Background (1)

1. Introduction介绍1.1 Background背景In recent years, cleaning has achieved a position of increasing importance in the pharmaceutical industry. The current good manufacturing practices (CGMP) regulations recognize that cleaning is a critical issue to ensure product quality. Virtually every aspect of manufacturing involves cleaning, from the initial stages of bulk production to the final dosage form.近年来清洁作业逐渐在制药界占有重要的地位。

现行的GMP法规也指出清洁作业是保证产品质量的关键性工作。

自大宗原料的生产以迄最终剂型的制造作业，几乎每一个制造工序均含有清洁作业。

The CGMPs in the United States, Europe and other parts of the world have provided the pharmaceutical industry with general guidance for cleaning requirements. For example, in the U.S., section 211.67 of part 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) states that "Equipment and utensils shall be cleaned, maintained, and sanitized at appropriate intervals to prevent malfunctions or contamination that would alter the safety, identity, strength, quality, or purity of the drug product beyond the official or other established requirements." Section 211.182 of part 21 of the CFR identifies that cleaning procedures must be documented appropriately, and that a cleaning and use log should be established. In addition to CGMPs, various inspectional guideline documents published by the FDA contain expectations regarding cleaning in the pharmaceutical industry. Cleaning is also addressed in the PIC recommendations on cleaning validation and in the SFSTP Commission report "Validation desprocédés de nettoyage."美国、欧洲及全球其他地区均有制药界清洁作业的通则性指南。

第1章盎格鲁-撒克逊时期(450～1066)1.1 复习笔记Ⅰ. Historical Background（历史背景）(1) The earliest settlers of the British Isles were the Celts, who migrated to the British Isles about 600 B.C.不列颠群岛最早的定居者是凯尔特人，他们大约在公元前600年移民到不列颠群岛。

(2) From 55 B.C. to 407 A.D. the British Isles were under the rule of the Roman Empire.从公元前55年到公元407年，不列颠群岛处于罗马帝国的统治之下。

(3) About 450 A.D., waves of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes invaded the British Isles. They settled in England, and drove the Celts into Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.公元450年左右，盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人占领了不列颠群岛。

他们在英格兰定居，将凯尔特人驱逐到威尔士、苏格兰和爱尔兰。

(4) It was around 500 A.D., in the struggle against Cerdic, the founder of the kingdom of Wessex, that the Celtic King Arthur, a legendary figure, is said to have acquired his fame.大约在公元500年，在与威塞克斯王国创始人塞迪奇的斗争中，传说中的凯尔特王亚瑟获得了他的名声。

(5) Beginning from the later part of the 8th century, the Danes, or the Vikings, came to invade England, at first, along the eastern coast, but later they threatenedto overrun the whole country.在8世纪50年代初期，丹麦人又叫北欧海盗开始入侵英格兰，开始是东海岸，进而威胁到整个国家的统治。

