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French culture is a rich tapestry woven with the threads of history,art,and tradition. It is a culture that has significantly influenced the world in various ways,from the fields of literature and philosophy to fashion and cuisine.Here,we will explore some of the key aspects of French culture that make it so unique and captivating.Historical SignificanceThe history of France is marked by significant events that have shaped its culture.From the Roman Empire to the French Revolution,each era has left its imprint.The Middle Ages saw the rise of Gothic architecture,which is evident in the NotreDame Cathedral in Paris.The Renaissance brought about a cultural rebirth,with French artists like Leonardo da Vinci contributing to the artistic landscape.The Enlightenment period was a time of intellectual and philosophical development,with French thinkers like Voltaire and Rousseau influencing the worlds understanding of human rights and governance. Language and LiteratureThe French language is known for its elegance and precision.It has been a language of diplomacy and international relations for centuries.French literature is equally rich,with authors like Victor Hugo,Marcel Proust,and Albert Camus contributing to the global literary canon.The works of these authors are not just a source of entertainment but also a reflection of French society and its values.Art and ArchitectureFrance is home to some of the worlds most renowned art and architectural masterpieces. The Louvre Museum in Paris houses an extensive collection of art,including the famous Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci.The Palace of Versailles is a testament to the grandeur of French royal architecture,with its opulent interiors and sprawling gardens.French Impressionist painters,such as Claude Monet and PierreAuguste Renoir,have also left a lasting impact on the art world with their innovative use of light and color.CuisineFrench cuisine is celebrated worldwide for its diversity and sophistication.It is characterized by its emphasis on quality ingredients,expert preparation,and presentation. From the classic Coq au Vin to the delicate Macarons,French dishes are a culinary adventure.The country is also renowned for its wines,with regions like Bordeaux and Burgundy producing some of the finest wines in the world.FashionParis is often referred to as the fashion capital of the world.French fashion is synonymous with elegance and style.Designers like Coco Chanel and Christian Dior have set trends that have influenced fashion globally.The annual Paris Fashion Week is a major event where the latest in fashion is showcased,attracting fashion enthusiasts from around the globe.Traditions and FestivalsFrance is known for its vibrant festivals and traditions.The Cannes Film Festival is one of the most prestigious film festivals in the world,attracting filmmakers and celebrities. The Tour de France is a worldrenowned cycling race that traverses the country, showcasing its diverse landscapes.The Bastille Day celebrations on July14th are a time of national pride,with parades and fireworks marking the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille.Philosophical InfluenceFrench philosophy has had a profound impact on Western thought.Thinkers like JeanPaul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir have contributed to existentialism and feminist theory.Their works continue to be studied and debated,reflecting the ongoing relevance of French philosophical thought.In conclusion,French culture is a complex and multifaceted entity that has left an indelible mark on the world.Its contributions to art,literature,cuisine,fashion,and philosophy are a testament to the countrys rich cultural heritage and its enduring influence on global culture.。
名词解释35个知识点（35题）西方（一）1.骑士文学1.欧洲封建骑士制度的产物，世俗封建主的文学。
2.反映骑士与贵妇之间的“典雅的爱情”，肯定对现世生活的追求。
3.法国成就最高，有骑士抒情诗和骑士叙事诗两种。
2.“狂飙突进”运动1.德国启蒙运动达到高峰的标志。
2.主张个性解放，崇尚感情，提出“返回自然”，提倡民主意识。
3.青年歌德和席勒是代表。
3.多余人1.19 世纪俄国文学中贵族知识分子的一种典型。
2.大多具有较高的文化修养，接受启蒙思想的影响，厌倦上流社会的生活，渴望有所作为。
但这类形象往往以自我为中心，没有明确的生活目标，缺乏行动的能力和勇气。
因此在社会上无所适从，结局是悲剧性的。
3.代表人物有奥涅金、毕巧林、罗亭、奥勃洛摩夫等。
4.黑色幽默1.20世纪 60 年代美国兴起的一个小说流派。
2.受存在主义哲学思想影响，善于使用喜剧形式表现悲剧内容。
3.代表作家及作品有海勒《第二十二条军规》。
5.冰山原则1.“冰山原则”海明威在《死在午后》中提出的创作主张：冰山在海里移动很是庄严宏伟， 是因为它只有八分之一露在水面上。
2.“冰山原则”是指写作中用语简洁、凝练，尽量避免过多描写和不必要的形容词，只需把人物的动作或简单的语言直接摆出来，只把“八分之一”露出来，让读者细细地品味这背后所蕴涵的丰富的心理变化与思想感情，品味埋藏在底下的“八分之七”。
3.创作风格简约、含蓄、凝练。
6.社会问题剧1.挪威作家易卜生创作的系列戏剧作品。
2.以日常生活为素材，从多方面剖析社会问题，层层揭开，使矛盾突出，启发观众思考，从而引导人们起来改革社会弊端。
2.代表作品是《玩偶之家》《群鬼》《社会支柱》《人民公敌》等。
7.三一律1.“三一律”是古典主义戏剧的创作规则。
2.要求一个剧本只能有一个情节线索，剧情只能发生在同一地点，时间不超过一昼夜，即 24 小时。
8.唯美主义1.19世纪兴起于法国，后流行于英国的一个文学思潮。
Study on the English Translation of Guwen Guanzhi by Luo Jingguo from the Perspective of Functional EquivalenceXin LiuJiangxi University of Science and Technology school of foreign languages, 330044ABSTRACTGuwen Guanzhi is a selected collection of notable essays in Chinesehistory. Among the English version of many essays selected in this book,one of the most famous versions is that of Luo Jingguo. This paper isbased on the Functional Equivalence Theory and 4 selected representativeessays in English version of Guwen Guanzhi translated by Luo Jingguoincluding The Snake-Catcher, The Second Ode on the Red Cliff, MasterFive Willow and Feasting in the Peach-plum Garden in Spring Night. Thepaper analyzes how Luo deals with the words with Chinese characteristicskeeping all the connotation of source language intact and in what way heimproves the communication of traditional Chinese culture and realizesthe Chinese academic discourse.KEYWORDSGuwen Guanzhi; Functional equivalence; Luo JingguoDOI: 10.47297/wspiedWSP2516-250001.20220611Guwen Guanzhi contains 222 essays written from Qin Dynasty to the late Ming Dynasty. The English translation of Guwen Guanzhi by Luo Jingguo is of great importance to the diffusion of Chinese culture. It is impossible to find totally equivalent pairs between two languages due to linguistic and cultural differences. Each nation has her own emphases in daily life and her own way of thinking, which pose many difficulties in communication across cultures. It is strongly emphasized in Functional Equivalence Theory that both the source-language readers and target-language readers should have similar response(Nida, 1982). By analyzing Luo’s translation strategies, firstly, we can draw on some translation methods and strategies which can be applied in other translation works of ancient essays. Secondly, by employing these translation strategies, Luo improved the readability, which can give us aspiration on the diffusion of Chinese culture. Thirdly, these strategies will shed light on the education of translation and the training of translators.1 Analysis of Luo’s Translation(1) Lexical level1) Analysis of the meaning of wordsIn many cases one word in Chinese, especially in ancient Chinese works, can be translated into several English words in order to keep the meaning intact.Ex 1: “huán dǔ xiāo rán ，bú bì fēng rì 。
