arbitrariness and non-arbitrariness (gy)

术语翻译及术语解释汇总术语翻译1.Design features of language（语言的甄别特征）Arbitrariness（任意性），Duality（二层性/二重性），Creativity（创造性/原创性），Displacement（移位性），Cultural transmission（文化传播），Interchangeability（可互换性）2. Functions of languagereferential 指称功能poetic 诗学功能emotive情感功能conative 劝慰功能phatic寒暄功能metalingual function 元语言功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇/文本功能Informative（信息/告知功能），Performative Function（施为功能），Emotive Function（情感功能），Phatic communion（寒暄交谈），Recreational Function（娱乐功能），3. Phonetics(语音学)，Phonology（音系/音位学）; Morphology（形态学），Syntax（句法学）;Semantics（语义学），Pragmatics（语用学）Articulatory phonetics发音语音学Acoustic phonetics声学语音学Auditory phonetics听觉语音学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Computational linguistics计算语言学Applied linguistics应用语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学4. Descriptive vs. prescriptive描写式和规定式Synchronic vs. diachronic共时和历时Langue vs. parole语言和言语Competence vs. performance语言能力和语言行为5. V ocal tract 声道(resonating cavities共鸣腔)，pharynx咽腔, oral cavity口腔and nasal cavity鼻腔.其它的一些发音器官：lungs肺, windpipe（trachea）气管, vocal folds声带, larynx喉, epiglottis会厌，次声门, pharynx咽, uvula小舌, hard palate硬腭,soft palate软腭, alveolar ridge齿龈6.Consonants and vowels（辅音和元音）A. Manners of articulation发音方式B. Places of articulation发音位置7. Stop (or plosive)爆破音Fricative摩擦音Approximant近似音Lateral (approximant)边音Affricates塞擦音, trill颤音and tap 闪音Bilabial双唇音Labiodental唇齿音Dental齿音Alveolar齿龈音Postal veolar后齿龈音Retroflex卷舌音Palatal硬腭音Velar软腭音Uvular小舌音, pharyngeal咽音glottal声门音monophthong vowel: 单元音diphthongs双元音triphthongs三元音Lax vowels短元音Tensed vowels长元音8.Coarticulation and phonetic transcription协同发音和标音anticipatory coarticulation先期协同发音perseverative coarticulation后滞协同发音. broad transcription宽式标音narrow transcription严式标音9. minimal pairs最小对立体Phoneme音位phonemic transcriptions音位转写phonetic transcriptions语音转写phones音子allophones音位变体complementary distribution互补分布phonetic similarity发音近似性Free variation自由变体assimilation同化regressive assimilation逆同化progressive assimilation顺同化phonological rule 音系规则Epenthesis增音binary 二分的Distinctive features区别特征Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions向心结构和离心结构subordinate and coordinate从属和并列Conceptual meaning概念意义Associative meaning:联想意义Connotative meaning内涵意义Social meaning社会意义Affective meaning情感意义Reflected meaning反射意义Collocative meaning搭配意义Thematic meaning主位意义denotation: 外延意义connotation: 内涵The referential theory:指称理论Semantic triangle语义三角Sense and reference：涵义和指称Synonymy同义关系Antonymy反义关系Hyponymy上下义关系Polysemy一词多义关系Homonymy 同音/形异意关系Dialectal synonyms 地域同义词Stylistic synonyms风格同义词Collocational synonyms搭配同义词gradable antonymy 等级反义关系cover term覆盖项Marked vs. unmarked terms标记项和非标记项complementary antonymy 互补反义关系converse antonymy 逆向反义关系homophones: 同音异义词homographs : 同形异义词complete homonyms semantic components语义部分术语解释1.Design feature的定义：the defining（最典型的，起决定作用的）properties ofhuman language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2.Synchronic共时：It refers to the description of a language at some point of timein history.3.Diachronic历时：It studies the development or history of language. In otherwords, it refers to the description of a language as it changes through time .4.prescriptive规定式：A kind of linguistic s tudy aims to lay down rules for “correctand standard” behavior in using language.5.descriptive描写式: A kind of linguistic study aims to describe and analyze thelanguage people actually use.6.Arbitrariness（任意性）:By saying that “language is arbitrary”, we mean thatthere is no logical connection between meaning and sound.7.Duality（二层性/二重性）:it means that language is a system, which consists oftwo levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; at the higher level there is the structure of meaning.8.Displacement（移位性）: it means that language can be used to communicateabout things that are not present in our immediate communicational context.petence语言能力:it refers to an ideal speaker’s knowledge of the underlyingsystem of rules in a language.10.Performance语言行为: it refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker ina real communicational context.ngue语言: it refers to the speaker’s understanding and knowledge of thelanguage that he speaks.12.Parole言语: it is the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker.13.Cultural transmission（文化传播）:It refers to the fact that the details of thelinguistic system must be learned anew（重新，再）by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.14.Phatic communion（寒暄交谈）:it refers to ritual exchanges, exchanges that havelittle meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.15.Phonetics(语音学): it is the study of the characteristics of speech sounds andprovides methods for their description, classification and transcription.16.V owels元音：the sounds in the production of which no articulators come veryclose together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction.17.Consonants辅音：The sounds in the production of which there is an obstructionof the air-stream at some point of the vocal tract.18.Phonology: it is the study of the sound systems of languages and it is concernedwith the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages. And it studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning.19.Phoneme音位: the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish twowords.20.Allophone音位变体: it refers to the different forms of a phoneme.21.Assimilation: it is a process by which one sound takes on some or all thecharacteristics of a neighboring sound.22.Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlappingarticulations are involved.plementary distribution互补分布:when two sounds never occur in thesame environment, they are in complementary distribution.24.Free variation自由变体: if two sounds occurring in the same environment do notcontrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.25.Distinctive features区别特征：A phonetic feature which distinguishes onephonological unit, especially one phoneme, from another.26.minimal pairs最小对立体----- which can be defined as pairs of words whichdiffer from each other by only one sound.27.vowel glides滑音: The vowels involving movement from one sound to anotherare called vowel glides.28.Epenthesis增音：it means a process of inserting a sound after another sound.29.Substitution relation: it refers to the relation specifically between an individualunit and others that can replace it in a given sequence.30.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, orapproaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole.31.Exocentric construction: a group of syntactically related words where none ofthem is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head inside the group32.Reference: it is the relationship between words and the objects, actions orproperties that the words stand for. It deals with the extra-linguistic relationships between words and expressions and the world they describe.(具体的物质性的东西)33.Synonymy ：It refers to the sameness sense relations between words.ponential analysis ：Componential analysis defines the meaning of alexical element in terms of semantic components语义部分.35.Sense: it refers to the complex system of relationships that hold between linguisticelements themselves, it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.（概念性的东西）36.Semantics：semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words andsentences in particular.37.Homonymy: the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the sameform, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.38.Antonymy：It refers to the oppositeness sense relations between words.39.Hyponymy上下义关系：Hyponymy indicates sense inclusiveness. The upperterm in this sense relation is called superordinate上义词,and the lower terms, hyponyms下义词, members of the same class are called co-hyponyms.。

