研究生英语科技英语阅读与翻译6

Unit 1 Genetically modified foods -- Feed the World?If you want to spark a heated debate at a dinner party, bring up the topic of genetically modified foods. For many people, the concept of genetically altered, high-tech crop production raises all kinds of environmental, health, safety and ethical questions. Particularly in countries with long agrarian traditions -- and vocal green lobbies -- the idea seems against nature.如果你想在某次晚宴上挑起一场激烈的争论，那就提出转基因食品的话题吧。

对许多人来说，高科技的转基因作物生产的概念会带来诸如环境、健康、安全和伦理等方面的各种问题。

特别是在有悠久的农业生产传统和主张环保的游说集团的国家里，转基因食品的主意似乎有悖自然。

In fact, genetically modified foods are already very much a part of our lives. A third of the corn and more than half the soybeans and cotton grown in the US last year were the product of biotechnology, according to the Department of Agriculture. More than 65 million acres of genetically modified crops will be planted in the US this year. The genetic is out of the bottle.事实上，转基因食品已经成为我们生活重要的一部分。

Unit1A因此，可以将计算机定义为一种高速运行的电子设备，该设备以称为程序的指令和称为数据的字符形式接收信息，并对信息进行算术和/或逻辑运算，继而提供运算结果。

For this reason,computers can be defined as very—high-speed electronic device which accept information in the form of instructions called a program and characters called data,perform mathematical and/or logical operations on the information，and then supply results of these operations.计算机解决问题只需用人工所需时间的一小部分时间。

It can find the solution to a problem in a fraction of the time it takes a human being to da the job。

对计算机发出指令的程序或部分程序，以及为其提供解决问题所需信息的数据均存储在计算机存储器内。

The program,or part of it，which tells the computers what to do and the data,which provide the information needed to solve the problem，are kept inside the computer in place called memory。

计算机能够代替人类做单调、常规的工作，但没有独创性；计算机可以根据指令工作，但不能做任何价值判断。

A computer can replace people in dull，routine tasks,but it has no originality;it works according to the instructions given to it and cannot exercise any value judgments.如果操作者不给予指示，也不提供适当信息，计算机就什么也做不了;但由于电脉冲能以光速运行，因此计算机几乎瞬间便能处理大量算术逻辑运算。

