial skill for personal and societal growth.。
手势语言的重要性英文作文英文：Importance of Sign Language。
Sign language is a visual language that uses a combination of hand gestures, facial expressions, and body language to communicate. It is an important language that is used by people who are deaf or hard of hearing, as well as those who are non-verbal or have difficulty speaking. Sign language is not only a means of communication, but it is also a form of culture and identity for the Deaf community.Sign language is important because it allows for effective communication between individuals who may not be able to communicate through spoken language. It is a language that is accessible to everyone, regardless oftheir ability to hear or speak. Sign language also promotes inclusivity and diversity, as it acknowledges andcelebrates the unique culture and language of the Deaf community.Furthermore, sign language can also be beneficial for individuals who are learning a new language. It can help with language acquisition and retention, as it provides a visual and kinesthetic method of learning. Sign language can also be used as a tool for communication in noisy environments or in situations where verbal communication may not be possible.In conclusion, sign language is an important language that promotes communication, inclusivity, and diversity. It is a language that should be recognized and valued, and its importance should be promoted and advocated for.中文：手势语言的重要性。
肢体语言在不同国家的区别英语作文Body language is a universal form of nonverbal communication that conveys thoughts, feelings, and intentions without the use of spoken words. However, the specific gestures, expressions, and movements that constitute body language can vary significantly across different cultures and nationalities. What may be considered a polite or acceptable form of body language in one country could be seen as rude or inappropriate in another. Understanding these cultural differences in body language is crucial for effective cross-cultural communication and avoiding misunderstandings.One notable example of cultural differences in body language is the use of eye contact. In many Western countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, maintaining eye contact is often seen as a sign of confidence, honesty, and engagement in a conversation. Avoiding eye contact, on the other hand, can be interpreted as shyness, disinterest, or even dishonesty. In contrast, in some Asian cultures, such as Japan and China, prolonged eye contact is often considered rude or aggressive, and it is generally more polite to avert one's gaze, especially when speaking to someone of highersocial status.Similarly, the use of personal space and physical touch can vary significantly across cultures. In countries like the United States and Canada, people generally prefer to maintain a comfortable personal space, and physical contact, such as hugging or touching, is often reserved for close friends and family members. In Latin American and Mediterranean countries, however, it is common for people to stand closer together and engage in more physical touch, such as kissing on the cheek or placing a hand on the arm of the person they are speaking to. Failure to respect these cultural norms can lead to feelings of discomfort or even offense.Another key difference in body language is the way in which gestures are used and interpreted. In some cultures, certain hand gestures, such as the "thumbs up" or the "OK" sign, are considered positive and affirmative, while in other cultures, these same gestures may be seen as rude or offensive. For example, in Greece, the "thumbs up" gesture is considered an insult, while in the Middle East, the "OK" sign is often interpreted as a reference to the evil eye.The use of facial expressions and head movements can also vary across cultures. In many Western countries, a smile is generally seen as a sign of friendliness and approachability, while in some Asian cultures, a smile may be used to mask feelings of discomfort orembarrassment. Similarly, the way in which people nod their heads to indicate agreement or understanding can differ across cultures, with some cultures associating a sideways head movement with agreement, rather than the up-and-down nod that is common in the West.These cultural differences in body language can have significant implications for cross-cultural communication and understanding. Misinterpreting or misunderstanding body language can lead to miscommunication, misunderstandings, and even offense. For example, a business executive from the United States who is accustomed to making direct eye contact and using expansive hand gestures may inadvertently come across as aggressive or domineering to a Japanese counterpart who is more comfortable with a more reserved and subtle form of body language.To navigate these cultural differences effectively, it is important to be aware of and respectful of the body language norms of the cultures with which one is interacting. This may involve observing and learning from the body language of others, asking for clarification or feedback, and being willing to adjust one's own body language to better align with the cultural context. By developing a deeper understanding and appreciation for the diversity of body language across cultures, individuals can improve their ability to communicate effectively and build stronger cross-cultural relationships.In conclusion, the differences in body language across cultures are a fascinating and complex aspect of human communication. From the use of eye contact and personal space to the interpretation of gestures and facial expressions, the way in which people convey meaning through nonverbal cues can vary significantly depending on the cultural context. By recognizing and respecting these cultural differences, individuals can enhance their ability to communicate effectively and build stronger cross-cultural connections.。