一、名词解释1.Diachronic历时的It refers to say of the study of developing of language and languages over time.研究语言随时间发展变化的方法。

2.Arbitrariness任意性Saussure first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表达的意义之间没有天然或逻辑的联系。

It is refers to absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.任意性是指语言符号和这些符号所指的实体间不存在任何物质的联系。

3.Parole言语It refers to the concrete utterances of a speaker.指语言在实际使用中的实现。

4.Creativity创造性By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences including the sentences that were never heard before.创造性是指语言具有能产型，因为语言有双重性和递归性,也就是说话者能够结合各个语言单位形成无尽的句子，其中很多句子是以前没有的或者没有听说过的。

9.1. Displcement means that human languages enable their users to _____ .A. symbolize objects, events and concepts that are presentB. communicate in an arbitrary mannerB. SociolinguisticsD. Pragmatics3. A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his _____ . And _____ refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.A. intercultural communicative comp etence ….. performance4. All monomophemic words are ______ . And polymorphemic words are called _____.pounds …… free compoundsC. stems and prefixesD. words formation and backformation6. The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words andB. propositionD. configuration7. Which of the following pairs is NOT an example of converse antonymy?A. buy, sellC. uncle, nephew-formation”.B. edit →editorD. possible →impossible9. /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning. Therefore they are ___ .B. in complementary distributionD. allophonesB. IntonationC. StressD. ToneA. become, run, feelC. clever, green, beautiful12. The word “politician” differs from the word “statesman” in its _______ .A. conceptual meaningC. referential meaningB. The Philosophy of GrammarD. Language----- this is the main idea of _____ .C. the Politeness PrincipleD. semantics15. In order to red uce the ambiguity of the term “word”, the term _____ is postulated as the ____ unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language.。