Enhancing Intellectual Property Rights to Attract Foreign Direct InvestmentIntroductionForeign direct investment (FDI):Foreign direct investment (FDI) is the act of establishing or acquiring a foreign subsidiary over which the investing firm has substantial management control. The location of a Multinational entrepreneur’s (MNE’s) headquarters is called the home or source country, in that the decision to invest is made there, while the location of the subsidiary is called the host or recipient country.FDI is particularly important for host country because it is both a source of capital and a provider of knowledge about production techniques.Foreign direct investment depends on many factors including macroeconomic factors, relative input costs, agglomeration effects, risk factors, and policy variables. Besides, recent studies and experiences tells that in addition to such factors mentioned above, intellectual property protection in host countries has taken on increasing role in attracting foreign direct investment.Intellectual property rights (IPRs):Intellectual property refers to creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are important factors for multinational entrepreneurs (MNEs) on investment decisions because all forms of strong IPRs, such as patents, trademarks, copyrights, and trade secrets, provide protection for exporting firms against local copying of the product.Usually host country applying strong IPRs therefore provide favorable environment for multinational entrepreneurs to increase the market size facing exporters and boost sales. However, relationship between IPRs and FDI are highly debated in the professional field.The global system of intellectual property rights (IPRs) went through profound changes in the late 20th century. Developed countries undertook many approaches to protect their intellectual property. Regional agreements such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and a series of Partnership Agreements under negotiation between the European Union and various Eastern European and Middle Eastern nations pay special attention to it. Globally, the multilateral agreement on trade-related intellectual property rights, or TRIPs, within the World Trade Organization (WTO) played crucial role to expand IPRs to greater significance.The role of intellectual property rights in attracting foreign direct investmentVarious studies give drastically different results on the relationship between IPR and FDI.Two previous studies are more noteworthy. Lee and Mansfield (1996) used survey results to develop an index of perceived weakness of IPRs in destination countries on the part of U.S. firms. They find that weakness of IPRs has a significant negative impact on the location of American FDI. Further, in a sample of chemical firms the proportion of FDI devoted to final production or R&D facilities is negatively and significantly associated with weakness of protection. Overall, empirical evidence indicates that, other things equal, countries with stronger IPRs do attract more imports, though the effect varies across industries (Maskus and Penubarti, 1995). From these results, it appears that both the volume and quality of investment are diminished in countries with limited property rights.However, studies by Teece in 1986 showed that firms would be more likely to engage in FDI in countries with weaker IPRs and contract-enforcement procedures. An implication is that as IPRs in a particular nation become stronger, firms would tend to choose more technology licensing and joint ventures and less FDI. This is the one identifiable theoretical case in which the strength of IPRs would be negatively associated with FDI flows.Delegates should especially note that IPR take on different levels of importance with respect to attracting FDI. Investment in lower technology goods and services, such as textile and apparel, electronic assembly, distribution and hotels usually display little emphasize on IPR requirements during decision making. Investors with a product that is technologically advanced and hard to copy also shows l ittle interest in protection of IPR in host countries. However, companies with easy imitable products and technologies, such as pharmaceuticals, chemicals, food additives, and software are more dependent on the local IPRs system for protection against imitation. Such firms considering investing in local market would pay special attention to local patent protection.Therefore, in theory, considering other factors in making investment decisions, FDI does not necessarily increase with a strengthening of intellectual property rights, but there is emerging empirical evidence in favor of that hypothesis.International frameworks and major actorsThe WTO’s Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), negotiated in the 1986-94 Uruguay Round, introduced intellectual property rules into the multilateral trading system for the first time. The TRIPS Agreement has an additional important principle: intellectual property protection should contribute to technical innovation and the transfer of technology. Both producers and users should benefit, and economic and social welfare should be enhanced, the agreement says.The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), a specialized agency of the United Nations is dedicated to developing a balanced and accessible international intellectual property system, which rewards creativity, stimulates innovation and contributes to economic development while safeguarding the public interest. WIPO was established in 1967 with a mandate from its Member States to promote the protection of IP throughout the world through cooperation among states and in collaboration with other international organizations.The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, which adhering countries are committed to promote, stipulate that enterprises should adopt practices that “permit the transfer and rapid diffusion of technologies and know-how, with due regard to the protection of intellectual property rights”.