关于正确使用手势语言的重要性英语作文The Importance of Using Sign Language CorrectlySign language is a visual means of communicating using gestures, facial expressions, and body language. It is an important tool for individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing, as well as for those who may have difficulty speaking or understanding spoken language. Using sign language correctly is crucial for effective communication and for ensuring that all individuals have equal access to information and resources.First and foremost, using sign language correctly is important because it allows for clear and accurate communication. Just as with spoken language, there are specific grammar rules, sentence structures, and word orders in sign language that must be followed in order to convey a message effectively. By using sign language correctly, individuals can avoid confusion and ensure that their intended meaning is accurately communicated.Furthermore, using sign language correctly is essential for promoting inclusivity and accessibility. When sign language is used incorrectly, it can lead to misunderstandings and barriers to communication for individuals who rely on it as their primary means of understanding and expressing themselves. By taking the time to learn and use sign language correctly, we can create a more inclusive and accessible environment for everyone.In addition, using sign language correctly demonstrates respect for the deaf and hard of hearing community. Just as with any language, it is important to use sign language with care and consideration for its cultural and linguistic nuances. By using sign language correctly, we show that we value and respect the unique language and communication needs of the deaf and hard of hearing community.Moreover, using sign language correctly can help to break down communication barriers and foster greater understanding between individuals. When we make the effort to learn and use sign language correctly, we are demonstrating our willingness to bridge the gap between different linguistic and cultural communities. This canlead to more meaningful connections and interactions between individuals, ultimately promoting greater understanding and empathy.Overall, using sign language correctly is crucial for effective communication, promoting inclusivity and accessibility, demonstrating respect for the deaf and hardof hearing community, and fostering greater understanding between individuals. By taking the time to learn and usesign language correctly, we can create a more inclusive and accessible society where all individuals have equal accessto communication and resources.正确使用手势语言的重要性手势语言是一种使用手势、面部表情和身体语言进行交流的视觉交流方式。
When you learn a foreign language, you must learn more than the vocabulary and the grammar. To communicate successfully in speech, you must also learn the non-verbal language, or “Body language”, of that culture. “Body language” is a term used to describe facial expressions, gestures, and other movements of the body that send messages. This means of communication is so important that we may actually say more with our movements than with words.For some messages, words are not enough. Speaking a foreign language is sometimes difficult because we may not understand the non-verbal signals of another culture, or they may mean something very different from what they mean of our own culture. For example, nodding the head up and down is a gesture that may communicate a different message in different parts of the world. In north America, it means “I agree”. In the Middle East nodding the head down means “I agree” an up means “I disagree”. In a conversation among Japanese it often simply means “I ‘m listening”.Eye contact is also very meaningful, but it, too, can mean different things in different countries. In some Spanish-speaking countries, children show respect to an older person by not looking directly into the person’s eyes during a conversation. In other cultures, looking into a person’s eye is expected. For example, if you don’t do it in the United States, people may think that you are afraid, embarrassed, or angry. In the Middle East, direct eye contact during a conversation is more continuous than in many other parts of the world. People who are not used to this may feel uncomfortable.。
各个国家的肢体语言英语作文Body language is a universal form of nonverbal communication that transcends spoken language and cultural boundaries. It encompasses a wide range of physical expressions, gestures, and movements that convey meaning and emotion. The way individuals use their bodies to communicate can vary significantly across different countries and cultures, reflecting the unique social norms, values, and traditions of each region. Understanding the nuances of body language in various cultural contexts is crucial for effective cross-cultural communication and interaction.One of the most prominent examples of cultural differences in body language is the concept of personal space. In Western cultures, such as in the United States and Western Europe, individuals generally maintain a larger personal space bubble, often keeping a comfortable distance from others during conversations. However, in many Asian and Latin American countries, a closer physical proximity is considered more natural and acceptable. In these cultures, standing or sitting closer to others, making more frequent physical contact, and engaging in more frequent eye contact are often seenas signs of friendliness and openness.Another significant cultural difference in body language is the use of hand gestures. In Italy, for instance, hand gestures are an integral part of everyday communication, with Italians frequently using their hands to emphasize their speech and convey additional meaning. The "OK" gesture, which is commonly used in the United States to indicate approval, can have a very different meaning in some cultures. In Brazil, for example, this gesture is considered offensive and rude. Similarly, the thumbs-up sign, which is a positive gesture in Western countries, is seen as an insult in parts of the Middle East and Asia.Facial expressions also vary in their interpretation across cultures. In some Asian cultures, maintaining a neutral or poker-face expression is considered a sign of respect and self-control, while in Western societies, a more expressive and animated facial display is often expected and