I. Culture and Intercultural CommunicationCulture:●Culture may be defined as what a society does and thinks. (Sapir, 1921)●Culture refers to the total way of life of particular groups of people. Itincludes everything that a group of people thinks, says, does, and makes. (R.Kohls, 1979)●Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, andnorms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people.文化是习得的一套关于信仰、价值观、规的公认的解释，这些信仰、价值观、规对相当大人类群体的行为产生影响。
The Characteristics of Culture:1.Culture is not innate; it is learned;2.Culture is transmissible from person to person, group to group, andgeneration to generation;3.Culture is a dynamic system that changes continuously over time;4. Culture is selective; (every culture represents a limited choice of behaviorpatterns)5. Culture is composed of interrelated facets;6.Culture is ethnocentric (centeredness on one’s own group).The American sociolinguist D. Hymes pointed out that people with communicative competence should know when, where and what to speak to whom and how.Models of communicationTheoretically, the model of communication is always described in the following way:Communication is exchanging information in the form of messages, symbols, thoughts, signs and opinions.The Ingredients of Culture●Language;● Religion;● Values and attitudes;● Education;● Social organization;●Technology and material culture;● Politics;● LawIntercultural Communication (IC)●In its most general sense, IC refers to those occasions when a member of one culture produces a message for consumption by a member of another culture. (p70, Samovar & Porter)●More precisely, IC refers to communication between people whose culture perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. (p70, Samovar & Porter)跨文化交际: 指拥有不同文化认知和符号体系的人们之间进行的交际。
胡文仲：具有不同文化背景的人从事交际的过程就是跨文化交际。
Time orientation: (Hall, 1976):美国人类学家霍尔（Edward Hall）在《超越文化》（Beyond Culture）一书中首次区分了两种不同的时间观念,即“单向计时制”（monochronic time）和“多向计时制”（polychronic time).1.Monochronic Time (M-Time)It schedules one event at a time. In these cultures time is perceived as a linear structure just like a ribbon stretching from the past into the future. e.g. American People1.1 单向计时制重视日程安排、阶段时间和准时;1.2 认为“时间是线性的、可分割的，就像一条道路或带子向前伸展到未来，向后延伸到过去”。
1.3 认为同时做两件事几乎有点不道德;1.4 持有这种时间取向的英美人士把时间看成具体实在（tangible）的东西, 可以节省（save）、花费（spend）、赚得（earn）、浪费（waste）、失去（lose）、弥补（make up）、计量(measure）、甚至当成商品一样买卖（buy, sell）和拥有（have）。
美国人特别强调把时间分割成不同的时段来安排活动,强调守时, 严格按照日程一次做一件事情（do one thing at a time）.2.Polychronic Time (P-Time)2.1 P-time schedules several activities at the same time. It is flexible and more humanistic.2.2 People from P-time system emphasize the involvement of people more than schedules. They do not see appointments as ironclad commitments and often break them.e.g. Chinese, Latin American, Arab and most Asian culturesNegative impacts in IC:1.Ethnocentrism2.Anxiety and Uncertainty3.Stereotypes4.Prejudice5.Discrimination & Racism1.EthnocentrismIf people believe that their culture is the only true culture, they will discriminate against people who manifest cultural norms that fail to correspond to their values and behaviors.2. Anxiety and Uncertainty2.1 Anxiety refers to the feeling of being uneasy, tense, worried, or apprehensive about what might happy.2.2 Uncertainty refers to our inability to predict or explain others’ behavior, feelings, attitudes, behavior, or values.Our ability to communicate effectively is based, at least in part, on our ability to manage our anxiety and uncertainty.Anxiety and Uncertainty Management (AUM)Theory (Gudykunst, 1995)：AUM management theory suggests that effective interpersonal and intergroup communication is a function of how individuals manage the anxiety and uncertainty they experience when communicatingwith others.3. Stereotypes3.1 Stereotypes are a form of generalization about some group of people, or a means of organizing images into fixed and simple categories that are used to stand for the entire collection of people. (Walter Lippmann)3.2 Human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify.4.PrejudiceIt refers to negative attitudes towards other people that are based on faulty and inflexible stereotypes. It is an unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude towards another group of people. ( Lusting & Koester)5.DiscriminationIt refers to the behavioral manifestations of the prejudice, it can be thought of as prejudice “in action”. ( Lusting & Koester)RacismThe belief that race accounts for differences in human character or ability and that a particular race is superior to others.Ethnocentrism:If people believe that their culture is the only true culture, they will discriminate