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O REGON D EPARTMENT OF E DUCATIONO FFICIAL S CORING G UIDE,WRITING2010-2011 Ideas and Content6 5The writing is exceptionally clear, focused, and interesting. It holds the reader’s attention throughout. Main ideas stand out and are developed by strong support and rich details suitable to audience and purpose. The writing is characterized by• clarity, focus, and control.• main idea(s) that stand out.• supporting, relevant, carefully selected details; whenappropriate, use of resources provides strong, accurate,credible support.• a thorough, balanced, in-depth explanation / explorationof the topic; the writing makes connections and sharesinsights.•content and selected details that are well-suited to audience and purpose. The writing is clear, focused and interesting. It holds the reader’s attention. Main ideas stand out and are developed by supporting details suitable to audience and purpose. The writing is characterized by• clarity, focus, and control.• main idea(s) that stand out.• supporting, relevant, carefully selected details; whenappropriate, use of resources provides strong, accurate,credible support.• a thorough, balanced explanation / exploration of thetopic; the writing makes connections and shares insights. • content and selected details that are well-suited toaudience and purpose.43The writing is clear and focused. The reader can easily understand the main ideas. Support is present, although it may be limited or rather general. The writing is characterized by• an easily identifiable purpose.• clear main idea(s).• supporting details that are relevant, but may be overlygeneral or limited in places; when appropriate, resources are used to provide accurate support.• a topic that is explored / explained, althoughdevelopmental details may occasionally be out of balance with the main idea(s); some connections and insights may be present.• content and selected details that are relevant, but perhaps not consistently well-chosen for audience and purpose. The reader can understand the main ideas, although they may be overly broad or simplistic, and the results may not be effective. Supporting detail is often limited, insubstantial, overly general, or occasionally slightly off-topic. The writing is characterized by• an easily identifiable purpose and main idea(s).• predictable or overly-obvious main ideas; or points thatecho observations heard elsewhere; or a close retelling of another work.• support that is attempted, but developmental details areoften limited, uneven, somewhat off-topic, predictable, or too general (e.g., a list of underdeveloped points).• details that may not be well-grounded in credibleresources; they may be based on clichés, stereotypes orquestionable sources of information.• difficulties when moving from general observations tospecifics.21Main ideas and purpose are somewhat unclear or development is attempted but minimal. The writing is characterized by• a purpose and main idea(s) that may require extensive inferences by the reader.• minimal development; insufficient details.• irrelevant details that clutter the text.• extensive repetition of detail. The writing lacks a central idea or purpose. The writing is characterized by• ideas that are extremely limited or simply unclear.• attempts at development that are minimal or nonexistent;the paper is too short to demonstrate the development of an idea.O FFICIAL S CORING G UIDE,WRITING2010-2011 Organization6 5The organization enhances the central idea(s) and its development. The order and structure are compelling and move the reader through the text easily. The writing is characterized by• effective, perhaps creative, sequencing and paragraphbreaks; the organizational structure fits the topic, and the writing is easy to follow.• a strong, inviting beginning that draws the reader in and a strong, satisfying sense of resolution or closure.• smooth, effective transitions among all elements(sentences, paragraphs, ideas).• details that fit where placed. The organization enhances the central idea(s) and its development. The order and structure are strong and move the reader through the text. The writing is characterized by• effective sequencing and paragraph breaks; theorganizational structure fits the topic, and the writing is easy to follow.• an inviting beginning that draws the reader in and asatisfying sense of resolution or closure.• smooth, effective transitions among all elements(sentences, paragraphs, ideas).• details that fit where placed.43Organization is clear and coherent. Order and structure are present, but may seem formulaic. The writing is characterized by• clear sequencing and paragraph breaks.• an organization that may be predictable.• a recognizable, developed beginning that may not beparticularly inviting; a developed conclusion that may lack subtlety.• a body that is easy to follow with details that fit where placed.• transitions that may be stilted or formulaic.• organization which helps the reader, despite someweaknesses. An attempt has been made to organize the writing; however, the overall structure is inconsistent or skeletal. The writing is characterized by• attempts at sequencing and paragraph breaks, but theorder or the relationship among ideas may occasionally be unclear.• a beginning and an ending which, although present, are either undeveloped or too obvious (e.g., “My topic is...”;“These are all the reasons that...”).• transitions that sometimes work. The same fewtransitional devices (e.g., coordinating conjunctions,numbering, etc.) may be overused.• a structure that is skeletal or too rigid.• placement of details that may not always be effective. • organization which lapses in some places, but helps the reader in others.21The writing lacks a clear organizational structure. An occasional organizational device is discernible; however, the writing is either difficult to follow and the reader hasto reread substantial portions, or the piece is simply too short to demonstrate organizational skills. The writing is characterized by• some attempts at sequencing, but the order or therelationship among ideas is frequently unclear; a lack ofparagraph breaks.• a missing or extremely undeveloped beginning, body, and/or ending.• a lack of transitions, or when present, ineffective oroverused.• a lack of an effective organizational structure.• details that seem to be randomly placed, leaving thereader frequently confused. The writing lacks coherence; organization seems haphazard and disjointed. Even after rereading, the reader remains confused. The writing is characterized by • a lack of effective sequencing and paragraph breaks. • a failure to provide an identifiable beginning, body and/or ending.• a lack of transitions.• pacing that is consistently awkward; the reader feelseither mired down in trivia or rushed along too rapidly. • a lack of organization which ultimately obscures ordistorts the main point.O REGON D EPARTMENT OF E DUCATIONO FFICIAL S CORING G UIDE,WRITING2010-2011 Voice6 5The writer has chosen a voice appropriate for the topic, purpose, and audience. The writer demonstrates deep commitment to the topic, and there is an exceptional sense of “writing to be read.” The writing is expressive, engaging, or sincere. The writing is characterized by• an effective level of closeness to or distance from the audience (e.g., a narrative should have a strong personal voice, while an expository piece may require extensive use of outside resources and a more academic voice;nevertheless, both should be engaging, lively, or interesting. Technical writing may require greater distance.).• an exceptionally strong sense of audience; the writerseems to be aware of the reader and of how tocommunicate the message most effectively. The readermay discern the writer behind the words and feel a senseof interaction.