科技英语阅读翻译 Last updated at 10:00 am on 25th December 2020ⅢT r a n s l a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e s i n t o C h i n e s e(20%)（1）He is best known for coining the term fractal to describe phenomena (such as coastlines, snowflakes, mountains and trees) whose patterns repeat themselves at smaller and smaller scales. (2) To explain these puzzling findings, some scientists have reviv ed an old idea of Einstein’s that had been discarded as false: that the vacuum of space has energy in it that acts repulsively and accelerates the expansion of the universe.(3) New language that seemed to assert Facebook’s “irrevocable” right to retain a nd use a member’s personal information, even after the member had closed his or her Facebook account, deserved a little more editing.(4) The tenor of our time appears to regard history as having ended, with pronouncements from many techno-pundits claiming that the Internet is revolutionary and changes everything.(5) As a by-product of an industry that exists all over the world-the stalks that remain after grain has been harvested-straw also helpfully soaks up carbon from the atmosphere and locks it in, so long as it is not allowed to decompose.Ⅲ Translate the following sentences into Chinese（20%）（1）The problem in the paradox, he reasoned, is that we are confusing a description of sets of numbers with a description of sets of sets of numbers.（2）Now the cosmological constant is one of the leading theories of why the universe is blowing up like a balloon at ever-increasing speed.（3）That’s not because Facebook is hell-bent on stripping away privacy protections, but because the popularity of Facebook and other social networking sites has promoted the sharing of all things personal, dissolving the line that separates the private from the public.（4）Although it’s unclear if the capacity for remote operation will justify the QB’s US$15,000 price tag, Anybots believes its technology will appeal to a new generation of workers who expect to be in contact at all times and in all places.（5）As a by-product of an industry that exists all over the world-the stalks that remain after grain has been harvested-straw also helpfully soaks up carbon from the atmosphere and locks it in, so long as it is not allowed to decompose.Ⅲ Translate the following sentences into Chinese (20%)（1）But Russell ( and independently, Ernst Zermelo ) noticed that x = {a: a is not in a} leads to a contradiction in the same way as the description of the collection of barbers.（2）An analogy is the siren of an ambulance that changes pitch as it moves toward you, then passes you and heads the other way — its waves are first compressed, then stretched.（3）It’s the older members — those who could join only after it opened membership in 2006 to workplace networks, then to anyone — who are adjusting to a new value system that prizes self-expression over reticence.（4）Although it’s unclear if the capacity for remote operation will justify the QB’s US$15,000 price tag, Anybots believes its technology will appeal to a new generation of workers who expect to be in contact at all times and in all places.（5）No matter how stylishly modern and environmentally friendly straw-bale house may look, however, you still want to know that it won’t get sopping wet in a thunderstorm or go up in a whoosh of flames if you knock over a candle.Ⅲ Translate the following sentences into Chinese (20%)（1）For example, we can describe the collection of numbers 4, 5 and 6 by saying that x is the collection of integers, represented by n, which are greater than 3 and less than 7.（2）Dark energy is the name given to an unexplained force that is drawing galaxies away from each other, against the pull of gravity, at an accelerated pace.（3）Among members, a Law of Amiable Inclusiveness seems to be revealing itself: over time, many are deciding that the easiest path is to routinely accept “friend requests”, completing a sequence begun when one member seeks to designate another as a Facebook friend.（4）The area between the QB’s head and base consists of a length of telescoping plastic that can be adjusted to let the QB stand as tall as 175 centimeters or as short as 81 centimeters.（5）After waiting another 45 minutes and finding that the panel still hadn’t failed, the team gave up and stopped the experiment, secure in the knowledge that the material had performed beyond the requirements of building regulations.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese (20%)1. This system served as vehicle for the first formalizations of the foundations of mathematics; it is still used in some philosophical investigations and in branches of computer science.2. That’s not because Facebook is hell-bent on stripping away privacy protections, but because thepopularity of Facebook and other social networking sites has promoted the sharing of all things personal, dissolving the line that separates the private from the public.3. No matter how stylishly modern and environmentally friendly straw-bale house may look,however, you still want to know that it won't get sopping wet in a thunderstorm or go up in a whoosh of flames if you knock over a candle.4. The premise on which the technology is based is that genetic information, encoded by DNA andarranged in the form of genes, is a resource that can be manipulated in various ways to achieve certain goals in both pure and applied science and medicine.5. Many people are working towards trying to make cities more sustainable. A sustainable city offersa good quality of life to current residents but doesn’t reduce the opportunities for future residents to enjoy.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese (20%)1. This system served as vehicle for the first formalizations of the foundations of mathematics; it is still used in some philosophical investigations and in branches of computer science.2. Dark energy is the name given to an unexplained force that is drawing galaxies away from each other, against the pull of gravity, at an accelerated pace.3. When the distinction blurs between one’s few close friends and the many who are not, it seems pointless to distinguish between private and public.4. No matter how stylishly modern and environmentally friendly straw-bale house may look, however, you still want to know that it won't get sopping wet in a thunderstorm or go up in a whoosh of flames if you knock over a candle.5. Engineers in the future will work at the extremes of very large and very small systems that require greater knowledge and coordination of multidisciplinary and multi-scale engineering across greater distances and timeframesPart III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese（20%）1. To explain the puzzling findings, some scientists have received an old idea of Einstein’s that hadbeen discarded as false: that the vacuum of space has energy in it that acts repulsively andaccelerates the expansion of the universe.2. Telecommuting workers and traveling executives alike could use QB( so named because it is thenext in line after the company’s prototype QA bot ) as a virtual extension of themselves,allowing them to attend meetings, tour facilities or perform walk-throughs of real estate properties, all while controlling the robot from a computer keyboard.3. Research had developed to the point where progress was being hampered by technical constraints, as the elegant experiments that had helped to decipher the genetic code could not be extended to investigate the gene in more detail.4. The ideas that the state of the universe at one time determines the state at all other times, has beena central tenet of science, ever since Laplace’s time.5. Nuclear power’s prominence as a major energy source will continue over the next several decades, according to new projections made by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which has just published a new report, Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power for the period up to 2030.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese（20%）1. For a smallish two-bed roomed house with one large open-plan kitchen/dinner, tha t doesn’tparticularly cheap given that straw is supposed to be inexpensive, and you’d still have to buy the plot and dig the foundations.2. Combined with advances in CAD systems, it will be possible for mechanical engineers tocollaborate in immersive interactive environments where they can design collaboratively, test hypotheses, run models and simulations and observe their creations in three dimensions much as an engineer can observe a car being built with their colleagues on the shop floor.3. Althou gh it is unclear if the capacity for remote operation will justify the QB’s US$15,000 pricetag, Anybots believes its technology will appeal to a new generation of workers who expect to be in contact at all times and in all places,4. That’s not because F acebook is hell-bent on stripping away privacy protections, but because thepopularity of Facebook and other social networking sites has promoted the sharing of all things personal, dissolving the line that separates the private from the public.5. Because gravity draws mass together, most experts expected to find that gravity had slowed down the universe’s rate of ballooning, or perhaps that the rate was staying about the same.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese（20%）1. Dark energy is the name given to an unexplained force that is drawing galaxies away from each other, against the pull of gravity, at an accelerated pace. Dark energy is a bit like anti-gravity. Where gravity pulls things together at the more local level, dark energy tugs them apart on the grander scale.2. The growth of membership and of individual networks seems impervious to gaffes at the company during its brief, five-year history. One of those instances was in February, when it fiddled with its terms of service. N ew language that seemed to assert Facebook’s “irrevocable” right to retain and use a member’s personal information, even after the member had closed his or her Facebook account, deserved a little more editing.3. Along with the wheels, a self-balancing system and a motor with a top speed of five kilometers per hour make the robot mobile. The two-wheel—as opposed to a tricycle or quad—design makes it more maneuverable in tight spaces and helps keep its weight down to about 16 kilograms. The area between the QB's head and base consists of a length of telescoping plastic that can be adjusted to let the QB stand as tall as 175 centimeters or as short as 81 centimeters.4. Social and demographic changes are leading to a greater demand for housing. People are living longer, and choosing to marry later, and in recent years there has been a rise in the number of single-parent families. Added to this, the UK is experiencing immigration from other countries, . from Poland which has recently joined the EU. The result is an ever-larger number of smaller households, all requiring accommodation.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese（20%）1. Dark energy is the name given to an unexplained force that is drawing galaxies away from each other, against the pull of gravity, at an accelerated pace. Dark energy is a bit like anti-gravity. Where gravity pulls things together at the more local level, dark energy tugs them apart on the grander scale.2. The growth of membership and of individual networks seems impervious to gaffes at the company during its brief, five-year history. One of those instances was in February, when it fiddled with its terms of service. New language that seemed to assert Facebook’s “irrevocable” right to retain and use a member’s persona l information, even after the member had closed his or her Facebook account, deserved a little more editing.3. Along with the wheels, a self-balancing system and a motor with a top speed of five kilometers perhour make the robot mobile. The two-wheel—as opposed to a tricycle or quad—design makes it more maneuverable in tight spaces and helps keep its weight down to about 16 kilograms. Thearea between the QB's head and base consists of a length of telescoping plastic that can beadjusted to let the QB stand as tall as 175 centimeters or as short as 81 centimeters.4. Social and demographic changes are leading to a greater demand for housing. People are livinglonger, and choosing to marry later, and in recent years there has been a rise in the number of single-parent families. Added to this, the UK is experiencing immigration from other countries, . from Poland which has recently joined the EU. The result is an ever-larger number of smaller households, all requiring accommodation.Part III. Translate the following sentences into Chinese (20%)1. The problem in the paradox, he reasoned, is that we are confusing a description of sets of numberswith a description of sets of sets of numbers.2. That’s not because Facebook is hell-bent on stripping away privacy protections, but because thepopularity of Facebook and other social networking sites has promoted the sharing of all things personal, dissolving the line that separates the private from the public.3. The two-wheel—as opposed to a tricycle or quad—design makes it more maneuverable in tight spacesand helps keep its weight down to about 16 kilograms.4. The straw bales, it turns out, are all packed tightly inside a series of prefabricated rectangular woodenwall frames, which are then lime-rendered, dried and finally slotted together like giant Lego pieces, called ModCell panels.5. Although the UK is an urban society, more and more people are choosing to live on the edge ofurban areas - with many relocating to the countryside. This is called counter-urbanisation.。