against people who manifest cultural norms that fail to correspond to their values and behaviors.Individualism and CollectivismIndividualism-collectivism is the major dimension of cultural variability used to explain cross-cultural differences and similarities in communication across culture.Individualistic Culture(liberalism):individuals tend to define themselves by the extent to which they are different from, rather than similar to others. People are encouraged to display self- confidence and assertiveness, disclosure of personal thoughts and feelings.Collectivistic culture(Confucianism):places little value on individual identity and great value on group identity. Goingone's own way is not valued; uniformity and conformity are stressed.1.IndividualismIndividuals tend to define themselves by the extent to which they are different from，rather than similar to others. People are encouraged to display self-confidence and assertiveness, disclosure of personal thoughts and feelings.Individualistic cultures: Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, U.K., Ireland, Isreal, Italy, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Sweden, Switerland，U.S.A.2. CollectivismCollectivist cultures place little value on individual identity and great value on group identity. They have been labeled as “we” cultures because basic unit is the in-group or collective.Collectivistic cultures: Brazil, China, Colombia, Egypt, Greece, India, Japan, Kenya, Korea, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Peru, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, Venezuela, Vietnam.Individualism-collectivism is expected to affect communication mainly through : •Influence on group identities;•Differentiation between ingroup and outgroup communication.•Both individualism and collectivism exist in all cultures;•Self-orientation involves the “pursuit of private interests”;•Collectivity orientation involves the “pursuit of the common interests of the collect ivity”.Comparing major characteristics:Individualistic culture:Emphasis on individual’s goals, self-realization;● Little differences between ingroup and outgroup communication;● Independent self construal --- “I” identity;● Low-context communication which is direct, precise, and absolute. Collectivistic culture:●Emphasis on ingroup’s goals---fitting into the ingroup;●Large differences between ingroup and outgroup communication;●Interdependent self construal---“we” identity;●High-context communication which is indirect, imprecise, and probabilistic.High-context communication:Most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in the code, explicit, transmitted part of the message(indirect, ambiguous and understated(轻描淡写) --- collectivistic cultures).Low-context communication:The mass of information is given in the explicit code (direct, explicit, open, precise, and consistent with one’s feelings --- individualistic cultures).II. Cross-gender communicationThe closer you are to someone, and the longer you have been close, the more you have to lose when you open your mouth. --- Deborah TannenWhy so?1.We don’t realize that communication is inherently ambiguous;2. Conversational styles differ;3. We expect to be understood if there is love… .Gender-based communication styles:1.rapport --- report2.connection --- status3. problems --- solutions4. listening --- lecturing5. Intimacy --- independence6. relationship --- information7. Inclusive --- exclusive8. novice --- expert9. community --- contestHumans are born with different biological sexes, and their culture helps them to be educated into different genders through the process of socialization.Gendered women and men are considered two different branches of subculture. In this sense, cross-gender communication is a kind of cross-culture communication.Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love:•There are eight types of intimate relationships;•Intimate relationships could be analyzed by examining three components:1.Intimacy --- feelings of closeness, sharing, communication, and support;2.Passion --- intense desire to be united with the loved one;mitment --- both the short-term decision to love another and the longerterm commitment to maintain it.Brown and Levinson’s notion of politeness strategies:The face-saving view of politeness drives from Brown and Levinson (1978), and it would be no exaggeration to say that it has been most influential in providing a paradigm for linguistic politeness which goes beyond a mere extension of the Gricean maxims (CP: 数量、质量、关系、方式). --- Richard J. WattsBrown and Levinson’s negative and positive politeness strategies:积极礼貌的核心：寻找共同点，表达赞成和赞美，保持亲密关系。