------ The OECD Declaration and Decisions on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises, Annex I, Section VII.2.The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) established the Intellectual Property Programme Division on Investment and Enterprise which seeks to help developing countries participate effectively in international discussions on intellectual property rights and at the national level, to help ensure that their IP policies are consonant with development objectives.Intellectual property rights in a broader contextDespite the narrow focus on IPR to facilitate trade and attract FDI, however, Many analysts claim that strong IPRs play a much larger role in signaling to potential investors that a particular country recognizes and protects the rights of foreign firms to make strategic business decisions with few government impediments (Sherwood, 1990) As intellectual property protection has taken on increasing importance to MNEs, the application of a strong IPRs for governments in emerging markets are regarded as way to achieve better investment friendly environment.This explains why several poor countries with limited technical capabilities unilaterally have strengthened their IPRs laws and enforcement in the 1990s, despite serious questions about the wisdom of doing so. They prefer not to be left behind in the global competition for capital and technology. It also helps explain the universal acceptance of the TRIPs agreement.Enforcing IPRs and dispute solutionsThe agreements and laws are dimmed of their legal significance unless properly enforced. According to TRIPS, “governments have to ensure that intellectual property rights can be enforced under their laws, and that the penalties for infringement are tough enough to deter further violations. The procedures must be fair and equitable, and not unnecessarily complicated or costly. They should not entail unreasonable time-limits or unwarranted delays. People involved should be able to ask a court to review an administrative decision or to appeal a lower court’s ruling.”The TRIPS also describes in detail how enforcement should be handled, including rules for obtaining evidence, provisional measures, injunctions, damages and other penalties. Willful trademark counterfeiting or copyright piracy on a commercial scale should be criminal offences. Governments should make sure that intellectual property rights owners can receive the assistance of customs authorities to prevent imports of counterfeit and pirated goods.The WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center was established in 1994 to offer Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) options, in particular arbitration and mediation, for the resolution of international commercial disputes between private parties. Developed by leading experts in cross-border dispute settlement, the procedures offered by the Center are widely recognized as particularly appropriate for technology, entertainment and other disputes involving intellectual property.Is IPR a way to secure monopoly?The global harmonisation of intellectual property legislation under the World Trade Organization (WTO) has also been criticized, for example by the alter-globalisation movement. It argued that the exclusive rights granted by intellectual property laws are generally negative in nature, and therefore only grant the holder of IP the ability to exclude third parties from infringing on their monopoly.On October 4, 2004, the General Assembly of the World Intellectual Property Organization agreed to adopt a proposal offered by Argentina and Brazil, the "Proposal for the Establishment of a Development Agenda for WIPO". This proposal was strongly supported by developing countries, as well as by a large contingent of civil society. Prior to the General Assembly meeting, hundreds of nonprofits, scientists, academics and other individuals had signed the "Geneva Declaration on the Future of WIPO," which calls on WIPO to focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development - not as an end in itself.Case study: intellectual property rights in China:As cited above, policymakers in both the developed and less developed worlds have increasingly considered intellectual property protection as a major means to attract foreign direct investment. However, stronger intellectual property protection is not always needed to attract such investment. In the case of China, foreign investors were not attracted by the strong intellectual property protection the country offers. Rather, they entered the Chinese market because of “the drastically lower production costs, the country’s enormous market, its inefficient economic system and the preferential treatment of foreign investors”.