valued. The act of smiling, which is generally seen as a positive and friendly gesture in the West, can be interpreted differently in other parts of the world. In Japan, for instance, a smile may be used to mask negative emotions or to convey politeness, rather than a genuine expression of happiness.The way individuals use their eyes to communicate can also be influenced by cultural norms. In many Western cultures, making direct eye contact is seen as a sign of confidence, honesty, andengagement. However, in some Asian and African cultures, prolonged eye contact can be perceived as a challenge or a sign of disrespect, particularly when interacting with elders or those in positions of authority.Cultural differences in body language can also extend to the way individuals use their bodies to express emotions. In some Latin American countries, for example, passionate and expressive physical gestures, such as hugging, kissing, and hand-holding, are more commonly accepted and even expected in social interactions. In contrast, in more reserved cultures, such as in Scandinavia, physical displays of affection may be considered inappropriate or even uncomfortable.Understanding and navigating these cultural differences in body language is crucial for effective cross-cultural communication and interaction. Misinterpreting or misunderstanding the nonverbal cues of others can lead to confusion, misunderstandings, and even offense. By being aware of and sensitive to the diverse ways in which people use their bodies to communicate, individuals can improve their ability to interact with people from different cultural backgrounds, build stronger relationships, and avoid potential cultural faux pas.In conclusion, body language is a complex and multifaceted aspectof human communication that varies significantly across different cultures. From personal space to hand gestures, facial expressions, and the use of the eyes, the way individuals use their bodies to convey meaning and emotion is deeply rooted in the cultural norms and traditions of their respective societies. By developing a deeper understanding and appreciation of these cultural differences in body language, individuals can enhance their cross-cultural communication skills, foster greater cultural understanding, and navigate the nuances of global interactions with greater ease and effectiveness.。
初二英语body language作文# The Significance of Body Language in CommunicationBody language, the non-verbal communication we use through our physical behaviors, is an essential aspect of human interaction. It includes facial expressions, gestures, posture, eye contact, and other movements that convey messages without the use of words. For middle school students, understanding body language is particularly important, as it helps in building effective communication skills, enhancing social interactions, and developing a better understanding of themselves and others.## The Role of Facial ExpressionsFacial expressions are one of the most universal forms of body language. They convey a wide range of emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, and fear. For instance, a smile can indicate friendliness and approachability, while afrown might suggest dissatisfaction or concern. Middle school students often rely on facial expressions to gauge their peers' reactions and emotions. Understanding these cues can help them respond appropriately in social situations, making interactions smoother and more meaningful.## Gestures and Their MeaningsGestures, such as waving, pointing, or giving a thumbs up, are another critical component of body language. These actions often accompany speech and can emphasize or clarify verbal messages. In different cultures, gestures can have varying meanings, so it is essential for students to be aware of these differences to avoid misunderstandings. For example, while a thumbs up is a positive gesture in many Western cultures, it might be considered offensive in some Middle Eastern countries. Learning about these cultural nuances can foster greater empathy and global awareness among students.## Posture and Its ImpactPosture refers to the way we hold our bodies, and it can convey confidence, openness, or defensiveness. A straight posture with shoulders back typically indicates confidence and attentiveness, whereas slouching might suggest disinterest or insecurity. For middle school students, maintaining good posture can positively impact their self-esteem and how they are perceived by others. Teachers and parents can encourage students to practice good posture as part of their overall communication skills development.## The Power of Eye ContactEye contact is a powerful element of body language that can significantly influence communication. It helps establish a connection between individuals and indicates attentiveness and sincerity. However, the amount and type of eye contact considered appropriate can vary by culture. For instance, in some Asian cultures, prolonged eye contact can be seen as disrespectful, whereas in many Western cultures, it is a sign ofconfidence and engagement. Students should be taught to balance eye contact in a way that feels comfortable and respectful in different social contexts.## The Importance of Personal SpacePersonal space, or the physical distance we maintain from others, is another crucial aspect of body language. It can signal comfort levels and boundaries in social interactions. In middle school, students are still learning about appropriate personal space, which can differ based on relationships and cultural backgrounds. Understanding and respecting personal space helps prevent discomfort and fosters positive interactions. Educators can play a role in teaching students about personal space through role-playing activities and discussions.## Non-Verbal Communication in Digital AgeIn today's digital age, much of our communication happens through screens, where traditional body language cues are absent. Emojis, GIFs, and video calls have becomesubstitutes for face-to-face interactions. While these tools can convey emotions and reactions, they lack the full spectrum of body language. It is essential for students to develop digital literacy alongside traditional communication skills. They should learn to interpret and use digital non-verbal cues effectively while also appreciating the richness of in-person communication.