Unit 6 Mechanics and AutomotivesPart I EST ReadingReading 1Section A Pre-reading TaskWarm-up Questions: Work in pairs and discuss the following questions.1.What do you think will be the most popular mechanic field in the future? And why?(Open)2.Do you know anything about NANO-BIO technology?Nanobiotechnology is the branch of nanotechnology with biological and biochemical applications or uses. Nanobiotechnology often studies existing elements of nature in order to fabricate new devices. The term bionanotechnology is often used interchangeably with nanobiotechnology, though a distinction is sometimes drawn between the two. If the two are distinguished, nanobiotechnology usually refers to the use of nanotechnology to further the goals of biotechnology, while bionanotechnology might refer to any overlap between biology and nanotechnology, including the use of biomolecules as part of or as an inspiration for nanotechnological devices.3.Have you ever heard of CAD in engineering design?CAD: Computer-aided design (CAD), also known as computer-aided drafting and design (CADD), is the use of computer technology for the process of design and design-documentation. Computer Aided Drafting describes the process of drafting with a computer. CADD software, or environments, provide the user with input-tools for the purpose of streamlining design processes; drafting, documentation, and manufacturing processes. CADD output is often in the form of electronic files for print or machining operations. The development of CADD-based software is in direct correlation with the processes it seeks to economize; industry-based software (construction, manufacturing, etc.) typically uses vector-based (linear) environments whereas graphic-based software utilizes raster-based (pixelated) environments.4.What is computational simulation and can you give an example?Simulation is the imitation of some real thing, state of affairs, or process. The act of simulating something generally entails representing certain key characteristics or behaviours of a selected physical or abstract system. The network computer games are typical example of computational simulation.5.How does computational simulation help engineering design?Combined with advances in CAD systems, it will be possible for mechanical engineers to collaborate in immersive interactive environments where they can design collaboratively,test hypothesis, run models and simulations and observe their creations in three dimensions much as an engineer can observe a car being built with their colleagues on the shop floor.Section C Post-reading TaskReading Comprehension1. Directions: Work on your own and fill in the blanks with the main idea.Part 1 (Paras. 1-4) Brief introduction to the two expanding frontiers of engineering Para. 1: A vision of the engineers’ knowledge and coordination in the future.Para. 2: the two frontiers predicted.Para. 3: The requirements for the mechanical engineers in the future.Para. 4: An engine er’s point of the development of design.Part 2 (Paras. 5-8) The future of nanotechnology and biotechnologyPara. 5: Nanotechnology and biotechnology as the most influential fields.Para. 6: the core of technological innovation has shifted to biology and the environment.Para. 7: The great expectations of biotechnology.Part 3 (Paras. 9-15) The designing methods of the engineers in the futurePara. 8: The democratization of the process of designing and creating new devices.Para. 9: Futurist Rohit Talwar’s highlight of immersive interactive skills.Para. 10: The affordable vision of CAD.Para. 11: The future vision of engineers’ design independently.Para. 12: The future vision of engineers’ design at home.2. Directions: Work in pairs and discuss the following questions.1) According to the text, what is the “very large system” the engineers have to work on?Multidisciplinary and multi-scale engineering across greater distances and timeframes2) According to the text, what is the “very small system” the engineers have to work on?Nanotechnology.3) In order to “work at the extremes”, what would the engineers probably do in thefuture?Be adept at integrating different disciplines, addressing increasingly complex customer andstakeholder requirements, and treating multiple interacting systems.4) Why would the future employers demand engineers adept at integrating differentdisciplines?They must be able to conceive and direct projects of enormous complexity that require a highly integrative view of engineering systems.5) What is the future application vision of Nano-Bio?Nanotechnology and biotechnology will dominate technological development in the next 20 years and will be incorporated into all aspects of technology that affect our lives on a daily basis. Nano-Bio will provide the building blocks that future engineers will use to solve pressing problems in diverse fields including medicine, energy, water management, aeronautics, agriculture and environmental management.6) Can you make some examples on how nanotechnology and biotechnology will beapplied?(Open)7) According to the passage, what might be the most important working method for thefuture engineers?Designing at home would be the the most important working method for the future engineers.8) How will the home-based personal fabrication become readily available?Rapid prototyping and fabrication laboratories are improving and will soon be affordable for those running home offices, teaching classes and those inventing or building as a hobby.Within 20 years, it is likely that home-based personal fabricators will be economically attractive and available to anyone who wants them.3. Directions: Read the following passage carefully and fill in the blanks with the words or phrases you’ve learned in the text.In order to get ready for the multidisciplinary and multi-scale engineering, engineers must be adept at integrating different disciplines, addressing increasingly complex customer and stakeholder requirements. Nowadays, the application of Nanotechnology and biotechnology goes far beyond the prosaic use of nanofabrics in pants to prevent stains, but is poised for even greater application over the next 20 years. Biotechnology is now on the verge of a revolution in which genetic components are standardized and interchangeable, therefore, the engineers must design collaboratively, test hypothesis, run models and simulations and observe their creations in immersive interactive environments.Vocabulary and Structure1. Directions: Give the correct form of the word according to the indication in the brackets. Then complete the sentences using the right form for each word. Use each word once.1) The disciplinary research requires cooperation among different fields of science.2) Carl works in the insurance division of the company.3) He poised himself for a jump.4) Titanium fabrication plays a very important part in aeronautics.5) Many people believe that women are more intuitive than men.6) PCs are now democratized all around the world.7) We should avoid plain prosaic statement in our compositions.8) The spectacular visual effects offered us an incredibly immersive gaming experience.9) The thesis shows us a mathematical simulation in theory.10) The structural complexity of this nanofabric product is the most important part in itsmassive production.2. Directions: Complete the sentences with the words given in the brackets. Change the form if necessary.1) Biotechnology is on the verge of a revolution in which genetic components arestandardized and interchangeable.生物技术正处于基因革命的边缘。

新世纪研究⽣公共英语阅读C译⽂unit6⼈体研究欧⽂-S-李对于⼈体的研究——甚⾄是科学的研究——是古⽼⽽可敬的，可以追溯到亚⾥斯多德时代，希波克拉底时代，再往前还可以追溯到更加模糊的开始。

今天，它是知识界的主要学科之⼀。

像我们的其他活动⼀样，它可以分为两⽅⾯：成功的⼀⽅⾯和不成功的⼀⽅⾯。

在⼴义上，考虑到许多重要的例外情况，可以说⼈体研究成功的⼀⽅⾯与医学有关，⽽它的不成功的⼀⽅⾯与哲学和社会科学有关。

这些关系不仅与历史有关，⽽且也与⽅法、态度和传统有关。

医学的以及医学科学的成功绝⾮轻⽽易举的事情；在经历了⽆数次失败之后，它们是许许多多熟练的内科医⽣中最优秀最幸运的那些⼈留下来的遗产和成果。

尽管常常受到迂腐、⽆能和江湖骗术的妨碍，在邪恶时代，它们甚⾄长期桎梏医学知识的积累，然⽽⾃从希波克拉底以来，⾄少没有完全放弃熟练⾏医的传统⼀⼀⼀种理论和实践相结合的传统。

