20 10 0
b a
c
20 10
• Contingent responses are additions, modifications and deletions of specific behaviors • We allow for settings with multiple caretakers to guarantee ecological validity (there were either 1 (11.5%) or 2-3 (4.8%) other persons besides the mother)
80 70
d a b/d
b
80
a a
70
contingency rate in %
60 c/d/e
n.s .
n.s .
b/c a/c a/c a/b b
analysis of caretakers’ behavior
b/d a/b/c/ d a
b/c
Percentages of child events
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND • To react contingently toward a baby’s signals is part of the universal intuitive parenting repertoire (Papoušek & Papoušek, 1991). In two recent studies vocalizing was the dominant modality followed by touching (Hsu & Fogel, 2003; VanEgeren et al., 2001) • Furthermore, there are culture-specific modulations: • Gusii mothers from rural Kenya predominantly reacted by holding and touching whereas Boston middle-class mothers reacted primarily by looking and vocalizing (Richman et al., 1992) • Japanese mothers reacted more by touching as compared to Euro-American mothers who used facial expressions and vocalizing more often (Fogel et al.,1988) Our study addresses the general occurrence of contingent responsiveness as well as the specificity of reactions using a multicultural design with mothers who differ with respect to their interactional preferences: • Mothers with an independent model of parenting (Berlin and Los Angeles) should use distal modalities more often, • Mothers with an interdependent model of parenting (rural Nso) should use proximal modalities more often, and • Mothers with an autonomous relational model of parenting (Beijing, Delhi, urban Nso) should use both distal and proximal modalities equally often PROCEDURE • Families were visited at home • 10 minutes free play interaction between the caretaker and her 3-month old baby was videotaped METHODS – modalities for contingent responsiveness: 1.Body contact (holding) 2.Body stimulation (touching) 3.Gaze (looking) 4.Smile 5.Facial expression (raised eyebrows, mouth open) 6.Vocalization (talking) 7.Object stimulation (toys) 8.Acoustical stimulation (flipping, rattling)