研究生论文写作讲义

研究生英语学术论文与写作课件Unit4冯Unit 4. Introduction （4hs）Topical HighlightsGeneral Functions of Introduction:introducing the subject, limiting the research scope, stating the general purpose, showing the writing arrangement Structural Features of Introduction and Some Idiomatic Expressions: starting with the research background, transiting to the existing problem, focusing on the present research Special Attention: sentence structureindicative sentences, imperative sentences, complex sentences, “It + be + adj./participle + that clause…”Theme Presentation1. General Functions of IntroductionEvery professional paper should have at least one or two introductory paragraphs with or without a particular subtitle. The length or the degree of formality of a paper may decide whether the introduction should be a separate-labeled section. Regarding the function of an introduction, a well-known professional writer once said that it “may be thought of as a preliminary conference in which the writer and prospective reader …go into a huddle? 1 and agree in advance on the exact limits of the subject, the terms in which to discuss it, the angle from which to approach it, and the plan of treatment that will be m ost convenient to both.” (J. Raleigh Nelson, Writing the Technical Report, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952, p. 36) This gives us a vivid illustration of the function an introduction performs.Generally speaking, the successful introduction of a paper should have the following four functions to facilitate thecommunication process.1.1 Introducing the SubjectWhen retrieving information, a reader always first skims the title, the abstract and the introduction of a paper to determine whether or not the document is worth reading. The author is here to supply sufficient background information to relieve the readers who are not well-informed in this field of troubles in understanding and evaluating the results of the given study without referring to previous publications on the topic. Since the topic in this section is what the paper is going to deal with, the readers, then, can get a preliminary but overall impression before going on with the full text of the paper.1.2 Limiting the Research ScopeOnly when an introduction clearly defines the limits of the research scope (the limits within which you treat the subject) can readers retrieve the information efficiently provided that the subject is introduced correctly. Since there are so many perspectives to be dealt with2 and your research could proceed in any one of them, narrowing down the scope of work and delimiting the boundary of your study3 becomes entirely necessary. The definition of scope may include such items as the range of parameters dealt with, the exact sphere of the general subject covered by the paper, and whether the work described is experimental or theoretical, etc. The readers, thus, can be directed to a specific focus.There are a number of expressions used to limit the scope of work:●The problem is within the scope of...●The problem under discussion is within the scope of...●Studies of these effects covered various aspects of...●Our studies with this technique are confined to only one particular aspect...●The problem described previous ly was directed to the example off.., which differsfrom...●This subject is concerned chiefly with the study of...●The author has limited his studies to the related aspects of...●The approach under study is only applied to...●The problem I have referre d to falls within the field of...●The problem we have just outlined seems to be inside of the province of...●The theory can not apply to other cases of...●The emphasis of this paper is to survey...1.3 Stating the General PurposeIf the first two functions of introduction, i. e. introducing the subject and limiting the researchscope, are to usher the reader where to start and what to talk about in the paper, then the function of stating the general purpose is aimed at telling the reader why to where to start or where to guide. Here the task of the abstract drafter is to inform the reader of the general purpose of the paper and illustrate the primary objectives of his research. In doing so, he can guide his reader to avoid any misunderstanding of his inclination and make clear what the reader himself can expect to gain from the abstract drafter.1.4 Showing the Writing ArrangementThe logical arrangement of the writing enables the reader to understand the paper more easily when further reading is necessary. The best place for this information can be found at the end of the introduction. In very short papers, such information iseasy to grasp. In papers of any appreciable length or complexity, however, it has the advantage of enabling the reader to know in advance of information to expect and in what order to get it. Thus a clear arrangement of your paper will make the reader feel convenient and active in their further reading.Expressions used to indicate the organization of the information include:●This pa per is divided into five major sections as follows...