这个传统是不可或缺的，尤其是在以下三个⽅⾯。

⾸先，希波克拉底教导我们，医⽣应该在病房⾥⽽不是在实验室⾥付出艰⾟的持久的智慧的负责任的不懈的劳动，即医⽣全⾝⼼地适应这项⼯作。

这种适应远远不只是聪明不聪明的问题，它主要是通过建⽴条件反射来实现的。

在熟悉任何材料或者掌握任何媒介的有效⼯作⽅法时，这样的东西似乎是必不可少的⼀部分。

第⼆，希波克拉底教会我们准确地观察事物和事件；根据熟悉的明显的反复出现的现象做出判断，在这⼀判断的指导下做出选择；对事物和事件进⾏分类，有条不紊地利⽤它们。

第三，希波克拉底教会我们审慎地构建⼀种理论——并不是哲学理论，也不是漫⽆边际的想像，更不是准宗教教条，⽽是⼀种朴实⽆华、路⼈皆知的东西。

或许我这样说更好⼀些：是⼀种有⽤的帮助⼈⾏⾛的拐杖。

所有这些总结起来就是：内科医⽜⾸先必须对于事物有亲⾝的习惯性的直觉的了解；第⼆，对于事物必须有系统的认识；第三，必须有⼀种有效的思考事物的⽅法。

经验表明，此乃通向成功之路。

长期以来，在研究疾病的时候⼈们⼀直遵循这⼀⽅法，然⽽在研究⽇常⽣活中他经历时⼏乎根本没有遵循过。

UNIT SEVENTEXT ONEOnce upon a time—when the U.S. dollar was king—American students blithely flocked overseas to nibbl e on affordable scones and croissants between classes. How times have changed.As the dollar dips to all-time lows, college students are feeling the pinch. Especially in the United Kingdom and countries that use the euro—which currently is at 68 cents to the dollar—the cost of living has skyrocketed. "Years ago we could say studying abroad was the same price as staying on campus," says Daeya Malboeuf, an associate director at Syracuse University. "There's no way we can say that anymore."Yet this unfavorable economic environment hasn't stopped students from scrambling overseas. According to the Institute of International Education,study-abroad programs have grown 144 percent in the past decade and continue to increase around 8 percent each year. Considering the rising costs, "it's surprising how little the students haven't been deterred," says Natalie Bartush, who handles thestudy-abroad program at the University of Texas.Where the real change appears to be happening as a result of rising prices is in the length and location of students' foreign study choices. The number of participants in short-term summer programs has swelled, as has the interest in courses at more exotic locales. For Middlebury College students, for example, a year in Florence costs around $37,000; at Santiago, Chile, it's $27,000. Such price differences have contributed to modest or flat growth at traditionally popular programs in western Europe and Australia, whereas schools in Chile, Argentina, South Africa, and China (particularly Hong Kong) are aggressively expanding to meet rising demand.Program directors are quick to point out that the shift is not just about money. "You can't understand the United States today without understanding what's going on outside our borders, and that's not just Europe anymore," says Rebecca Hovey, dean of the study-abroad program at the School for International Training. Interest in nontraditional locales spiked even before the dollar began dropping, and foreign countries are marketing themselves to American students. A surge of support from education nonprofits and the State Department also has fueled the trend.Study-abroad costs also vary wildly based on the way colleges structure their programs. Schools that effectively swap students with a foreign college are less affected by the falling dollar, but American schools that operate their own student centers often end up paying more for rent, utilities, and faculty salaries as the U.S. currency falters. The dollar's slide also means that trying to set student fees in advanceis a tiresome guessing game for college officials. Most of these educators' energy, however, is spent scrounging up extra financial aid for needy travelers. Students already getting help can usually transfer their aid to tuition and fees abroad, but basics like housing and food are often at the mercy of the fluctuating dollar. Airfare, which can exceed $1,000 round trip, is not generally included in school fees, and whirlwind trips across continents are rarely cheap.The emphasis on student financial responsibility is especially evident at private schools like Syracuse, which charges the same pricey tuition abroad as at home. Even at more affordable public universities and private colleges like Middlebury—which charges U.S. students the often cheaper tuition of the international host schools—counselors are quick to peddle the virtue of thrift, a lesson no longer lost between those on safety and culture shock.参考译文：当美元还是老大的时候，美国学生都高高兴兴地成群跑到海外上学，课间可以品尝价格合适的烤饼和羊角面包。

Unit 1 Genetically modified foods -- Feed the World?If you want to spark a heated debate at a dinner party, bring up the topic of genetically modified foods. For many people, the concept of genetically altered, high-tech crop production raises all kinds of environmental, health, safety and ethical questions. Particularly in countries with long agrarian traditions -- and vocal green lobbies -- the idea seems against nature.如果你想在某次晚宴上挑起一场激烈的争论，那就提出转基因食品的话题吧。

对许多人来说，高科技的转基因作物生产的概念会带来诸如环境、健康、安全和伦理等方面的各种问题。

特别是在有悠久的农业生产传统和主张环保的游说集团的国家里，转基因食品的主意似乎有悖自然。

In fact, genetically modified foods are already very much a part of our lives. A third of the corn and more than half the soybeans and cotton grown in the US last year were the product of biotechnology, according to the Department of Agriculture. More than 65 million acres of genetically modified crops will be planted in the US this year. The genetic is out of the bottle.事实上，转基因食品已经成为我们生活重要的一部分。