## Developing Awareness and SkillsDeveloping an awareness of body language and honing these non-verbal communication skills can greatly benefit middle school students. It enhances their ability to connect with others, build relationships, and navigate social situations confidently. Schools can incorporate lessons on body language into their curricula through interactive activities, group discussions, and practical exercises. By doing so, students will be better equipped to understand and use body language effectively in their daily lives.## ConclusionBody language is a fundamental aspect of communication that plays a significant role in our interactions. For middle school students, learning about and understanding body language can lead to more effective and meaningful communication. From facial expressions and gestures to posture and eye contact, each element contributes to how we convey and interpret messages. As students grow and develop their communication skills, an awareness of body language will help them navigate social interactions with greater ease and confidence. By emphasizing the importance of body language in education, we can equip the younger generation with the tools they need to succeed in a diverse and interconnected world.。
Developmental Psychobiology, 40, 293-310, 2002Language, Gesture, and the Developing BrainElizabeth Bates and Frederic DickCenter for Research in Language and Department of Cognitive Science,University of California, San DiegoABSTRACT: Do language abilities develop in isolation? Are they mediated by a unique neuralsubstrate, a "mental organ" devoted exclusively to language? Or is language built upon moregeneral abilities, shared with other cognitive domains and mediated by common neural systems?Here we review results suggesting that language and gesture are “close family”, then turn toevidence that raises questions about how real those “family resemblances” are, summarizingdissociations from our developmental studies of several different child populations. We thenexamine both these veins of evidence in the light of some new findings from the adultneuroimaging literature and suggest a possible reinterpretation of these dissociations, as well asnew directions for research with both children and adults.Keywords: language; gesture; language development; motor; parietal; imaging; fMRI; aphasia;contextDo language abilities develop in isolation? Are they mediated by a unique neural substrate, a “mental organ”devoted exclusively to language? Or is language built upon more general abilities, shared with other cognitive domains and mediated by common neural systems? For many years, developmental scientists have addressed these questions by studying behavioral associations and dissociations between language and gesture across the period in which both systems are first acquired. Some compelling links have been observed, involving specific aspects of gesture that precede or accompany each of the major language milestones from 6 to 30 months of age. These behavioral results are compatible with an expanding adult neuroimaging literature attest-Correspondence to: E. BatesContract grant sponsor: NIH/NIDCDContract grant numbers: O1-DC00216. T32 DC00041.1 T332 MH20002-02Contract grant sponsor: NOH NIH NGAContract grant numbers: 5 P50DC01289105 P50 NS22343–15ing to the largely domain-general neural systems under-pinning meaningful action and perception in a dynamic and informationally rich environment. However, data from a number of studies of normally and atypically developing children’s gestural and language abilities present complicating, if not outright contradictory evidence relative to the domain-general account. In keeping with the “converging methods” theme of this special issue, we will compare behavioral and lesion studies of language and gesture in infants with recent neural imaging studies of language and gesture in adults, in the hope of finding a unifying explanatory framework.We begin by reviewing results suggesting that language and gesture are “close family”: we first trace the coemergence of milestones in gesture and language across early development, then discuss lesion and im-aging studies of movement, gesture, and imitation in adults that are compatible with this lockstep devel-opmental picture. After this, we turn to evidence that raises questions about how real those “family resem-blances” are, describing some mysterious but robust dissociations from our developmental studies of typi-Language, Gesture, and Brain Development 2cally developing children, children with focal brain injuries, and children who are “late talkers”. At first glance, these dissociations seem to preclude a trans-parent mapping between gestural and linguistic do-mains and their neural substrates. But when we enlarge our window of enquiry to include some new findings from the adult neuroimaging literature, a more interest-ing story presents itself, one that may offer a possible reinterpretation of these thorny developmental dissocia-tions, and suggests new directions for research with both children and adults.