●Section one of this paper opens with...●Section three develops the second hypotheses on...●In this paper, data and results are presented under the major heading of...●Section four shows (introduces,reveals, treats, develops, deals with, etc.)...●The result of... is given in the last section.●The 5th section provides an exposition that places the primary emphasis on...●In the following, a wide range of test data is reported...Notes1. go into a huddle: discuss something privately so that others cannot hear2. so many perspectives to be dealt with: so many points of view ahead to be treated properly in the front3. delimiting the boundary of your study: defining your sphere of research2. Structural Features of Introduction and Some Idiomatic Expressions2.1 Starting with the Research BackgroundTo orient the reader, the pertinent literature should be reviewed in writing a professional paper. The researchbackground is usually given in the section of introduction accompanied by the recent development in this field. That is to answer the question, “What have been done?” The best way to present this information depends on what the reader already knows. For example, it may or may not be necessary to include historical background, definition of certain terms, data, etc. Let us take a paper in the field of translation for example. The author starts the introduction with the following:Ex. 5-1The Behavior Translating English-to-Chinese Machine Translation System is the first of its kind in Taiwan. And it is also among the first commercialized E-to-C systems in the world. The research began as a joint effort.., in May 1985...Further examples can be seen from the sections of introduction of the two complete papers attached in the Appendixes.Here are some expressions used to introduce the background of the subject in an introduction:●Over the past several decades....●Somebody reported...●The previous work on... has indicated that...●Recent experiments by... have suggested...●Several researchers have theoretically investigated...●In most studies of ....... has been emphasized with attention being given to...●Industrial use of... is becoming increasingly common.●There have been a few studies highlightin g...●It is well known that...2.2 Transiting to the Existing ProblemAuthors usually transit to the main problems to be discussedor weak points remaining in the previous work to be further studied and/or improved. That is to answer the question: “What ha ve not been done?” The existing problems or weak points of such nature may be something that has not yet been found before, the methods that have not been adopted so far, materials that have not yet been discovered in the past, and/or the factors that were previously ignored, and so on. Let ustake a paper published in the journal of Physics Review Letter as an example:Ex. 5- 2Research on the mobility and diffusion of ions in neutral gases began more than 75 years ago but very accurate data on these quantities have appeared only since about 1960...Recent experiments by Grover and by V olk, Kwon, and Mark have suggested that large nuclear-spin polarization can be produced in Xe nuclei by spin polarization with optically pumped rubidium atoms. However, no direct measurements of the xenon spin polarization have been reported as yet...The following are a number of expressions used to present existing problems:●Great progress has been made in this field, but (however, nevertheless, etc.)...●Also, the consideration of... alone cannot explain the observed fact that...● A part of the explanation could lie in... However ....●The study of... gives rise to two main difficulties: one is...; the other is...●Despite the recent progress reviewed in .... there is no generally accepted theoryconcerning...●From the above discussion, it appears that at present neither.., nor.., are known.● A major problem.., is the harmful effect exerted by...●An experiment of the kind has not been made.●The kind of experimen t we have in mind has not been carried out until now.●Until now no field experiments of... have been reported.●Not any experiment in this area has suggested that...●More than one experiment must be initiated to substantiate...●The method we used differ s greatly from the one reported ten years ago.●The method of making.., was not invented till the existence of...●No clear advancement has so far been seen in...●No direct outcome was then reported in...●No such finding could be available in...●So far there is not enough convincing evidence showing...●The data available in literature failed to prove that...●The theory of... did not explain how much modifications arose.2.3 Focusing on the Present ResearchOn the basis of reviewing the previous research, especially unfolding or displaying the weak points of the previous work to be overcome or existing problems to be solved, the author may gradually an d naturally turn the reader?s attention to the present research, by stating his primary research objectives, novel ideas, advanced methods, new materials, fresh factors, etc. That is to answer the question: “What I am going to do?” For example: Ex. 5- 3... In this paper, a simplified state selector is considered, both theoretically and experimentally, for use in a molecular beam ammonia maser system. 