科技英语阅读1-8单元译文：Unit 1罗素悖论的提出是基于这样的一个事例：设想有这样一群理发师，他们只给不给自己理发的人理发。

假设其中一个理发师符合上述的条件，不给自己理发；然而按照要求，他必须要给自己理发。

但是在这个集合中没有人会给自己理发。

（如果这样的话，这个理发师必定是给别人理发还要给自己理发）1901年，伯特兰·罗素悖论的发现打击了他其中的一个数学家同事。

在19世纪后期，弗雷格尝试发展一个基本原理以便数学上能使用符号逻辑。

他确立了形式表达式（如：x =2）和数学特性（如偶数）之间的联系。

按照弗雷格理论的发展，我们能自由的用一个特性去定义更多更深远的特性。

1903年，发表在《数学原理》上的罗素悖论从根本上揭示了弗雷格这种集合系统的局限性。

就现在而言，这种类型的集合系统能很好的用俗称集的结构式来描述。

例如，我们可以用x代表整数，通过n 来表示并且n大于3小于7，来表示4，5,6这样一个集合。

这种集合的书写形势就是：x={n：n是整数，3<n<7}。

集合中的对象并不一定是数字。

我们也可让y={x：x是美国的一个男性居民}。

表面上看，似乎任何一个关于x的描述都有一个符合要求的空间。

但是，罗素（和策梅洛一起）发现x={a：a不再a中}导致一个矛盾，就像对一群理发师的描述一样。

x它本身是在x的集合中吗？否定的答案导致了矛盾的出现。

当罗素发现了悖论，弗雷格立即就发现悖论对他的理论有致命的打击。

尽管这样，他还不能解决这个问题,并且上世纪有很多的尝试，去解决这个问题（但没有成功）。

罗素自己对这个悖论的回答促进了类型理论的形成。

他解释说，悖论的问题在于我们混淆了数集和数集的集合。

所以，罗素介绍了对象的分级系统：数、数集、数集的集合等等。

这个系统为形式化数学的形成奠定了基础，至今它还应用于哲学研究和计算机科学分支。

策梅洛对于罗素悖论的解决方法用新的公理：对于任意公式A（x）和任意集合b，都会有一个集合满足y={x：x既在b中又满足A（x）}取代了以前的公理：对于任意公式A（x），都会有一个集合满足y={x：x满足A（x）}。

Unit 1Genetically Modified Foods—Feed the World?IL VocabularyL alternative 2. modification 3. devastating 4. rigorous 5. collaborate6. recoup 1. incentive 8. restriction 9. subjected to 10> array of11.attribute ...to 12・being exposed... to 13. incorporate... into 14. fortifiedwith 15. suffers fromIIL Translation(1)vocal green lobbies主张环保的游说集团arable land 耕地面积vitamin A deficiency 缺乏维生索A nutritionally improved crops 增进营养成分的农作物restore the balance 避免这一损失staple crops主要粮食作物neutralize aluminum toxicity 1F和铝的毒性overall crop productivity 农业总产量transport infrastructures 运输基础设施target rich markets把富裕国家的市场作为目标（2）转基因食品來源于转基因生物体。

转基因生物体白身发生了特定变化，基因工程技术使得其DNA发生这种变化成为可能。

这些技术比突变（突变冇种）精确的多，因为突变只使某个生物体暴露于辐射或化学物质从而创造一种非特异性而稳定的变化。

人类改变食物机体的其他技术还包括选择性育种（植物育种和养殖动物），和体细胞无性系变异。

转基因食品于90年代初首次推出市场。

通常情况卜转基因食品为转基因植物产品：大豆，玉米，油菜，棉花子油。

Unit6机械工业的远景未来的工程师们要在很大或者很小的极端系统中工作，这就要求他们有渊博的知识和协调多学科、大尺度、时间和距离跨度大知识的能力。

系统工程的一个新领域会融合很多的知识和机械工程的方法。

美国国家工程协会现任主席Charies V est预言从大大小小的系统测量流量的技术将成为21世纪的大事件。

两个新的前沿科学领域将对工程学产生巨大的影响。

第一个前沿领域是增加较小的空间规模和减小较小的时间规模。

这边界依赖于生物工程、纳米技术和信息科学的结合，而且要求机械工程师有跨传统严肃学科的工作能力。

另一条前沿科学领域是越来越大的复杂的对社会十分重要的系统。

这条边界提醒我们，能源、环境、食物、工业、制造业发展、后勤和沟通交流是我们现在面对的最大的挑战。

这两条前沿领域将增加更多就有必需的新知识和新技能的综合型工程师。

现在和未来的机械工程师必须准备好再这新增的两条边界中工作。

雇主将要求工程师能熟练得结合不同的技能，达到复杂顾客和股东要求的、多重性相互影响的系统。

他们将在复杂的发展和管理系统中大量依靠仿真和电脑绘图工具。

电脑仿真将在建造复杂系统的时候变得更好，这使得它成为工程师优化预期结果儿限制意想不到结果的有效工具。

例如，波音公司的波音幻影工作室的首席工程师Mark Burgess 指出他在他职业生涯早期花了两年时间去生成CFD表格。

从现在起的二十年，Burgess希望“高度结合和无缝的系统能提供可能的结果，甚至能为非专业人士所用。

”他提到“这样的系统就像是一个直观的用户界面，或许现在想起制作亚马逊电子商务的经历，在现在的话是个非常容易的事纳米技术，生物技术将会决定未来20年的科技发展，并且这些技术还会融入各方面影响我们最基本生活的技术中。