• a sense that the topic has come to life; when appropriate,the writing may show originality, liveliness, honesty,conviction, excitement, humor, or suspense. The writer has chosen a voice appropriate for the topic, purpose, and audience. The writer demonstrates commitment to the topic, and there is a sense of “writing to be read.” The writing is expressive, engaging, or sincere. The writing is characterized by• an appropriate level of closeness to or distance from the audience (e.g., a narrative should have a strong personal voice, while an expository piece may require extensiveuse of outside resources and a more academic voice;nevertheless, both should be engaging, lively, orinteresting. Technical writing may require greaterdistance.).• a strong sense of audience; the writer seems to be aware of the reader and of how to communicate the messagemost effectively. The reader may discern the writerbehind the words and feel a sense of interaction.• a sense that the topic has come to life; when appropriate, the writing may show originality, liveliness, honesty,conviction, excitement, humor, or suspense.43A voice is present. The writer seems committed to the topic, and there may be a sense of “writing to be read.” In places, the writing is expressive, engaging, or sincere. The writing is characterized by• a suitable level of closeness to or distance from theaudience.• a sense of audience; the writer seems to be aware of the reader but has not consistently employed an appropriate voice. The reader may glimpse the writer behind thewords and feel a sense of interaction in places.• liveliness, sincerity, or humor when appropriate;however, at times the writing may be eitherinappropriately casual or personal, or inappropriatelyformal and stiff. The writer’s commitment to the topic seems inconsistent.A sense of the writer may emerge at times; however, the voice is either inappropriately personal or inappropriately impersonal. The writing is characterized by• a limited sense of audience; the writer’s awareness of the reader is unclear.• an occasional sense of the writer behind the words;however, the voice may shift or disappear a line or twolater and the writing become somewhat mechanical. • a limited ability to shift to a more objective voice whennecessary.• text that is too short to demonstrate a consistent andappropriate voice.21The writing provides little sense of involvement or commitment. There is no evidence that the writer has chosen a suitable voice. The writing is characterized by • little engagement of the writer; the writing tends to belargely flat, lifeless, stiff, or mechanical.• a voice that is likely to be overly informal and personal. • a lack of audience awareness; there is little sense of“writing to be read.”• little or no hint of the writer behind the words. There is rarely a sense of interaction between reader and writer. The writing seems to lack a sense of involvement or commitment. The writing is characterized by• no engagement of the writer; the writing is flat andlifeless.• a lack of audience awareness; there is no sense of“writing to be read.”• no hint of the writer behind the words. There is no sense of interaction between writer and reader; the writing does not involve or engage the reader.Word Choice6 5Words convey the intended message in an exceptionally interesting, precise, and natural way appropriate to audience and purpose. The writer employs a rich, broad range of words which have been carefully chosen and thoughtfully placed for impact. The writing is characterized by• accurate, strong, specific words; powerful words energize the writing.• fresh, original expression; slang, if used, seemspurposeful and is effective.• vocabulary that is striking and varied, but that is naturaland not overdone.• ordinary words used in an unusual way.• words that evoke strong images; figurative language may be used. Words convey the intended message in an interesting, precise, and natural way appropriate to audience and purpose. The writer employs a broad range of words which have been carefully chosen and thoughtfully placed for impact. The writing is characterized by• accurate, specific words; word choices energize thewriting.• fresh, vivid expression; slang, if used, seems purposeful and is effective.• vocabulary that may be striking and varied, but that isnatural and not overdone.• ordinary words used in an unusual way.• words that evoke clear images; figurative language may be used.43Words effectively convey the intended message. The writer employs a variety of words that are functional and appropriate to audience and purpose. The writing is characterized by• words that work but do not particularly energize thewriting.• expression that is functional; however, slang, if used,does not seem purposeful and is not particularly effective. • attempts at colorful language that may occasionally seem overdone.• occasional overuse of technical language or jargon.• rare experiments with language; however, the writingmay have some fine moments and generally avoidsclichés. Language lacks precision and variety, or may be inappropriate to audience and purpose in places. The writer does not employ a variety of words, producing a sort of “generic” paper filled with familiar words and phrases. The writing is characterized by• words that work, but that rarely capture the reader’sinterest.• expression that seems mundane and general; slang, ifused, does not seem purposeful and is not effective. • attempts at colorful language that seem overdone orforced.• words that are accurate for the most part, althoughmisused words may occasionally appear; technicallanguage or jargon may be overused or inappropriately used.• reliance on clichés and overused expressions.• text that is too short to demonstrate variety.21Language is monotonous and/or misused, detracting from the meaning and impact. The writing is characterized by • words that are colorless, flat or imprecise.• monotonous repetition or overwhelming reliance on worn expressions that repeatedly detract from the message. • images that are fuzzy or absent altogether. The writing shows an extremely limited vocabulary or is so filled with misuses of words that the meaning is obscured. Only the most general kind of message is communicated because of vague or imprecise language. The writing is characterized by• general, vague words that fail to communicate.• an extremely limited range of words.• words that simply do not fit the text; they seemimprecise, inadequate, or just plain wrong.Sentence Fluency6 5The writing has an effective flow and rhythm. Sentences show a high degree of craftsmanship, with consistently strong and varied structure that makes expressive oral reading easy and enjoyable. The writing is characterized by• a natural, fluent sound; it glides along with one sentence flowing effortlessly into the next.• extensive variation in sentence structure, length, andbeginnings that add interest to the text.• sentence structure that enhances meaning by drawingattention to key ideas or reinforcing relationships among ideas.• varied sentence patterns that create an effectivecombination of power and grace.• strong control over sentence structure; fragments, if used at all, work well.• stylistic control; dialogue, if used, sounds natural. The writing has an easy flow and rhythm. Sentences are carefully crafted, with strong and varied structure that makes expressive oral reading easy and enjoyable. The writing is characterized by• a natural, fluent sound; it glides along with one sentence flowing into the next.• variation in sentence structure, length, and beginningsthat add interest to the text.