3Ex. 5- 4... Then, we shall focus both analytically and numerically on the following topics: (1) the influence of polarization gradients on the behavior of surface modes in the vicinity of the limiting surface; (2) the existence of a coupling between displacement components and electric-polarization components; (3) ...Sometimes, a specific study on a certain subject itself can imply the existing problem to be solved. In this case, the specific problems may not be literally mentioned. (See Introduction 3 of Exercises 1I in Reflections and Practice (1) below)Putting together the structure and content mentioned above, you must form general picture of an introduction. Now, let us look at a sample introduction of a paper entitled Innovation and the materials revolution by Felix H. A. Janszen and Marc P. F. Vloemans, published in Technovation V ol. 17 No. 10, 1997 pp.549-556.Ex. 5-5IntroductionThe present literature on strategy and innovation pays a considerable amount of attention to industrial competition within a specific industry, between several industries and even between geographical areas (Porter, 1990; Hamel and Prahalad, 1994; Kodama, 1991). Each author emphasizes the importance of technological development but quite often uses the cases taken from relatively new so-called high-tech industries, such as telecommunications, information technology and biotechnology. However, the result of this bias is a certain lack of attention to theinformation of the technological developments of more mature industries. A likely explanation could be that asubstantial amount of strategic research has been conducted by technologists themselves. Faced with less visible developments in mature industries as well as the requirements of a deeper understanding of the underlying technologies, this last group seems rather well equipped for the task. Ultimately a more technological approach would enable stakeholders to acquire a more complete picture as well as an increased understanding of the management of innovation. Those in mature industries especially could benefit from this approach.Mature industries are those products, markets and possibly-underlying technologies are more or less at the end of their life cycle. Competition is conducted mainly on price. As a result the innovative activities deal principally with process technologies to arrive at higher levels of efficiency (Abemathy and Utterback, 1975). Examples of mature industries are the construction, petrochemical, metals, car and ship building industries. From this list it can be concluded that this group consists of a wide variety of industries, more often than not characterized by an emphasis on so-called economies of scale. This is largely dependent on the characteristics of process technologies in use, existing market infrastructure 4 and market conditions. This phase of maturity can vary in length, but will often last for several decades. The relatively stable business environment of such a mature industry creates a sense of security within, with myopic tendencies and a heavy reliance on problem solving murines that proved successful in the past. Core competences have become core rigidities5 (Leonard Barton, 1992). As a result, new technological developments are discerned 6 too late, which can have disastrouseffects for the industry (Foster, 1986). The commercial battlefield is littered with companies that could not adapt quick enough--for example, the shipbuilding industry in the 19th century which ignores the electronics industry in the 1950s that was superseded 7 by the transistor (1947) and ICs (1959). The American electronics industry and the Swiss watch industry have found this out to their detriment. 8 During the second half of this century, within the basic materials industries, a new form of competition has emerged, an inter-material competition (Kaounides, 1990). Instead of companies competing within a certain material?s sector, now the whole sectors compete directly with one another. In various markets the traditional metals are under the threat from polymers, composites and ceramics. This has considerably increased the scale and scope of strategic behavior within the basic materials industries.In this article we will systematically survey and clarify several changes in the businessenvironment of these industries. On the basis of a survey of developments in materials technology we will explain the effects these changes have on intra- and inter-industrial competition. On the basis of changing materials design in the car industry we will draw a dynamic picture of the aforementioned developments in mature industries as well as explain the interaction of the various rivers behind the developments.There are also a number of expressions used to introduce the present work:●In this paper .... is investigated (studied, discussed, presented, etc.)