“ALL IN THE FAMILY” PART I: CODEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGEAND GESTURESince the 1970s, developmental scientists have inves-tigated links between early language development and several aspects of manual activity, with special empha-sis on communicative and symbolic gesture (for re-views, see Bates & Snyder, 1987; Bates & Thal, 1991; Bates, Thal, & Marchman, 1991; Iverson & Thelen, 1999). The initial motivation for this work grew out of Piaget’s ideas about the shared sensorimotor origins of linguistic and nonlinguistic symbols (Piaget, 1954, 1962, 1970; also Werner & Kaplan, 1963), although investigators also were influenced by ideas from Bru-ner, Vygotsky and others on the social scaffolding of meaning and communication in infancy (Bruner, 1983; Vygotsky, 1987; Wertsch, 1985).Research in the Piagetian tradition focused on correlations between specific language milestones and specific cognitive events, including different levels of complexity in gestural communication and in symbolic (pretend) play outside of a communicative framework. Table 1 summarizes a series of early language mile-stones with their proposed and attested gestural corre-lates (with approximate ages, and supporting referen-ces). In contrast with the Piagetian tradition sum-marized in Table 1, work on language and gesture in the Vygotskian framework has focused more on the emergence of joint attention [how children learn to attend to objects and events that adults are watching, or indicating in some fashion (Butterworth & Cochran, 1980; Tomasello & Akhtar, 1995)]. Despite differences in emphasis, results in both traditions have shown that individual differences in joint attention skills (both rate of development and frequency of use) are correlated significantly with concurrent and subsequent abilities in both gesture and language (for reviews and for further evidence, see Carpenter, Nagell, & Tomasello, 1998). Joint attention, symbolic play and language skills are tightly bound, in turn, to observational learning and progress in the immediate and/or deferred imitation of novel actions and sounds (Hanna & Meltzoff, 1993; Meltzoff, 1985; Meltzoff & Moore, 1977, 1989). Taken together, these findings suggest that “language is a new machine built out of old parts” (Bates & Goodman, 1997), emerging from a nexus of skills in attention, perception, imitation and symbolic processing that transcend the boundaries of “language proper”.Of course, correlational studies of normal children can be misleading. To determine whether the earlier correlations can be dissociated under pathological con-ditions, investigators have looked at the same pheno-mena in atypical populations. For example, there is currently great interest in the diagnostic value and (perhaps) causal importance of joint attention, symbolic play and imitation in autistic spectrum disorders (Char-man et al., 1997). A number of investigators have proposed that the delayed and often deviant language observed in children with autism is secondary to a primary deficit within the broader (and prior) neuro-developmental system that supports joint reference, imitation, and gesture. Results have varied depending on the population in question, but a growing body of research on early language development in typical and atypical populations supports the language–gesture links summarized in Table 1. (See Tables at end of text.)BabblingCanonical babbling involves the production of repeated consonant–vowel segments such as {ba}, {ata}, {di} or {yaya}. This milestone often occurs outside of a com-municative framework (e.g., it may occur while the child is lying alone in his or her crib). It is typically achieved between 6 to 8 months (Lewedag, Oller, & Lynch, 1994; Steffens, Oller, Lynch, & Urbano, 1992), and delays of more than 2 to 3 months are associated with clinically significant delays in language, speech and/or hearing at later ages (Oller, Eilers, Neal, & Cobo-Lewis, 1998). Canonical babbling has been link-ed to the onset of rhythmic hand banging or clapping, in the normal case and in children with babbling delays (Ejiri & Masataka, 2001; Locke, 1994; Locke, Bekken, McMinn-Larson, & Wein, 1995; Masataka, 2001). Like canonical babbling, rhythmic hand banging occurs out-side of communication, but it appears to be linked to subsequent changes in word production as well as com-municative gesture. For example, Masataka (2001) ex-amined the onset of babbling and first words in infants with Williams Syndrome in relation to hand banging and series of other motor milestones (rolling, reaching, sitting, standing, walking). Hand banging correlated significantly both with babbling onset and with the subsequent emergence of first words, but did not correlate with other motor milestones, even though all milestones were delayed compared with norms for typically developing children. Hence this particular speech–gesture link appears to be quite specific.Language, Gesture, and Brain Development 3Word comprehensionBetween 8 to 10 months, typically developing children start to show systematic evidence of word compre-hension. This milestone is correlated with the emer-gence of deictic gestures (e.g., giving, showing, point-ing) and culturally derived gestural routines such as waving goodbye. These linked milestones are corre-lated in turn with a number of changes outside of communication, including first signs of tool use (Bates, Benigni, Bretherton, Camainoni, & Volterra, 1979), categorization on the basis of different feature correla-tions(Younger & Cohen, 1983, 1986), and imitation of novel acts not already in the child's repertoire (Gopnik & Meltzoff, 1994). Indeed, the 9-month border appears to be a developmental watershed, characterized by changes in cognition, communication and imitation that invite speculation about underlying neural causes (Bates, Thal, & Janowsky, 1992).Regression analyses conducted on a large sample of children screened to exclude mental retardation or other neurological disorders (Thal, Bates, Goodman, & Jahn-Samilo, 1997) showed that word comprehension and both communicative and symbolic gesture pro-duction in this early age range all contribute significant variance (at the group level) to later delays in ex-pressive language (but see dissociations, below). Word comprehension and early gestural production are also significantly and comparably delayed in children with mental retardation (e.g., both Williams Syndrome and Down Syndrome, Singer Harris, Bellugi, Bates, Jones, & Rossen, 1997), and in a subset of late talkers ( Thal & Bates, 1988; Thal & Tobias, 1994) and children with focal brain injury (Dall'Oglio, Bates, Volterra, & Di Capua, 1994)NamingAt or slightly before the onset of naming around 12 months, children start to reproduce brief actions asso-ciated with specific objects (e.g., putting a phone to the ear, a cup to the lip, a brush to the hair). In hearing children, these recognitory gestures (also called “ges-tural names”) are usually carried out