• sentence structure that enhances meaning.• control over sentence structure; fragments, if used at all, work well.• stylistic control; dialogue, if used, sounds natural.43The writing flows; however, connections between phrases or sentences may be less than fluid. Sentence patterns are somewhat varied, contributing to ease in oral reading. The writing is characterized by• a natural sound; the reader can move easily through thepiece, although it may lack a certain rhythm and grace. • some repeated patterns of sentence structure, length, and beginnings that may detract somewhat from overallimpact.• strong control over simple sentence structures, butvariable control over more complex sentences; fragments, if present, are usually effective.• occasional lapses in stylistic control; dialogue, if used,sounds natural for the most part, but may at times sound stilted or unnatural. The writing tends to be mechanical rather than fluid. Occasional awkward constructions may force the reader to slow down or reread. The writing is characterized by • some passages that invite fluid oral reading; however,others do not.• some variety in sentence structure, length, andbeginnings, although the writer falls into repetitivesentence patterns.• good control over simple sentence structures, but little control over more complex sentences; fragments, ifpresent, may not be effective.• sentences which, although functional, lack energy. • lapses in stylistic control; dialogue, if used, may sound stilted or unnatural.• text that is too short to demonstrate variety and control.21The writing tends to be either choppy or rambling. Awkward constructions often force the reader to slow down or reread. The writing is characterized by• significant portions of the text that are difficult to follow or read aloud.• sentence patterns that are monotonous (e.g., subject-verb or subject-verb-object).• a significant number of awkward, choppy, or ramblingconstructions. The writing is difficult to follow or to read aloud. Sentences tend to be incomplete, rambling, or very awkward. The writing is characterized by• text that does not invite—and may not even permit—smooth oral reading.• confusing word order that is often jarring and irregular. • sentence structure that frequently obscures meaning. • sentences that are disjointed, confusing, or rambling.Conventions6 5The writing demonstrates exceptionally strong control of standard writing conventions (e.g., punctuation, spelling, capitalization, grammar and usage) and uses them effectively to enhance communication. Errors are so few and so minor that the reader can easily skim right over them unless specifically searching for them. The writing is characterized by• strong control of conventions; manipulation of conventions may occur for stylistic effect.• strong, effective use of punctuation that guides the readerthrough the text.• correct spelling, even of more difficult words.• correct grammar and usage that contribute to clarity andstyle.• skill in using a wide range of conventions in a sufficientlylong and complex piece.• little or no need for editing. The writing demonstrates strong control of standard writing conventions (e.g., punctuation, spelling, capitalization, grammar and usage) and uses them effectively to enhance communication. Errors are few and minor. Conventions support readability. The writing is characterized by• strong control of conventions.• effective use of punctuation that guides the reader through the text.• correct spelling, even of more difficult words.• correct capitalization; errors, if any, are minor.• correct grammar and usage that contribute to clarity andstyle.• skill in using a wide range of conventions in a sufficientlylong and complex piece.• little need for editing.4 3The writing demonstrates control of standard writing conventions (e.g., punctuation, spelling, capitalization, grammar and usage). Significant errors do not occur frequently. Minor errors, while perhaps noticeable, do not impede readability. The writing is characterized by• control over conventions used, although a wide range is not demonstrated.• correct end-of-sentence punctuation; internal punctuationmay sometimes be incorrect.• spelling that is usually correct, especially on common words. • correct capitalization; errors, if any, are minor.• occasional lapses in correct grammar and usage; problemsare not severe enough to distort meaning or confuse thereader.• moderate need for editing. The writing demonstrates limited control of standard writing conventions (e.g., punctuation, spelling, capitalization, grammar and usage). Errors begin to impede readability. The writing is characterized by• some control over basic conventions; the text may be toosimple or too short to reveal mastery.• end-of-sentence punctuation that is usually correct; however, internal punctuation contains frequent errors.• spelling errors that distract the reader; misspelling ofcommon words occurs.• capitalization errors.• errors in grammar and usage that do not block meaning but do distract the reader.• significant need for editing.21The writing demonstrates little control of standard writing conventions. Frequent, significant errors impede readability. The writing is characterized by• little control over basic conventions.• many end-of-sentence punctuation errors; internalpunctuation contains frequent errors.• spelling errors that frequently distract the reader; misspelling of common words often occurs.• capitalization that is inconsistent or often incorrect.• errors in grammar and usage that interfere with readabilityand meaning.• substantial need for editing. Numerous errors in usage, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation repeatedly distract the reader and make the text difficult to read. In fact, the severity and frequency of errors are so overwhelming that the reader finds it difficult to focus on the message and must reread for meaning. The writing is characterized by• very limited skill in using conventions.• basic punctuation (including end-of-sentence punctuation)that tends to be omitted, haphazard, or incorrect.• frequent spelling errors that significantly impair readability. • capitalization that appears to be random.• a need for extensive editing.OFFICIAL SCORING GUIDE, WRITING 2010-2011 Citing Sources(For use on classroom assignments requiring research)6 5The writing demonstrates exceptionally strong commitment to the quality and significance of research and the accuracy of the written document. Documentation is used to avoid plagiarism and to enable the reader to judge how believable or important a piece of information is by checking the source. The writer has• acknowledged borrowed material by introducing thequotation or paraphrase with the name of the authority.• punctuated all quoted materials; errors, if any, are minor. • paraphrased material by rewriting it using writer’s style and language.• provided specific in-text documentation for each borroweditem.• provided a bibliography page listing every source cited inthe paper; omitted sources that were consulted but not used. The writing demonstrates a strong commitment to the quality and significance of research and the accuracy of the written document. Documentation is used to avoid plagiarism and to enable the reader to judge how believable or important a piece of information is by checking the source. Errors are so few and so minor that the reader can easily skim right over them unless specifically searching for them. The writer has • acknowledged borrowed material by introducing thequotation or paraphrase with the name of the authority; keyphrases are directly quoted so as to give full credit wherecredit is due.