Charles vest提出技术创新的核心已经从物理学，高速无线电通讯转移到生物学和环境学。

快速发展的生物技术和纳米技术是这些发展领域发展的核心。

早期的纳米技术应用范围仅限于平凡的使用纳米结构来防止裤子上的污渍，到现在发展到令人振奋的新境界—为医学影像代理服务。

Thank God It's MondayBy Jyoti Thottam[1] As researchers in psychology, economics and organizational behavior have been gradually discovering, the experience of being happy at work looks very similar across professions. People, who love their jobs, feel challenged by their work but in control of it. They have bosses who make them feel appreciated (enjoyed) and co-workers they like. They can find meaning (interest/And they aren't just lucky. It takes real effort to reach that[2] An even bigger obstacle, though （however）, may be our low expectations on the job. Love, family, community (society) — those are supposed (thought) to be the true sources of happiness, while work simply (only) gives us the means (tools) to enjoy them. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, who coined the term flow (happiness<->ebb), which adherents (supporter) of positive psychology would use to describe the job-induced highs (high spirit/ happiness), says that distinction (difference) is a false one. "Anything can be enjoyable if the elements of flow are present," he writes in his book Good Business." Within that framework, doing a seemingly boring job can be a source of greater fulfillment (achievement) than one (anybody) ever thought possible."[3] Csikszentmihalyi encourages (urge) us to reach a state (level/ status) in which work is an extension of what we naturally want to do. Immersed (absorbed) in the pleasure of work, we don't worry about its ultimate (final) reward. If that sounds out of reach, take heart (try one’s best). You may soon get some encouragement from the head office (headquarters). A growing (increasing) body (amount) of research is demonstrating (showing) that happy workers not only are happier in life but are also crucial (most important) to the health of a company.[4] Thirty-five years ago, the Gallup Organization started researching why people in certain work groups, even within the same company, were so much more effective (->efficient) than others. Donald Clifton, the Gallup researcher who pioneered that work, conducted (directed) a series of extensive interviews with highly productive teams of workers. From those interviews, Gallup developed a set of 12 statements (rules/ points) designed to measure employees' overall (general) level of happiness with their work, which Gallup calls "engagement". Some of the (criterion->) criteria reflect the obvious requirements of any worker (Do you have what you need to do your job? Do you know what's expected of you at work?), while others reveal (show) more subtle variables (Do you have a best friend at work? Does your supervisor (boss) or someone else at work care about you as a person?). Gallup started the survey in 1998, and it now includes 5. 4 million employees at 474 organizations; Gallup also does periodic random polls of workers in different countries.[5] The polls paint a picture of a rather disaffected (unpleasant/ unsatisfying) U.S. work force. In the most recent poll, from September 2004, only 29% of workers said they were engaged with their work. More than half, 55%, were not engaged, and 16% were actively disengaged. Still (Furthermore), those numbers are better than those (figures) in many other countries. The percentage of engaged workers in the U. S. is more than twice as large as Germany's and three times as great as Singapore's. But neither the late 1990s boom nor the subsequent （following）bust (depression) had much impact (influence) in either direction, indicating (showing/ implying) that the state of worker happiness goes much deeper than the swings (waves) of the economy.[6] James Harter, a psychologist directing (conducting) that research at Gallup, says manycompanies are simply misreading (->misled/ don’t know) what makes people happy at work. Beyond a certain minimum level, it isn't pay or benefits; it's strong relationships with co-workers and a supportive boss. "These are basic human needs in the workplace, but they're not the ones thought by managers to be very important." Harter says. Gallup has found that a strong positive response to the statement (question on questioner) "I have a best friend at work", for example, is a powerful predictor for engagement at work and is correlated with profitability and connection with customers. "It indicates (shows) a high level of belonging," Hatter says.[7] Without it, a job that looks (seems) good on paper (theoretically) can make a worker miserable [to live/lead a miserable/ happy life]. Martina Radix, 41, traded a high-pressure job as an executive assistant at a company where she liked her colleagues for a less taxing position as a clerical worker (clerk) in a law firm six years ago. She has more (free) time and flexibility but feels stifled (depressed) by her co-workers and unappreciated by her boss. "I am a misfit (mismatch) in that department," she says. "No matter how good your personal life is, if you go in to a bad (atom->) atmosphere at work, it takes away from it."In fact, engagement at workHarter estimates thatonly about 30% of the difference between employees who are highly engaged and those who are not. The rest of it is shaped (decided) by the hundreds of interactions that employees have every day with co-workers, supervisors and customers.[9] The most direct fix (remedy/ cure/ solution), then, is to seek out (look for) a supportive (positive) workplace. Finding a life calling (need) unlocks the door to happiness. Lissette Mendez, 33, says her job coordinating the annual book fair at Miami Dade College is the one she was born to do. "Books are an inextricable (inseparable) part of my life," she says.[10] Even if your passion (->passionate) does not easily translate into a profession (job->career), you can still find happiness on the job. Numerous studies have shown correlations between meaningful work and happiness, job satisfaction and even physical health. That sense (feeling/ significance) of meaning, however, can take many different forms. Some people find it in the work itself; others take pride in (be proud of) their company's mission (task) rather than in their specific job. People can find meaning in anything.[11] The desire for meaning is so strong that sometimes people simply (only) create it, especially to make sense (make sth. meaningful) of difficult or unpleasant work. In a recently completed six-year study of physicians (->surgeon) during their surgical residency, for example, it was found that the surgeons were extremely dissatisfied in the first year, when the menial (slave) work they were assigned, like (such as) filling out endless copies of patient records, seemed pointless (meaningless). Once they started to think of (regard) the training as part of the larger process of joining an elite group of doctors, their attitude changed. They're able to reconstruct (reconsider) and make sense of their work and what they do. By the end of year one, they've started to create (feel) some meanings.[12] While positive psychology has mostly focused on (stressed/ emphasized) the individual (pursue->)pursuit of happiness, a new field — positive organizational scholarship — has begun to examine the connection between happy employees and happy (successful) businesses. Instead of focusing on profitability and competition to explain success, researchers in this field are studying meaningfulness, authentic leadership and emotional competence (ability). Not the typical B-school buzzwords, but they may soon become part of the language spoken by every M. B. A.domain (field) and kind of (a little/ somewhat) fringe-ish", says Thomas Wright, a professor of organizational behavior at the University of Nevada, Reno. Early hints (clues) of the importance of worker happiness were slow (dull/ stupid) to be accepted (admitted/ understood). A 1920s study on the topic at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Co. in Cicero. It looked at (examined) whether increased lighting, shorter workdays and other worker-friendly fixes (measures) would improve (increase) productivity. While (Although) the workplace changes boosted (improved) performance, the experimenters eventually (finally) discovered (found) that the differences workers were responding to not in the physical environment but in the social one (factor). In other words, the attention they were getting was what made them happier and more effective. This phenomenon came to be known as the Hawthorne effect. "The researchers came to realize that it was people'ssays. But later studies that looked at job-satisfaction ratings were inconsistent. Broader measures (degree) of happiness, it turns out, are better predictors[14] Making any of those changes depends on the boss, although not necessarily, the CEO. So a handful of (many) business schools are trying to create (educate) a new kind of frontline manager, based on the idea of "authentic leadership". Instead of imposing faddish (fashionable) management techniques on each supervisor, authentic leadership begins with self-awareness. Introverted bosses have to know their own style and then find strategies to manage (administrate) people that feel natural (friendly). In other words, by figuring out (working out) their strengths (advantages), they[15] The goal (objective->purpose->aim) not necessarily a world (field) in which people love their work above everything else. Work, by definition, is somewhat (a little) unpleasant relative to all the other things we could be doing. That's why we still expect to get paid for doing it. But at the very least, businesses (companies or organizations) could do better just by paying attention to what their employees want and need (financially and spiritually). Then more of us could find a measure (degree) of fulfillment (achievement) in what we do. And once in a while (now and then/ occasionally), we might hope to transcend (surpass) it all. It can happen on the basketball court (field), in front of a roaring crowd, or in a classroom, in front of just one grateful (thankful) student. (1, 669 words)ABOUT THE AUTHORJyoti Thottam is a writer and a business reporter for Time magazine in New York. She was the president of the South Asian Journalists' Association from 2001-2002.EXERCISESI . Reading ComprehensionAnswer the following questions or complete the following statements.1. By the title "Thank God It's Monday", the author wanted to convey the idea that _____.A. people love their work above everything elseB. people can find happiness in their workC. most people have the experience of being happy at workD. people can find meaning in whatever they do2. According to Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, _____.A. love, family and community are not supposed to be the true sources of happinessB. work simply gives us the means to enjoy the happiness we get from love, family and communityC. even a seemingly boring job can be a source of happiness for usD. the positive psychology that is used to describe the job-induced highs is false3. According to the research made by the Gallup Organization, what makes people happy at work?A. Reasonable pay or benefits.B. Positive relationship with co-workers and boss.C. People's engagement with their work.D. Both A and B.4. According to the research made by the Gallup Organization, the number of engaged workers in Singapore was about _____.A.10%B. 14.5%C.16%D.29%5. Now Martina Radix _____.A. has a high-pressure job but she has positive relationship with her co-workersB. has a less demanding job but she has a bad relationship at workC. has more time and flexibility so she is satisfied with her personal lifeD. is an executive assistant at a company but she feels she is a misfit in that department6. People can find meaning in their work in the following situations EXCEPT _____.A. if they love their job very muchB. if their work itself is very importantC. if their company's mission is very importantD. if they are paid at a minimum level7. By the end of year one, surgical residents can find their menial work meaningful because _____.A. in the past year, they have become accustomed to the workB. they can stop doing such pointless jobs as filling out endless copies of patient recordsC. they realize that the menial work is a necessary step to become a doctorD. they're able to construct their fame if they deal with patients more often8. What made the workers happier and more effective, according to the study at the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Co. in Cicero, in the 1920s?A. The attention paid to the workers.B. The new worker-friendly measures.C. The improvement of the physical environment.D. The improvement of the social environment.9. According to the article, which of the following statements is true?A. The better productivity of a company depends on its CEO.B. Authentic leaders should learn more management techniques.C. Bosses should find strength in both themselves and their employees.D. The results of the studies on job-satisfaction ratings were all similar.10. The author's purpose in writing this article is _____.A. to make more people enjoy their workB. for people to find fulfillment in what they doC. to reevaluate some theories in positive psychologyD. to help business be more effective and productiveII. VocabularyA. Read the following sentences and decide winch of the four choices below each sentence is closest in meaning to the underlined word.1. I advocate a holistic recognition that biology and in an inextricable manner (way).A. complicatedB. unavoidableC. customarylove of the picturesque and sublime nature.A. immenseB. fascinating (attractive)C. magnificent (great/ noble)D. enchanting (attractive)3. One important feature (property/ character) of the period was the growth (development) of Buddhism. Its adherents honored the Buddha in order to be reborn in his paradise.A. sponsors C. advocators D. advisors4. As censorship was extremely strict in that period, little authentic news came out of the country.A. negativeB. disastrousC. officialD. reliable5. If a block of wood is completely immersed in water, the upward force is greater than the weight of the wood.A. dippedB. pressedC. forcedD. pushed6. According to Zhuangzi, a Daoist (道家) philosopher of the late 4th century B.C., through mystical union with the Dao the individual could transcend nature and even life and death.A. dissolveB. upraise (bring up)C. surpassD. depress (->suppress)7. As economic growth ground to a halt (stop), the local populations grew (became) more and more disaffected.A. indifferentB. resentfulC. unvaluedD. (dignity->)indignant (>angry)8. Capitalism was beset (be troubled) by cycles of "boom and bust", periods of expansion and prosperity followed by economic collapse [->collapsible] and waves of unemployment. [beheaded= killed]A. failureB. transitionC. (lose->)lossD. depression [the Great Depression]9. At that time (=then), life was nearly as taxing (burdensome) for all-black bands: black musicians were required to use kitchen entrances and service elevators (=lift), which forced them to confront the ugly realities of racial discrimination. [Hard Times]A. miserableB. hard (=difficult)C. unbearableD. harsh10. Modern and implicit (<->explicit) censorship has nothing like the power of the old system and contrary opinion is never entirely stifled.A. releasedB. arrestedC. retarded (->retardant)D. prohibited [pro-: (1)officially; (2)forward]B. Choose the best word or expression from the list given for each blank. Use each word orexpression only once and make proper changes where necessary.in control of within the framework variables it turns out on papertake away from once in a while trade... for make sense take heartattended by those who can afford (=pay for) the fees (->fare). [(1)border; (2)](now and then/ occasionally).if the expression on theof the Security Council. [city council]5. He lost his confidence after he lost the first two trails, but his coach told him to(<->lose one’s heart), so that he could win at last.his success in writing it.7. The presentation of his paper was highly praised, but that the paper was copied from the Internet. [think great/ much of sb./ think highly of sb.<->think little of sb./ look down upon sb.; Turn out: (1)The police turned out to the site of the crime; (2)The produce or product turned out;(3) It has been proved that…;]to her. [She doesn’t understand it].the meeting, and after singing and prayer she10. The early settlers copper for corn from natives. [to settle in somewhere/ ~ an argument][scorn (look down upon sb.;)]IV. ClozeThere are ten blanks in the following passage. Read the passage carefully and choose theright word or phrase from the list given below for each of the blanks. Change the form if necessary. supposed to be unless all too often which externalthoroughly that on the other hand in return ironically Although, as we have seen, people generally long (want/ desire) to leave their places of workand get home, ready (=willing) to put their hard-earned free time to good use, 1 all too often (frequently)they have no idea (=don’t know) what to do there. 2 Ironically , jobs are actually easier to enjoy than free time, because like flow activities they (work) have built-in goals, feedback, rulesencourage one (anybody) to become involved (join) in one's work, to concentrate and lose oneself (be absorbed) in it. Free time, 4 on the other hand, is unstructured (unorganized), and requires much greater effort to be shaped into something (meaningful) that can and especially inner discipline, help to make leisure (free time) what it is 5chance for "re-creation" . But on the whole (in general), people miss the opportunity to enjoy leisureeven more 6 thoroughly (completely)than they do with working time. It is in the improvidentthe greatest wastes of American life occur. [tourism and recreation industry]Mass leisure, mass culture, arid even high culture when only attended to (actively<->)8 external Reasons — such as the wish to display (show) one's status — are parasites of the mind. They absorb (=exhaust) psychic energy without providing substantive (considerable) strength (energy) 9 in return. They leave (=make) us more exhausted, more disheartened (depressed) than we were before. 10and free time are likely (possible) to be disappointing. Most jobs and many leisure activities —especially those involving the passive consumption of mass media — are not designed (intended) to make us happy and strong, or to make us learn to enjoy our work. [attend a meeting/ a class]IV. TranslationPut the following party into Chinese.1. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, who coined the term flow, which adherents of positive psychology would use to describe the job-induced highs, says that distinction is a false one. "Anything can be enjoyable if the elements of flow are present," he writes in his book Good Business. "Within that framework, doing a seemingly boring job can be a source of greater fulfillment than one ever thought possible."米哈里·奇凯因特米哈里认为这种区分是错误的。