从意义角度浅谈语言学摘要：语言学包含六大分支，但各分支并非界限分明，完全独立。

它们之间有一条贯穿始终的线----意义。

本文从意义的角度宏观地综述语言学中的各个分支及各个分支之间的统一性和关联性，从而对语言学的宏观全貌以及其内在联系有更清晰的认识。

关键词：语言学意义语音学句法学词汇学语义学语用学语言学是对语言进行全面，科学研究的学科。

从研究范围看，分为内部语言学（又称微观语言学）和外部语言学（又称宏观语言学）。

语言学（本文中指内部语言学）主要研究语言的内部结构。

由于研究角度不同，语言学包含语音学，音系学，句法学，语义学和语用学六大分支。

它们彼此之间并非界限分明，绝对独立，而是相互交叠，相互联系，相互依赖。

如果生硬地将语言学切成几块互不关联的分支来研究的话，我们也难以真正地看清语言学的全貌更不能真正地解释和发掘语言的奥秘和魅力。

因而，我们绝不能忽视语言学各个分支之间的关联即接口（interface）.例如语义学与语用学都研究语言的意义。

但前者研究的研究对象是语言本身表达的意义，而后者研究的是说话者在某一语境中的意向性意义。

两者紧密联系，但又互相补充，区分的关键因素在于语境（context）和意向（intention）. 例如语义学与语用学都研究语言的意义。

但前者研究的研究对象是语言本身表达的意义，而后者研究的是说话者在某一语境中的意向性意义。

两者紧密联系，但又互相补充，区分的关键因素在于语境（context）和意向（intention）.因此从宏观总体的角度来看语言学也显得尤为重要。

在逐渐认识并不断探索语言学的过程中，作者惊奇地发现有一条无形抽象的线贯穿整个语言学各个分支，分别与各分支结合交织并最终将语言学各个分支紧密地融合在一起，形成一个统一的整体。

这条线就是意义（meaning）。

这里所说的“意义”是广义上的，涵义非常广，涵盖三大方面，一是语言的意义，即狭义的语义学。

二是哲学上的意义，研究意义与指称，内涵，外延，实在等的关系以及真实性的问题。

Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language ; some important distinctions in linguistics Teaching procedures1. language1.1 Why study language?为什么学习语言A tool for communication交流的工具An integral part of our life and humanity 人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2 What is language?什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)a person‟s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A web ster‟s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人嗲鹩诙?1.2.2 definitions一.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Why do we say language is arbitrary?Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning, between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and is explained by the fact that different language have different words for the same object, it is good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language . it is only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous quotation from shakepeare’s play:”Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字,闻起来都是一样香的.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.V ocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or read also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.“Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)二.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive definition of language?Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary ; langague is used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity/ productivity, displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.Design features----- are features that define our human languages,such as arbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.(指决定了人类语言性质的特征.例如任意性,二重性,创造性,移位性,文化转移性等.)The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.What is arbitrariness?任意性a. arbitrariness---- arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first.The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。

第1章导言I. Multiple choices:1. Which of the following does NOT state how the linguist discovers the nature and the rules of the underlying language system?A. He has to collect and observe language facts.B. He has to display and then generalize some similarities of the language facts.C. He has to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.D. He has to deal with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models andmethods applicable in any linguistic study.【答案】D【解析】语言学家为了找出潜在的语言系统中的实质和规则，须要收集和观察语言事实，找出某些语言事实的相似性并对其作出概括；然后，对语言结构进行某种假设，再对照所观察到的事实进行反复验证以充分证明它们的有效性。

因此，本题的正确答案为D。

2. Which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language?A. Arbitrariness.B. Productivity.C. Cultural transmission.D. Finiteness.【答案】D【解析】语言的区别性特征有五个：arbitrariness（任意性），productivity（多产性）或creativity（创造性），duality（二重性），displacement（移位性），cultural transmission （文化传递性）。

语言学知识复习总结-------重要概念梳理第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features)1. 任意性Arbitrariness: shu 和tree 都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言是由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of sounds and meaning)3.多产性Productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences)4.移位性Displacement: 可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性Cultural Transmission: 语言需要后天在特定的文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language)1.传达信息功能Informative: 最主要功能The main function2.人际功能Interpersonal: 人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establish and maintain their identity3.行事功能Per formative: 现实应用--判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge, naming, and curses4.表情功能Emotive: 表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词（句）exclamatory expressions5.寒暄功能Phatic: 应酬话phatic language,比如“吃了没？”“天气真好啊！”等等6.元语言功能Metalingual: 用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书，也可以用“book”这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1.核心语言学Core linguistic●语音学Phonetics: 关注语音的产生、传播和接收过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。