• punctuated all quoted materials; errors are minor.• paraphrased material by rewriting using writer’s style and language.• provided specific in-text documentation for borrowedmaterial.• provided a bibliography page listing every source cited inthe paper; omitted sources that were consulted but not used.4 3The writing demonstrates a commitment to the quality and significance of research and the accuracy of the written document. Documentation is used to avoid plagiarism and to enable the reader to judge how believable or important a piece of information is by checking the source. Minor errors, while perhaps noticeable, do not blatantly violate the rules of documentation. The writer has• acknowledged borrowed material by sometimes introducing the quotation or paraphrase with the name of the authority. • punctuated all quoted materials; errors, while noticeable, do not impede understanding.• paraphrased material by rewriting using writer’s style and language.• provided in-text documentation for most borrowed material. • provided a bibliography page listing every source cited inthe paper; included sources that were consulted but not used. The writing demonstrates a limited commitment to the quality and significance of research and the accuracy of the written document. Documentation is sometimes used to avoid plagiarism and to enable the reader to judge how believable or important a piece of information is by checking the source. Errors begin to violate the rules of documentation. The writer has• enclosed quoted materials within quotation marks; however, incorrectly used commas, colons, semicolons, questionmarks or exclamation marks that are part of the quotedmaterial.• included paraphrased material that is not properlydocumented.• paraphrased material by simply rearranging sentencepatterns.21The writing demonstrates little commitment to the quality and significance of research and the accuracy of the written document. Frequent errors in documentation result in instances of plagiarism and often do not enable the reader to check the source. The writer has• enclosed quoted materials within quotation marks; however, incorrectly used commas, colons, semicolons, questionmarks or exclamation marks that are part of the quotedmaterial.• attempted paraphrasing but included words that should beenclosed by quotation marks or rephrased into the writer’slanguage and style.• altered the essential ideas of the source.• included citations that incorrectly identify reference sources.The writing demonstrates disregard for the conventions of research writing. Lack of proper documentation results in plagiarism and does not enable the reader to check the source. The writer has• borrowed abundantly from an original source, even to the point of retaining the essential wording.• no citations that credit source material.• included words or ideas from a source without providing quotation marks.• no bibliography page listing sources that were used.。
第一章俄国形式主义一、发展概况英国著名马克思主义批评家特里·伊格尔顿曾经指出，20世纪西方文论发端于俄国形式主义。
虽然存在的时间极为短暂，前后不过15年左右的光景，俄国形式主义的影响却十分深远，从布拉格学派、英美新批评到法国的结构主义都带有它的痕迹。
自诞生之日起，俄国形式主义内部就有两个不同的派别：建立于1915年的莫斯科语言小组，以罗曼·雅各布逊为首，成立于1916年的彼得堡诗歌语言研究会，以维克多·什克洛夫斯基为首，主要成员还有鲍里斯·艾亨鲍姆和尤里·特尼亚诺夫等人。
这两个派别研究文学的视角有所不同：前者认定诗歌是具有审美功能的语言，很注重从韵律入手研究诗歌，后者认为诗歌的主旨不仅仅在于呈现语言材料；前者认为各种艺术形式的发展有社会学基础，后者坚持艺术形式具有完全自主性。
即便在每一个流派内部，不同成员之间也是歧见纷出。
在形式主义的不同发展阶段，主要观点也经历过变化，因此并不存在一个整齐划一的形式主义流派。
俄国形式主义这个名称只是一个很笼统的提法，暗指在这些形式主义者手里，文学批评的对象发生了改变，从作品表现的内容（如社会现实、作家生平和作品的主导思想）转向文学形式（技巧）本身。
它批判的对象是当时批评界较为盛行的传统文学批评方法，如：根据作者生平阐释文本的传记式批评，将作品完全归结为社会思潮反映的社会学批评，以及借用文学阐述批评家本人哲学思想的哲学批评。
传统文学批评主要探讨文学表现什么内容，为此而去考究作家生平、与作品有关的社会事件和作品孕育的主题思想，把文学的组织形式、文学作品何以成为文学的原因放在次要地位。
俄国形式主义把批评的重心转向了文本的形式和结构，试图从科学角度准确描述作品叙述技巧的特征和功能，因为，按照他们的说法，文学研究的对象是文学性。
用雅各布逊的话说：“文学科学的主题不是文学，而是文学性，也就是那些使某一作品称其为文学作品的东西。
O REGON D EPARTMENT OF E DUCATIONO FFICIAL S CORING G UIDE,WRITING2010-2011 Ideas and Content6 5The writing is exceptionally clear, focused, and interesting. It holds the reader’s attention throughout. Main ideas stand out and are developed by strong support and rich details suitable to audience and purpose. The writing is characterized by• clarity, focus, and control.• main idea(s) that stand out.• supporting, relevant, carefully selected details; whenappropriate, use of resources provides strong, accurate,credible support.• a thorough, balanced, in-depth explanation / explorationof the topic; the writing makes connections and sharesinsights.•content and selected details that are well-suited to audience and purpose. The writing is clear, focused and interesting. It holds the reader’s attention. Main ideas stand out and are developed by supporting details suitable to audience and purpose. The writing is characterized by• clarity, focus, and control.• main idea(s) that stand out.• supporting, relevant, carefully selected details; whenappropriate, use of resources provides strong, accurate,credible support.• a thorough, balanced explanation / exploration of thetopic; the writing makes connections and shares insights. • content and selected details that are well-suited toaudience and purpose.43The writing is clear and focused. The reader can easily understand the main ideas. Support is present, although it may be limited or rather general. The writing is characterized by• an easily identifiable purpose.• clear main idea(s).• supporting details that are relevant, but may be overlygeneral or limited in places; when appropriate, resources are used to provide accurate support.• a topic that is explored / explained, althoughdevelopmental details may occasionally be out of balance with the main idea(s); some connections and insights may be present.• content and selected details that are relevant, but perhaps not consistently well-chosen for audience and purpose. The reader can understand the main ideas, although they may be overly broad or simplistic, and the results may not be effective. Supporting detail is often limited, insubstantial, overly general, or occasionally slightly off-topic. The writing is characterized by• an easily identifiable purpose and main idea(s).• predictable or overly-obvious main ideas; or points thatecho observations heard elsewhere; or a close retelling of another work.• support that is attempted, but developmental details areoften limited, uneven, somewhat off-topic, predictable, or too general (e.g., a list of underdeveloped points).• details that may not be well-grounded in credibleresources; they may be based on clichés, stereotypes orquestionable sources of information.• difficulties when moving from general observations tospecifics.21Main ideas and purpose are somewhat unclear or development is attempted but minimal. The writing is characterized by• a purpose and main idea(s) that may require extensive inferences by the reader.• minimal development; insufficient details.• irrelevant details that clutter the text.• extensive repetition of detail. The writing lacks a central idea or purpose. The writing is characterized by• ideas that are extremely limited or simply unclear.• attempts at development that are minimal or nonexistent;the paper is too short to demonstrate the development of an idea.O FFICIAL S CORING G UIDE,WRITING2010-2011 Organization6 5The organization enhances the central idea(s) and its development. The order and structure are compelling and move the reader through the text easily. The writing is characterized by• effective, perhaps creative, sequencing and paragraphbreaks; the organizational structure fits the topic, and the writing is easy to follow.