with the associated object in hand (in contrast with the manual signs produced by deaf infants). As reviewed by Shore, Bates, Bretherton, Beeghly, & O'Connell, (1990) and Volterra, Bates, Benigni, Bretherton, & Camaioni (1979), several lines of evidence suggest that this really is a form of categorizing or naming: (a) recognitory gestures and vocal naming (e.g., “Doggie”) emerge around the same time; (b) gestures and naming are positively correlated across children in this period (i.e., early gesturers tend to be early namers); (c) first words and gestures are strikingly similar in content or meaning (e.g., a shared “vocabulary” about eating, drinking, greeting, bathing, dressing, household activi-ties, vehicles, appearance and disappearance of ob-jects); and (d) recognitory gestures, like early names, are brief and stylized in form (e.g., the child who touches cup to lip in gestural naming seems to dis-tinguish between this act and “real drinking”; the child shows no surprise or disappointment if there is nothing to drink, and may even execute the gesture with mini-ature, nonfunctional cups or while looking at cups in a picture book). Volterra and Erting (1994) and Acredolo and Goodwyn (1990) showed that many children also produce these gestures empty-handed, in a clear com-municative framework that meets the objections of some investigators regarding the concrete or functional nature of the same gestures with a real object in hand.It is important to note that the correlation between word production and “gestural naming” is limited to a particular period in development—between 12 to 18 months, on average, in typically developing children. With or without the object in hand, the phenomenon of gestural naming appears to be transient, dropping out for hearing children when oral language develops well enough to “take over” (although the amount and type of oral language required before these gestures drop off has not yet been determined). That is, once children have cracked the code and entered into the richly cross-referenced cue structure of a real natural language, the pace of word learning increases exponentially, and eclipses the meager system of gestural symbols. This complicates the correlational picture quite a lot: Posi-tive correlations between gestural and vocal naming are observed in the earliest stages of symbolization, but these correlations disappear across the second year of life, and sometimes turn into negative correlations at a later stage (reflecting the persistence of gestural naming in some children with language delays). Hence, re-search on this particular language–gesture link must focus on the first stages of word production, when a positive link between word production and gestural naming would be expected.In those studies of atypical populations that have focused on the first stages of word production, results suggest that word production does not begin until recognitory gestures have appeared—even though both events may be delayed by many months or years. This link has been reported for two forms of mental re-tardation, Williams Syndrome and Down Syndrome (Singer Harris et al., 1997), and for young autistic children (Happé & Frith, 1996). It has also been ob-served at the group level in small longitudinal samples of children with early left- or right-hemisphere injury (Dall'Oglio et al., 1994; Marchman, Miller, & Bates, 1991) and in larger samples of brain-injured children studied with a combination of behavioral and parent report methods (Bates et al., 1997; Granberry, 1996; Monson, 1996). Finally, when investigators are able to isolate concurrent correlations between gestural namingLanguage, Gesture, and Brain Development4Figure 1. Mean number of unimanual and bimanual gestures with the right and left hand, from 13 to 28months in a sample of normally developing children.Figure 2. Mean percentage of unimanual and bimanual gestures with right-hand use; symbolic gestures for both are performed more often with the right hand.and word naming at the appropriate stage, then the relative timing of these correlated milestones has at least some predictive value for later outcomes. That is,children who are significantly delayed in both behav-iors tend to be delayed in language at later stages of development (Thal et al., 1997).Word combinations and grammarFirst word combinations typically appear between 18 to 20 months. This event is accompanied or slightly pre-ceded by gesture–word combinations in vocal commu-nication (e.g., pointing while naming—Capirci, Iverson,Pizzuto, & Volterra, 1996). These shifts toward two-unit productive combinations in communication devel-op in parallel with gesture-gesture combinations in symbolic play that have no obvious communicative purpose (e.g., stirring and then drinking from a cup, in asingle, uninterrupted action sequence, Iverson & Gol-din-Meadow, 1998; Shore, O'Connell, & Bates, 1984).Between 24 and 30 months, on average, there is an explosion in grammar, with the bare telegrams of 20-month-old children giving way to more ornate sentences with inflections and free-standing function words. In typically developing children, several studies have shown that the ability to remember and imitate arbitrary sequences of manual actions (in scene con-struction tasks with novel objects) is correlated with the onset and growth of grammatical production from 24 to 30 months (Bauer, Dow, Bittinger, & Wenner, 1998;Bauer, Hertsgaard, Dropik, & Daly, 1998; Bauer &Thal, 1990; Bauer, Wenner, Dropik, & Wewerka,2000).The gestural correlates of first word combinations and later grammar have rarely been studied in clinical populations—and the few studies that have been at-tempted in late talkers and children with focal brain injury have led to the curious dissociations and other anomalies that we will consider later.Further evidence for language–gesture links in ear-ly development come from the study of handedness,across the milestones summarized above. Contrary to Lenneberg's early claim (Lenneberg, 1967) that lateral-ization for language and handedness emerge after lan-guage is acquired, a host of studies have shown strong evidence for a