●The present work deals mainly with...●We report here.., in the presence of...●This paper reports on...●On the basis of existing literature data, we carried out studies in an effort to...●The present study will therefore focus on...●The primary goal of this research is...●The purpose of this paper (study, thesis, etc.) is...●In this paper, we aim at...Notes1. the mobility and diffusion of ions in neutral gases: 在中和气体中粒子的运动和扩散2. large nuclear-spin polarization: 大的核自旋极化偏振3. a molecular beam ammonia maser system: Maser (激射器) is the short form of thelong compound word microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.So the whole phrase can be translated as 激射：分子射束铵激射器4. existing market infrastructure: 市场现有的基础设施5. Core competences have become core rigidities: 关键性的能力已经变成了关键生的6. discern: to see, notice, or understand, esp. with difficulty7. supersede: (often pass.) to take place of8. detriment: (finl.) the condition of suffering harm or damage9. aforementioned: mentioned above or before. This is an academic word.3. Reflections and Practice (1)3.1. Work with your partner to discuss the answers to the following questions.3.1.1. What are the general functions of an introduction?3.1.2. What is your understanding of the structural features of an introduction?3.1.3. How do you write an introduction?3.2. Analyze the following introductions, following the directions if possible.3.2.1. Underline the part stating the research background.3.2.2. Parenthesize the part pointing to the existing problem.3.2.3. Draw a box around the part focusing on the present research.Introduction 1According to Hannagan (1995: 18), “Modem management is essentially about managing people as well as processes, in a rapidly changing environment.” This seems especially important for a British Airways office set in a different culture, which is largely due to the fact that given the variety of cultural inheritance people under differentCultures may behave in diverging ways. The human behaviors affect the performance of people at work, as shown by the Hawthorne effect, and a careful analysis of such behavior under a multicultural context will be beneficial to the overall performance of the department as well as that of each individual.In this paper, I shall undertake an analysis of an issue. The department where I work is British Agency China, based in Beijing. In this place a British manager has to deal with over 20 Chinese employees. During the time that we have worked together, it has seemed to me (and the Manager) that there exists such a cultural difference and in many cases the communication between the employer and the employee cannot get through, thereby influencing the overall performance of the department. I shall analyze the issue in this context and attempt to formulate certainpossible procedures to tackle the task.Introduction 2In this paper I attempt to show how a number of related concepts in Cognitive Grammar (Fillmore, 1982; Lakoff, 1982, 1987; Langacker, 1987,1988, 1990, 1991) can be applied to the analyses of discourse. Cognitive Grammar (CG) is well adapted not only to addressing issues concerning the relationship between language and cognition but also to constituting a potentially powerful sociolinguistic tool. I will focus on two related concepts: “profiling” (Langacker, 1990) and “radial category structure” (Lakoff, 1987; Br ugman, 1988; Taylor, 1989).AbstractIt has been more than fifty years since its appearance of the ligand theory (配位场理论). It was initiated in 1931 when Bethe?s crystal field theory (晶体场理论) was proposed. The theory of complex spectra for atoms contributed by Racah has had an important effect on the development of the ligand field theory as it has influenced that of nuclear and elementary particle theories.In this article, the extension of the irreducible tensor method (不可约张量方法) to the ligand field theory which was originally performed by Tang Aoqing and his collaborators, is simplified by introducing the quasi-spin group (准自旋群) to give a theoretical analysis of the spectra of TbPsOl4. The theoretical analysis is in good agreement with the experimental result.As an example, the energy matrix elements of ground states terms (基态谱项的能量矩阵元) of TbPsOl4 crystal are calculated by the application of this theory, a serial spectrum data published by Bai Yubai are to be fitted by the use of five crystal-field parameters and eight relativistic parameters. The fitted resultsare satisfactory with 8 cm-1 at mean square root error and 17 cm-1 at the maximum absolution error of energy levels.3.3 Revise an introduction written prior to this unit by using the skills learned so far, and then give your comparison.4. Special Attention: Sentence StructureThe linguistic features of sentence structure in professional papers, is one of the key points for successful writing. Generally speaking, sentence structure of professional papers is comparatively monotonous and grammatically rigorous, which means that only certain sentence structures are preferable. The sentence structures often used in professional writing are summarized as follows:4.1. Indicative SentencesIn professional papers, authors often have to describe experiments or investigations conducted, state the quality or property of the matter used, confirm laws or principles they have worked out. For this purpose, they prefer to use indicative sentences rather than interrogative sentences, and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. For example:4.1.1 L stands for length, while W represents weight.4.1. 