UNIT6What does it feel like to help dying patients through their final days? Experience it through the eyes of hospice nurse Jill Campbell, who does her job with grace, compassion, and gratitude.1.Outside, it's noisy on this busy block of row houses in Baltimore. But inside one tidy living room, all is quiet except for the sound of a woman's raspy breathing. The patient is huddled in an easy chair under a handmade pink-and-blue afghan, a knit cap on her head and booties on her feet. She has trouble staying warm these days. Her cancer has returned with a vengeance and she has only a few weeks to life. Hospice nurse Jill Campbell kneels down beside her patient, listens to her breathing, and then checks her blood pressure. Campbell has already hauled in oxygen tanks, showed family members how to work them, organized the medicine, and assessed how her patient has been eating and sleeping.2.But now is a moment to connect one-on-one. Campbell wraps her hands aro und the woman’s hands and rubs them together to warm them. She looks into her face. “are you feeling a little better?” she asks softly.3.Getting to know her patients and helping them through the toughest time of their lives is what Campbell, 43, appreciates most about being a hospice nurse. “I don’t know of another position where you can do more for people,” she says.4.Her patients have all been told that they have six months or less to live. Rather than continue with often-difficult or painful treatments that probably won’t extend their lives, they have decided to stop trying for a cure. Instead, with the help of hospice care, they’ll focus on comfort and on living whatever they have left of their lives to the fullest ---usually in their own home.5.Being able to die at home is a major part of the appeal of hospice, but patients and family members may not see it that way at first. “A lot of people still view hospice as giving up and letting the disease in,” says Campbell. That’s why the decision to c all in hospice care can be an incredibly difficult one for a family to make. Once they do, though, most patients and their families soon understand the value of having a team of dedicated professionals---including social workers, health aides, chaplains, and nurses---work together to provide not only physical but also emotional and spiritual support. 帮助即将离世的患者度过最后的时光会是怎样的感受呢？让我们借助吉尔·坎贝尔的所见经历这一切吧。