right-hand bias from the beginning of life (Liederman, 1983; Liederman & Kinsbourne,1980). More important for our purposes here, right-hand bias is greater for gestures with communicative and/or symbolic content than for noncommunicative/symbolic gestures, with or without an associated object in hand. For example, Bates, O’Connell, Vaid, Sledge,and Oaks (1986) coded deictic gestures, symbolic ges-tures and nonsymbolic hand movements at 13, 20 and 28 months of age, in imitation and free play. There was a main effect of right-hand bias at all ages, in uni-manual actions and in bimanual activities in which one hand is dominant (see Fig. 1). This right-hand bias was significantly greater for pointing gestures (~80% right-handed, collapsed over age), and it was also signifi-cantly greater for symbolic than nonsymbolic actions with the hands (Figure 2). In other words, the linked lateralization of language and gesture is most obvious when we are talking about meaningful and familiar ges-tures. As we shall see, this distinction is also important for the adult neural imaging literature.Language, Gesture, and Brain Development 5“ALL IN THE FAMILY” PART II: SHARED NEURAL SUBSTRATES FOR LANGUAGAND GESTURE IN ADULTSCompatible with these correlational studies of children, investigations of acquired aphasia and various forms of apraxia suggest a tight coupling between sensorimotor and language skills in the adult brain. Like adult aphasia, motor and tactile apraxias occur predominantly as a consequence of left-hemisphere damage. For instance, damage to left, but not right, parietal regions in adults causes increased errors and deviance in terms of the timing, sequencing, and spatial demands of a sequential arm movement task (Weiss et al., 2001). Haaland, Harrington, and Knight (2000) report that motor-sequencing deficits occur predom-inantly with left-hemisphere lesions, both frontal and parietal. Goldenberg and colleagues (Goldenberg, 2001) have also shown that imitation of hand gestures is compromised by left-hemisphere damage. Interest-ingly, Halsband et al. (2001) found that left parietal, but not left prefrontal, damage caused a serious impairment in gesture imitation, but not in gesture comprehension (but see imaging results by Iacobini and colleagues, later below).1The link between aphasia and apraxia is especially strong for symbolic and communicative gesture (especially ideomotor apraxia, a disorder restricted to meaningful gestures). These gestural deficits are highly correlated with naming deficits in both aphasia and Alzheimer's disease (Bates, Bretherton, Shore, & McNew, 1983; Duffy & Duffy, 1981, 1989; Duffy, Duffy, & Pearson, 1975; Kempler, Andersen, & Henderson, 1995; Mateer & Kimura, 1977). Wang and Goodglass (1992) showed that both comprehension and production of meaningful gestural pantomines was significantly correlated with auditory language compre-hension. Furthermore, Kertesz (1979); (Kertesz & Hooper, 1982) showed that severity of both expressive and receptive language symptoms correlated with extent of apraxic deficits at extremely high rates (r= ~.80).2Although dissociations between aphasia and apraxia have been reported for individual cases (Feyereisen, 1987), the dissociations run reliably in only one direction: language deficits with gestural sparing. Evidence for a double dissociation (gestural 1We should note that many regions in the parietal lobe (particularly the supramarginal and angular gyri) are im-plicated in language tasks (e.g., Binder et al., 1997; Perani et al., 1996; Robertson & Gernsbacher, 2001, St. George, personal communication, 2000).2It is important to point out that apraxia is not a simple loss of movement: Rather, it is an inability to initiate and perform more complex, voluntary motor operations and to interact appropriately with objects in the environment.deficits with language sparing) is rare and hotly contested (McNeill, 1985, 1987).Additional, and possibly more compelling evidence for a language–gesture link comes from “on-line” stud-ies of the hand movements that parallel speech pro-duction in normal adults. McNeill, Goldin-Meadow and colleagues (Goldin-Meadow, 1998; Goldin-Meadow, Butcher, Mylander, & Dodge, 1994; Goldin-Meadow, Mylander, & Butcher, 1995; Goldin-Meadow, Wein, & Chang, 1992; McNeill, 1998; McNeill, Cassell, & McCullough, 1994) demonstrated striking parallels between language and gesture in timing and form during various narrative tasks (e.g., upward movement of the hands while describing a cartoon character climbing a pipe, with such close timing that parallel planning and execution of the gesture and the verb seem likely), and in problem-solving situations (where a match or mismatch between language and hand actions predicts success or failure on tasks, Perry, Church, & Goldin-Meadow, 1992). In the same vein, Gentilucci and Gangitano (1998) (see also Glenberg, 1997) argued that, if semantic features of words are truly encoded in sensorimotor form, then physical actions or sensations relevant to those features should directly influence the “online” processing of the words or phrases. Their own experimental results and those of other investigators bear out this prediction. For ex-ample, Klatzky, Pellegrino, McCloskey, and Doherty (1989) showed that subjects performing a sensibility judgement task could produce responses more quickly if they assume a posture congruent with the word or phrase’s meaning (e.g., the word “dart” would be named faster if a subject were pinching his/her index finger and thumb together than if he or she were making a fist, see also McCloskey, Klatzky, & Pellegrino, 1992). In the same vein, word–gesture Stroop effects also have been observed, e.g., de-formations in the velocity or trajectory of reaching movements when the target object is inscribed with an adjective, adverb or noun that is incompatible with the action (e.g., reaching up for an object that is labeled “down” (Gentilucci, Benuzzi, Bertolani, Daprati, & Gangitano, 2000). At the very least, such findings suggest that gesture is a “second window” onto speech planning at a preverbal semantic-conceptual level.As might be predicted from these