• a strong, inviting beginning that draws the reader in and a strong, satisfying sense of resolution or closure.• smooth, effective transitions among all elements(sentences, paragraphs, ideas).• details that fit where placed. The organization enhances the central idea(s) and its development. The order and structure are strong and move the reader through the text. The writing is characterized by• effective sequencing and paragraph breaks; theorganizational structure fits the topic, and the writing is easy to follow.• an inviting beginning that draws the reader in and asatisfying sense of resolution or closure.• smooth, effective transitions among all elements(sentences, paragraphs, ideas).• details that fit where placed.43Organization is clear and coherent. Order and structure are present, but may seem formulaic. The writing is characterized by• clear sequencing and paragraph breaks.• an organization that may be predictable.• a recognizable, developed beginning that may not beparticularly inviting; a developed conclusion that may lack subtlety.• a body that is easy to follow with details that fit where placed.• transitions that may be stilted or formulaic.• organization which helps the reader, despite someweaknesses. An attempt has been made to organize the writing; however, the overall structure is inconsistent or skeletal. The writing is characterized by• attempts at sequencing and paragraph breaks, but theorder or the relationship among ideas may occasionally be unclear.• a beginning and an ending which, although present, are either undeveloped or too obvious (e.g., “My topic is...”;“These are all the reasons that...”).• transitions that sometimes work. The same fewtransitional devices (e.g., coordinating conjunctions,numbering, etc.) may be overused.• a structure that is skeletal or too rigid.• placement of details that may not always be effective. • organization which lapses in some places, but helps the reader in others.21The writing lacks a clear organizational structure. An occasional organizational device is discernible; however, the writing is either difficult to follow and the reader hasto reread substantial portions, or the piece is simply too short to demonstrate organizational skills. The writing is characterized by• some attempts at sequencing, but the order or therelationship among ideas is frequently unclear; a lack ofparagraph breaks.• a missing or extremely undeveloped beginning, body, and/or ending.• a lack of transitions, or when present, ineffective oroverused.• a lack of an effective organizational structure.• details that seem to be randomly placed, leaving thereader frequently confused. The writing lacks coherence; organization seems haphazard and disjointed. Even after rereading, the reader remains confused. The writing is characterized by • a lack of effective sequencing and paragraph breaks. • a failure to provide an identifiable beginning, body and/or ending.• a lack of transitions.• pacing that is consistently awkward; the reader feelseither mired down in trivia or rushed along too rapidly. • a lack of organization which ultimately obscures ordistorts the main point.O REGON D EPARTMENT OF E DUCATIONO FFICIAL S CORING G UIDE,WRITING2010-2011 Voice6 5The writer has chosen a voice appropriate for the topic, purpose, and audience. The writer demonstrates deep commitment to the topic, and there is an exceptional sense of “writing to be read.” The writing is expressive, engaging, or sincere. The writing is characterized by• an effective level of closeness to or distance from the audience (e.g., a narrative should have a strong personal voice, while an expository piece may require extensive use of outside resources and a more academic voice;nevertheless, both should be engaging, lively, or interesting. Technical writing may require greater distance.).• an exceptionally strong sense of audience; the writerseems to be aware of the reader and of how tocommunicate the message most effectively. The readermay discern the writer behind the words and feel a senseof interaction.• a sense that the topic has come to life; when appropriate,the writing may show originality, liveliness, honesty,conviction, excitement, humor, or suspense. The writer has chosen a voice appropriate for the topic, purpose, and audience. The writer demonstrates commitment to the topic, and there is a sense of “writing to be read.” The writing is expressive, engaging, or sincere. The writing is characterized by• an appropriate level of closeness to or distance from the audience (e.g., a narrative should have a strong personal voice, while an expository piece may require extensiveuse of outside resources and a more academic voice;nevertheless, both should be engaging, lively, orinteresting. Technical writing may require greaterdistance.).• a strong sense of audience; the writer seems to be aware of the reader and of how to communicate the messagemost effectively. The reader may discern the writerbehind the words and feel a sense of interaction.• a sense that the topic has come to life; when appropriate, the writing may show originality, liveliness, honesty,conviction, excitement, humor, or suspense.43A voice is present. The writer seems committed to the topic, and there may be a sense of “writing to be read.” In places, the writing is expressive, engaging, or sincere. The writing is characterized by• a suitable level of closeness to or distance from theaudience.• a sense of audience; the writer seems to be aware of the reader but has not consistently employed an appropriate voice. The reader may glimpse the writer behind thewords and feel a sense of interaction in places.• liveliness, sincerity, or humor when appropriate;however, at times the writing may be eitherinappropriately casual or personal, or inappropriatelyformal and stiff. The writer’s commitment to the topic seems inconsistent.A sense of the writer may emerge at times; however, the voice is either inappropriately personal or inappropriately impersonal. The writing is characterized by• a limited sense of audience; the writer’s awareness of the reader is unclear.• an occasional sense of the writer behind the words;however, the voice may shift or disappear a line or twolater and the writing become somewhat mechanical. • a limited ability to shift to a more objective voice whennecessary.• text that is too short to demonstrate a consistent andappropriate voice.21The writing provides little sense of involvement or commitment. There is no evidence that the writer has chosen a suitable voice. The writing is characterized by • little engagement of the writer; the writing tends to belargely flat, lifeless, stiff, or mechanical.• a voice that is likely to be overly informal and personal. • a lack of audience awareness; there is little sense of“writing to be read.”• little or no hint of the writer behind the words. There is rarely a sense of interaction between reader and writer. The writing seems to lack a sense of involvement or commitment. The writing is characterized by• no engagement of the writer; the writing is flat andlifeless.• a lack of audience awareness; there is no sense of“writing to be read.”