科技英语阅读1-10单元译文：Unit 1罗素悖论的提出是基于这样的一个事例：设想有这样一群理发师，他们只给不给自己理发的人理发。

假设其中一个理发师符合上述的条件，不给自己理发；然而按照要求，他必须要给自己理发。

但是在这个集合中没有人会给自己理发。

（如果这样的话，这个理发师必定是给别人理发还要给自己理发）1901年，伯特兰·罗素悖论的发现打击了他其中的一个数学家同事。

在19世纪后期，弗雷格尝试发展一个基本原理以便数学上能使用符号逻辑。

他确立了形式表达式（如：x =2）和数学特性（如偶数）之间的联系。

按照弗雷格理论的发展，我们能自由的用一个特性去定义更多更深远的特性。

1903年，发表在《数学原理》上的罗素悖论从根本上揭示了弗雷格这种集合系统的局限性。

就现在而言，这种类型的集合系统能很好的用俗称集的结构式来描述。

例如，我们可以用x 代表整数，通过n来表示并且n大于3小于7，来表示4，5,6这样一个集合。

这种集合的书写形势就是：x={n：n是整数，3<n<7}。

集合中的对象并不一定是数字。

我们也可让y={x：x是美国的一个男性居民}。

表面上看，似乎任何一个关于x的描述都有一个符合要求的空间。

但是，罗素（和策梅洛一起）发现x={a：a不再a中}导致一个矛盾，就像对一群理发师的描述一样。

x它本身是在x的集合中吗？否定的答案导致了矛盾的出现。

当罗素发现了悖论，弗雷格立即就发现悖论对他的理论有致命的打击。

尽管这样，他还不能解决这个问题,并且上世纪有很多的尝试，去解决这个问题（但没有成功）。

罗素自己对这个悖论的回答促进了类型理论的形成。

他解释说，悖论的问题在于我们混淆了数集和数集的集合。

所以，罗素介绍了对象的分级系统：数、数集、数集的集合等等。

这个系统为形式化数学的形成奠定了基础，至今它还应用于哲学研究和计算机科学分支。

策梅洛对于罗素悖论的解决方法用新的公理：对于任意公式A（x）和任意集合b，都会有一个集合满足y={x：x既在b中又满足A（x）}取代了以前的公理：对于任意公式A（x），都会有一个集合满足y={x：x满足A（x）}。

第一单元什么是罗素悖论？约翰·T·鲍德温，奥利弗·莱斯曼撰胡志国译罗素悖论是建立在这样的实例基础之上的：想象有一群理发师，他们（给所有，而且）只给不给自己刮胡子的人刮胡子。

假设这个集体中有一个理发师，他不给自己刮胡子，那么，按照这个集体的定义，他就必须给自己刮胡子。

但这个集体中的任何理发师都不能给自己刮胡子。

（否则，他就是在给自己刮胡子的人刮胡子了。

）伯特兰·罗素1901年发现的这个悖论是对他的一位数学同行的打击。

十九世纪晚期，戈特洛布·弗雷格试图通过符号逻辑为所有的数学建立一个基础。

他在形式表达式（如x=2）和数学特征（如偶数）之间建立了一种对应关系。

在他的推导中，人们可以随意使用任何特征为后来的特征定义。

罗素在他1903年出版的《数学原理》中公布了自己的悖论，证明了弗雷格系统存在根本缺陷。

在今天看来，这类系统最好通过所谓的集的结构式用集合的概念来描述。

例如，对于由数字4、5、6组成的集体，我们可以描述为：x是一个整数的集体，若用字母n表示这些整数，则n大于3小于7。

对这一集合的描述，在形式上我们写作x={n: n为整数，3<n<7}。

集合的对象不一定是数字。

我们可以设y={x：x为美国男性居民}。

很明显，对x的任何描述都可以填入冒号后的区域。

但罗素（恩斯特·策梅洛也独立地）发现，x={a: a不属于a}会导致矛盾的结论，就像对理发师集体的描述一样。

x自身是否属于x？无论是与否，结论都是矛盾的。

罗素发现这一悖论之后，弗雷格马上认识到他的系统被全盘推翻了。

即便如此，他无法解决这个悖论，而为了绕开这个悖论，人们在二十世纪做了许多尝试。

罗素本人对这一悖论的回答是他的“类型论”。

他分析道，之所以会产生悖论，是因为我们混淆了对数的集合的描述与对数的集合的集合的描述。

于是罗素引入了对象的分级系统：数，数的集合，数的集合的集合，等等。

这个系统曾被作为手段用于对数学基础的第一次形式化，并且在今天的某些哲学研究和计算机分支学科中仍有运用。