2 Distillation is helpful to separating water from dissolved salts and other substances.4.1.3 Computer language may range from detailed low level close to that immediately understood by the particular computer, to the sophisticated high level which can be automatically accepted by a wide range of computers.4.1.4 Gathering facts, confirming them, assuming theories, testing them, and organizing findings -- this is all the work of science.4.2 Imperative SentencesLook at the examples below:(1) Now let K equal to Zero, and then we obtain the following equation.(2) Fill in a tube with cold water, and then heat the tube to 100℃.(3) See Table 4.(4) To put into full play the incubation function of the high-tech development zone, we should pay enough attention to the following: First, cultivate a number of new high-tech enterprises; Second, promote a number of new high-tech products; Third, train a group of entrepreneurs.4.3 Complex SentencesAs we know, scientific research is a kind of activity aiming to disclose the law of nature, the change of natural objects and their applications. Such processes are complicated and mutually related. In order to reflect the complicated interrelations accurately, it is necessary more often than not to use various complex sentences.Now, analyze the following examples.(1) An electric current which reverses its direction at regular intervals, and which is constantly changing in magnitude is called an alternating current, which is usually abbreviated asa.c ....(2) Because nonverbal behavior is regarded as a more accurate measure of how an individual actually feels than what is said, it is reasonable to assume that the individual in conflict with the woman in the above example will respond to her gestures instead of to her words.In example (1), there are three subordinate clauses, while example (2) contains five subordinate clauses. They are bothcomplex sentences though not very complicated ones.4) “It + be + adj. / participle + that clause...”In order to keep a sentence balanced, and avoid subjective coloring, the sentence structure “It+ be + adj. / participle + that clause” can often be encou ntered in professional writing. In this structure, “it” is the formal subject, and s “that clause” the real subject. For example:(1) It is evident from the foregoing discussion that basic research is applicable to the facts upon which a science is developed, and the principle or laws of science as compared to applied research directed toward using knowledge gained by basic research to make things that will servea practical purpose.(2) It is concluded that the behavior of a fluid flowing through a pipe is affected by a number of factors, including the viscosity of the fluid and the speed at which it is pumped.(3) It has been shown through the experiment that the charges of the nucleus and electrons are equal so that the atom is electrically neutral.5. Reflections and Practice (2)5.1. Translate the following sentences into Chinese, paying attention to thesentence structure of each.5.1.1. Strategy is an art of planning the best way to gain an advantage or to achieve success.5.1.2. Here the point of view is the term generally used to indicate the point from which the paper is written.5.1.3. Subordination is the technique of placing the less important thought in a subordinate position.5.1.4. This formula is developed on the basis of the previouslydiscussed theory.5.1.5. It is concluded that some of the parameters cannot be obtained by using the method shown in Section IV.5.1.6. Connect the equipment to the machine. Turn off the switch. Adjust input voltage to 10V. And note down the output current.5.1.7. Such evidence of a positive effect in the Northern Hemisphere is something that all satellite observing system experiments still lack.5.1.8. Potentially more useful data have been flowing down from weather satellites for 25 years, but only recently have researchers been able to show that such data improve forecasts made by computers, the backbone of modem weather forecasting.5.1.9. Other technologies that have made slow progress are modem windmills and photo-voltaic cells that convert sunlight directly to electricity.5.1.10. Heaviside (海维赛) was not only a wonderful electrical engineer but also a mathematical genius. Owing to deafness he had to leave the telegraph office where he first worked and retired to Paignton (牌恩顿) in Devon (丹佛), where he lived alone. He wrote a number articles which were no doubt hard enough to understand before his editors made him condense them. They are far harder now.5.2. Put the following into English.5.2.1．从上例可以看出，作者通过气侯和地理方面的比较，客观地描述了这两个试验现场。