• no hint of the writer behind the words. There is no sense of interaction between writer and reader; the writing does not involve or engage the reader.Word Choice6 5Words convey the intended message in an exceptionally interesting, precise, and natural way appropriate to audience and purpose. The writer employs a rich, broad range of words which have been carefully chosen and thoughtfully placed for impact. The writing is characterized by• accurate, strong, specific words; powerful words energize the writing.• fresh, original expression; slang, if used, seemspurposeful and is effective.• vocabulary that is striking and varied, but that is naturaland not overdone.• ordinary words used in an unusual way.• words that evoke strong images; figurative language may be used. Words convey the intended message in an interesting, precise, and natural way appropriate to audience and purpose. The writer employs a broad range of words which have been carefully chosen and thoughtfully placed for impact. The writing is characterized by• accurate, specific words; word choices energize thewriting.• fresh, vivid expression; slang, if used, seems purposeful and is effective.• vocabulary that may be striking and varied, but that isnatural and not overdone.• ordinary words used in an unusual way.• words that evoke clear images; figurative language may be used.43Words effectively convey the intended message. The writer employs a variety of words that are functional and appropriate to audience and purpose. The writing is characterized by• words that work but do not particularly energize thewriting.• expression that is functional; however, slang, if used,does not seem purposeful and is not particularly effective. • attempts at colorful language that may occasionally seem overdone.• occasional overuse of technical language or jargon.• rare experiments with language; however, the writingmay have some fine moments and generally avoidsclichés. Language lacks precision and variety, or may be inappropriate to audience and purpose in places. The writer does not employ a variety of words, producing a sort of “generic” paper filled with familiar words and phrases. The writing is characterized by• words that work, but that rarely capture the reader’sinterest.• expression that seems mundane and general; slang, ifused, does not seem purposeful and is not effective. • attempts at colorful language that seem overdone orforced.• words that are accurate for the most part, althoughmisused words may occasionally appear; technicallanguage or jargon may be overused or inappropriately used.• reliance on clichés and overused expressions.• text that is too short to demonstrate variety.21Language is monotonous and/or misused, detracting from the meaning and impact. The writing is characterized by • words that are colorless, flat or imprecise.• monotonous repetition or overwhelming reliance on worn expressions that repeatedly detract from the message. • images that are fuzzy or absent altogether. The writing shows an extremely limited vocabulary or is so filled with misuses of words that the meaning is obscured. Only the most general kind of message is communicated because of vague or imprecise language. The writing is characterized by• general, vague words that fail to communicate.• an extremely limited range of words.• words that simply do not fit the text; they seemimprecise, inadequate, or just plain wrong.Sentence Fluency6 5The writing has an effective flow and rhythm. Sentences show a high degree of craftsmanship, with consistently strong and varied structure that makes expressive oral reading easy and enjoyable. The writing is characterized by• a natural, fluent sound; it glides along with one sentence flowing effortlessly into the next.• extensive variation in sentence structure, length, andbeginnings that add interest to the text.• sentence structure that enhances meaning by drawingattention to key ideas or reinforcing relationships among ideas.• varied sentence patterns that create an effectivecombination of power and grace.• strong control over sentence structure; fragments, if used at all, work well.• stylistic control; dialogue, if used, sounds natural. The writing has an easy flow and rhythm. Sentences are carefully crafted, with strong and varied structure that makes expressive oral reading easy and enjoyable. The writing is characterized by• a natural, fluent sound; it glides along with one sentence flowing into the next.• variation in sentence structure, length, and beginningsthat add interest to the text.• sentence structure that enhances meaning.• control over sentence structure; fragments, if used at all, work well.• stylistic control; dialogue, if used, sounds natural.43The writing flows; however, connections between phrases or sentences may be less than fluid. Sentence patterns are somewhat varied, contributing to ease in oral reading. The writing is characterized by• a natural sound; the reader can move easily through thepiece, although it may lack a certain rhythm and grace. • some repeated patterns of sentence structure, length, and beginnings that may detract somewhat from overallimpact.• strong control over simple sentence structures, butvariable control over more complex sentences; fragments, if present, are usually effective.• occasional lapses in stylistic control; dialogue, if used,sounds natural for the most part, but may at times sound stilted or unnatural. The writing tends to be mechanical rather than fluid. Occasional awkward constructions may force the reader to slow down or reread. The writing is characterized by • some passages that invite fluid oral reading; however,others do not.• some variety in sentence structure, length, andbeginnings, although the writer falls into repetitivesentence patterns.• good control over simple sentence structures, but little control over more complex sentences; fragments, ifpresent, may not be effective.• sentences which, although functional, lack energy. • lapses in stylistic control; dialogue, if used, may sound stilted or unnatural.• text that is too short to demonstrate variety and control.21The writing tends to be either choppy or rambling. Awkward constructions often force the reader to slow down or reread. The writing is characterized by• significant portions of the text that are difficult to follow or read aloud.• sentence patterns that are monotonous (e.g., subject-verb or subject-verb-object).• a significant number of awkward, choppy, or ramblingconstructions. The writing is difficult to follow or to read aloud. Sentences tend to be incomplete, rambling, or very awkward. The writing is characterized by• text that does not invite—and may not even permit—smooth oral reading.• confusing word order that is often jarring and irregular. • sentence structure that frequently obscures meaning. • sentences that are disjointed, confusing, or rambling.Conventions6 5The writing demonstrates exceptionally strong control of standard writing conventions (e.g., punctuation, spelling, capitalization, grammar and usage) and uses them effectively to enhance communication. Errors are so few and so minor that the reader can easily skim right over them unless specifically searching for them. The writing is characterized by• strong control of conventions; manipulation of conventions may occur for stylistic effect.• strong, effective use of punctuation that guides the readerthrough the text.• correct spelling, even of more difficult words.• correct grammar and usage that contribute to clarity andstyle.• skill in using a wide range of conventions in a sufficientlylong and complex piece.