findings for normal and brain-injured adults, both intracortical recording/stimulation and neuroimaging studies (in both human and nonhuman primates) have shown that motor representations of oral and manual movements (over many levels of complexity and abstraction) are either adjacent or partially overlapping in many frontal and parietal regions, including (but not exclusive to) the primary motor (F1/M1/Brodmann’s area 4), ventral premotor (PMv/F4 and F5), intraparietal sulcus (AIP/ VIP), and inferior parietal (PF/Brodmann’s area 7)Language, Gesture, and Brain Development 6areas (Cavada, 2001; Matelli & Luppino, 2001; Rizzolatti et al., 1988).3The ventral premotor area, termed F5 in the monkey literature, is of central importance for our purposes here, for several reasons. First, the hand/arm and mouth representations in this area appear to overlap substantially when mapped by intracortical stimulation and recording (Gentilucci et al., 1988). Second, there is growing consensus that the general anatomical human homologue of this region is Brodmann’s areas 44 and 45, cytoarchitectonic regions often referred to as Broca’s area, a region implicated in the planning and articulation of speech and in language processing in general (for discussion, see Rizzolatti & Arbib, 1998, as well as Dick et al., 2001). Finally, F5 is neural home to the first-discovered “mirror neurons”. It had been known for some time prior to the discovery of mirror neurons that individual neurons in primate prefrontal cortex will fire when an animal is planning a hand gesture of a particular type (Gallese, Fadiga, Fogassi, & Rizzolatti, 1996). It was within this framework that Rizzolatti, Gallese and colleagues first noted a com-pelling phenomenon: The same neurons that fire when the animal is planning a specific arm movement or gesture also fire when the animal observes someone else producing that movement (typically in mirror-image orientation).Rizzolatti, Gallese, and colleagues suggest that the mirror neuron system (which now has also been found in area AIP, Rizzolatti, Fogassi, & Gallese, 2001) allows the observer to understand others’ actions through a transformation of visual input onto a particular “motor schema” (e.g., “hand picking an apple”). In other words, the observer may be able to understand what an actor is doing by using her or his experience of moving and interacting with the world.4 These results have inspired some broad speculations about the role of the mirror neuron system (both frontal and parietal components) in the evolution of imitation, observational learning and social coordination in hu-mans. On these arguments, the mirror neuron system permits the overt or covert “simulation” of behaviors by conspecifics, leading to a deeper understanding of intentionality and emotion in other individuals (Gallese, 1999, 2000a, 2000b, 2001a, 2001b; Meltzoff, 1990; 3Note that the mapping of these functional and anatomical divisions, particularly across primate lines, is currently a subject of some debate (see Cavada, 2001; Matelli & Luppino (2001) for discussion.4This kind of action-based perception (also called “analysis by synthesis”) had been proposed many years earlier for speech (the Motor Theory of Speech Perception: Liberman & Mattingly, 1985) when it was believed to be a peculiar and species-specific property of the human brain that evolved expressly for language.Meltzoff & Gopnik, 1994; Meltzoff, Gopnik, & Repacholi, 1999).There is compelling evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) studies that regions homologous to macaque F5 and AIP also play similar roles in adult humans. (These methods are both described in a parallel special issue of Developmental Science on imaging methods; Casey, Davidson & Rosen, 2002; Moll, Heinrich & Rothenberger, 2002). Most importantly for our purposes here, the mirror neuron system overlaps to a remarkable degree with anterior and posterior regions that are in areas consistently implicated in language production and comprehension. Studies from several different labs (including Buccino et al., 2001, and Krams, Rushworth, Deiber, Frackowiak, & Passingham, 1998) have shown that observation and/or imitation of hand and finger gestures, grasping movements, and pantomime evoke activation in both “Broca’s” and inferior parietal areas. Perhaps most convincingly, Iacoboni and colleagues (M. Iacoboni, personal communication, September 2001) have stimulated with rTMS the left and right pars opercularis of the inferior frontal gyrus (with the occipital lobe as control stimulation site) when subjects were imitating actions of pressing in sequence two keys of a keyboard. As a control task, subjects were doing the same motor act, but here the keys to be pressed were cued spatially rather than by action observation. Iacoboni et al. found that stimulation of either left or right frontal pars opercularis (but not the occipital site) caused a significant worsening of performance in the imitation condition, with absolutely no effect on the spatially cued condition. These data tally with a meta-analysis of fMRI data on hand-action observation (with 62 subjects) by the same group (M. Iacoboni, personal communication); here, they find three bilateral peaks of activation in inferior frontal cortex, in Brodmann’s areas 6 and 44, and at the border between Brodmann’s areas 45 and 47. In the large subgroup of subjects (n = 39) who also performed a hand-action imitation task like that reported in Iacoboni et al. (1999), an activation peak was again found in Brodmann’s area 44.Putting together the results for children and adults, the picture that emerges is one in which perception, imitation, and spontaneous production of language are superimposed on a broadly distributed set of neural systems that are shared with the perception, imitation and spontaneous production of manual gestures. But before we can embrace this unifying view, we turn to some dissociations in the developmental literature that are (at first sight) difficult to square with the adult literature. As we shall see, some of these peculiarities may find a partial resolution in recent neuroimaging studies.。