论文写作（讲义）第一章论文写作概说一、论文的含义、特点、分类。

1、什么叫学术论文？学术论文就是用来进行科学研究和描述科研成果的文章，简称论文。

学术论文是学术研究的结晶，不是一般的“学术体会”；也不是某些现象的直录、材料的罗列、事件经过的描述；同样不是对他人研究成果的简单重复。

学术论文的作者必须站在一定的理论高度来观察和分析带有学术价值的问题，引述各种事实或道理去论证自己的新发现、新见解，向学术界表述自己研究为什么要写作和发表论文呢其一：做为一个专业研究者来说，写作和发表论文可能是不可缺少的，因为你要通过学术论文告诉别人：你在做什么？其二：学术论文是记录研究者研究成果的载体，凭借它对自己的研究工作做一个学术总结；同时，论文又是一种学术交流的方式，研究者通过它与同行交流学术问题。

其三；对于大学生和研究生来说，学术论文是衡量自己知识水平和研究能力的重要依据，学生需要凭借它去获取学位。

2、学术论文的特点（1）学术性首先要明白什么是“学术”？所谓学术，是指较为专门、系统的学问。

所谓学术性，就是指研究、探讨的内容具有专门性和系统性，即是以科学领域里某一专业性问题作为研究对象。

当然也有的学术问题，仅凭一个专业的知识解决不了，就会由两个或几个专业的专家联手合作研究，运用各自的专业知识，解决一个学术问题，写出学术论文。

学术论文从选题上说有很强的专业性。

如《唐代中书门下体制下的三省机构与职权》，相反，如《我所认识的启功先生》、《假期：少儿看电视悠着点儿》等文章单从题目上看就没有专业性。

（2）科学性所谓科学性，就是指研究、探讨的内容准确、思维严密、推理合乎逻辑。

具体来说，主要指论文的内容（文章）或是反映客观规律。

或是观点可靠（社会科学），理据充分，有严密的逻辑性。

其内容能经得起同行的质疑。

（3）规范性文章结构规范，表达严谨。

论文的结构多是模式化，符号、图形和语言表达要求相当规范、准确。

学术论文不像文学作品讲究形式的创新，其表达要求简洁、明白。

论文的逻辑一、论文与逻辑一篇合格的论文，如同文章一样，应当是内容和形式的统一。

内容是指主题和材料，形式是指逻辑结构和语言表达。

论文的内容固然起决定作用。

但论文的形式也不是消极、被动的，事实上起重要作用。

我们知道。

人们要进行思维，就要使用概念、判断、推理等思维方式。

这些思维方式既是人类用来反映客观现实的手段，又是构筑论文的基本材料。

只有掌握了这些思维形式及其有关的逻辑要求，才能写出具有逻辑特色的论文来。

因此，我们在撰写论文的过程中，应当遵守逻辑的基本规律，自觉地将这些基本规律，贯穿于写作的各个环节和整篇论文当中，具体说来，则要注意以下几个问题：第一，论文内容符合客观实际，能够令人信服。

第二，概念明确，判断恰当，推理连贯。

第三，论文的内容之间有着密切的联系，全篇论文形成统一的整体。

在论文的逻辑中，论文内容之间的逻辑联系，占有重要地位。

它既是作者思维逻辑联系的具体表现，又是作者所论述的客观事物的逻辑联系的具体表现。

它对增强论文的逻辑效果和说服力，有着重要作用。

二、论文内容之间的逻辑结构论文之间的逻辑联系，亦即论文所反映的事物和事理的整体及其各部分之间的联系方式，基本上表现为纵向逻辑联系和横向逻辑联系，而两者有总是交织在一起，它们表现在论文的逻辑结构上就是：纵向结构、横向结构、合适结构三种形式。

1.纵式结构所谓纵向逻辑联系，是指总论点、分论点和小论点之间的逻辑顺序，以及分论点之间，小论点之间的逻辑顺序。

论文内容之间的纵向逻辑联系，具体表现为论文的纵向结构，其特点在于论文的思想体系是纵向展开的。

2.横式结构所谓横向逻辑联系，是指论点和论据，观点和材料之间的逻辑联系。

论文内容之间的横向逻辑联系具体表现为论文的横式结构3.合式结构论文内容之间的逻辑联系是纵向、横向穿插进行，交织在一起。

具体表现为论文的纵、横式结构，简称合式结构。

这种结构的论文，有的以纵向开展为主，有的以横向展开为主。

三、运用逻辑方法要正确处理论文内容之间的逻辑联系，增强论文的逻辑力量，必须学会运用逻辑思维方法。