• little or no need for editing. The writing demonstrates strong control of standard writing conventions (e.g., punctuation, spelling, capitalization, grammar and usage) and uses them effectively to enhance communication. Errors are few and minor. Conventions support readability. The writing is characterized by• strong control of conventions.• effective use of punctuation that guides the reader through the text.• correct spelling, even of more difficult words.• correct capitalization; errors, if any, are minor.• correct grammar and usage that contribute to clarity andstyle.• skill in using a wide range of conventions in a sufficientlylong and complex piece.• little need for editing.4 3The writing demonstrates control of standard writing conventions (e.g., punctuation, spelling, capitalization, grammar and usage). Significant errors do not occur frequently. Minor errors, while perhaps noticeable, do not impede readability. The writing is characterized by• control over conventions used, although a wide range is not demonstrated.• correct end-of-sentence punctuation; internal punctuationmay sometimes be incorrect.• spelling that is usually correct, especially on common words. • correct capitalization; errors, if any, are minor.• occasional lapses in correct grammar and usage; problemsare not severe enough to distort meaning or confuse thereader.• moderate need for editing. The writing demonstrates limited control of standard writing conventions (e.g., punctuation, spelling, capitalization, grammar and usage). Errors begin to impede readability. The writing is characterized by• some control over basic conventions; the text may be toosimple or too short to reveal mastery.• end-of-sentence punctuation that is usually correct; however, internal punctuation contains frequent errors.• spelling errors that distract the reader; misspelling ofcommon words occurs.• capitalization errors.• errors in grammar and usage that do not block meaning but do distract the reader.• significant need for editing.21The writing demonstrates little control of standard writing conventions. Frequent, significant errors impede readability. The writing is characterized by• little control over basic conventions.• many end-of-sentence punctuation errors; internalpunctuation contains frequent errors.• spelling errors that frequently distract the reader; misspelling of common words often occurs.• capitalization that is inconsistent or often incorrect.• errors in grammar and usage that interfere with readabilityand meaning.• substantial need for editing. Numerous errors in usage, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation repeatedly distract the reader and make the text difficult to read. In fact, the severity and frequency of errors are so overwhelming that the reader finds it difficult to focus on the message and must reread for meaning. The writing is characterized by• very limited skill in using conventions.• basic punctuation (including end-of-sentence punctuation)that tends to be omitted, haphazard, or incorrect.• frequent spelling errors that significantly impair readability. • capitalization that appears to be random.• a need for extensive editing.OFFICIAL SCORING GUIDE, WRITING 2010-2011 Citing Sources(For use on classroom assignments requiring research)6 5The writing demonstrates exceptionally strong commitment to the quality and significance of research and the accuracy of the written document. Documentation is used to avoid plagiarism and to enable the reader to judge how believable or important a piece of information is by checking the source. The writer has• acknowledged borrowed material by introducing thequotation or paraphrase with the name of the authority.• punctuated all quoted materials; errors, if any, are minor. • paraphrased material by rewriting it using writer’s style and language.• provided specific in-text documentation for each borroweditem.• provided a bibliography page listing every source cited inthe paper; omitted sources that were consulted but not used. The writing demonstrates a strong commitment to the quality and significance of research and the accuracy of the written document. Documentation is used to avoid plagiarism and to enable the reader to judge how believable or important a piece of information is by checking the source. Errors are so few and so minor that the reader can easily skim right over them unless specifically searching for them. The writer has • acknowledged borrowed material by introducing thequotation or paraphrase with the name of the authority; keyphrases are directly quoted so as to give full credit wherecredit is due.• punctuated all quoted materials; errors are minor.• paraphrased material by rewriting using writer’s style and language.• provided specific in-text documentation for borrowedmaterial.• provided a bibliography page listing every source cited inthe paper; omitted sources that were consulted but not used.4 3The writing demonstrates a commitment to the quality and significance of research and the accuracy of the written document. Documentation is used to avoid plagiarism and to enable the reader to judge how believable or important a piece of information is by checking the source. Minor errors, while perhaps noticeable, do not blatantly violate the rules of documentation. The writer has• acknowledged borrowed material by sometimes introducing the quotation or paraphrase with the name of the authority. • punctuated all quoted materials; errors, while noticeable, do not impede understanding.• paraphrased material by rewriting using writer’s style and language.• provided in-text documentation for most borrowed material. • provided a bibliography page listing every source cited inthe paper; included sources that were consulted but not used. The writing demonstrates a limited commitment to the quality and significance of research and the accuracy of the written document. Documentation is sometimes used to avoid plagiarism and to enable the reader to judge how believable or important a piece of information is by checking the source. Errors begin to violate the rules of documentation. The writer has• enclosed quoted materials within quotation marks; however, incorrectly used commas, colons, semicolons, questionmarks or exclamation marks that are part of the quotedmaterial.• included paraphrased material that is not properlydocumented.• paraphrased material by simply rearranging sentencepatterns.21The writing demonstrates little commitment to the quality and significance of research and the accuracy of the written document. Frequent errors in documentation result in instances of plagiarism and often do not enable the reader to check the source. The writer has• enclosed quoted materials within quotation marks; however, incorrectly used commas, colons, semicolons, questionmarks or exclamation marks that are part of the quotedmaterial.• attempted paraphrasing but included words that should beenclosed by quotation marks or rephrased into the writer’slanguage and style.• altered the essential ideas of the source.• included citations that incorrectly identify reference sources.The writing demonstrates disregard for the conventions of research writing. Lack of proper documentation results in plagiarism and does not enable the reader to check the source. The writer has• borrowed abundantly from an original source, even to the point of retaining the essential wording.• no citations that credit source material.• included words or ideas from a source without providing quotation marks.• no bibliography page listing sources that were used.。