‘Since 1983, FDI [in China] has grown from less than $1 billion a year to more than $60 billion, and it is projected to soon reach $100 billion annually’ (Navarro, 2007, p. 13). Today, China is oneof the world’s largest recipients of FDI with capital inflows of ab out $50 billion, behind the United States and the United Kingdom (Chow, 2007, p. 198). Such an influx of FDI not only provides China with the foreign capital needed for economic modernization, but also results in technology transfer, job creation, development of human capital and generation of tax revenues (Sherwood, 1990, pp. 191–199).As pointed out earlier, strong intellectual property protection is not always needed for attracting FDI. In fact, stronger protection may reduce investment by encouraging investors to conduct arm’s-length transactions by licensing their products. Such protection would also reduce the net gains in economic welfare from increased FDI by incurring significant costs, such as administrative and enforcement costs, adjustment costs due to labor displacement, social costs associated with monopoly pricing, higher imitation and innovation costs and potential costs resulting from the abuse of intellectual property rights (Maskus, Dougherty and Mertha, 2005, pp. 302–306).the drasticall y lower production costs, the country’s enormous market, its inefficient economic system and the preferential treatment of foreign investors have all helped to attract FDI in China. Because these factors more than compensate for the country’s weak intellec tual property protection, FDI in China increased substantially despite limited intellectual property protection in the country. China therefore is not an exception to the causal relationship between intellectual property protection and FDI, but an ideal case study to illustrate the ambiguity of this relationship and the complex interactions between the many location advantages that affect private investment decisions. After all, as Keith Maskus pointed out, if stronger intellectual property protection alway s led to more FDI, ‘recent FDI flows to developing economies would have gone largely to sub-Saharan Africa and Eastern Europe . . . [rather than] China, Brazil, and other high-growth, large-market developing economies with weak IPRs’ (Maskus, 1998, p. 129).Although the piracy and counterfeiting problems in China have been widely reported in the media in the past decade, the protection of intellectual property rights took a giant leap in recent years.At present, China is a proud member of many multilateral intellectual property agreements, including the Berne Convention, Geneva Convention, Paris Convention, the Patent Cooperation Treaty and UPOV (International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants).In November 2001, China joined the World Trade Organization (WTO). Since joining the WTO, China has further strengthened its legal framework and amended its IPR laws and regulations in compliance with the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).China made such progress not only to respond to external pressure, but also because IPR protection becomes more and more important for its self-interest. Compared to a decade ago, a number of Chinese companies have now achieved prominence in the international market, with their trademarks being recognized as well-known outside China (Sull with Wang, 2005). Examples of these famous local brands include Galanz (for microwave ovens), Haier (for household appliances), Huawei Technologies (for telecommunications equipment), Konka (for televisions)and TCL (for televisions). As China increases its exports of goods branded with globally recognized local trademarks, the importance of intellectual property protection to the country’s future economic development cannot be ignored.similar transformations occurred in Japan in the 1970s and in Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan in the 1980s—and even in Germany and the United States many decades ago (Assafa, 1996, p. 120; Kingston, 2005, p. 658). It is only a matter of time before China joins its more developed neighbors in championing the cause for stronger intellectual property protection.Conclusion and questions to considerWhat kind of FDI is prevalent in your country and is IPR important in protecting the FDI?What are the consequences if your country apply strong IPR?What are its affects on developing countries and least developed countries?/ip/wipo/genevadeclaration.html/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/agrm7_e.htm/njtip/vol5/iss3/3//ip/wipo/genevadeclaration.html/article.asp?articleid=74520http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/arbitration//fortune/2006-04/27/content_4483322.htmThe Role of Intellectual Property in Promoting International Trade and Foreign Direct Investment, Chow, Daniel C. K. (2007)How Trade-Related Are Intellectual Property Rights?, Maskus, Keith E. and Mohan Penubarti (1995)Intellectual Property and Economic Development, Sherwood, Robert M. (1990)Intellectual Property, Foreign Direct Investment and the China Exception, Peter K. Yu (2009)Intellectual Property Policy for Non-industrial Countries, Assafa, Endeshaw (1996),Intellectual Property Protection and U.S. Foreign Direct Investment, Lee, Jeong-Yeon and Mansfield, Edwin (1996),The Coming China Wars: Where They Will Be Fought and How They Can Be Won, Navarro, Peter (2007)The Role of Intellectual Property Rights in Encouraging Foreign Direct Investment and Technology Transfer, Keith E. Maskus。

（一）UNIX常用命令和权限的使用实验目的1、熟悉UNIX系统的登录和退出。

2、了解UNIX的命令及使用格式。

3、熟悉UNIX/LINUX的常用基本命令。

实验内容1、学习如何登录UNIX。

2、熟悉UNIX/LINUX的常用基本命令如ls、who、w、pwd、ps、pstree、top等。

实验准备预习附录一《UNIX/LINUX简介》实验指导一、UNIX的登录与退出1、登录由于LINUX是一个多用户操作系统，可以有多个用户同时使用一台计算机。

运行各自的应用程序。

为了区分各个用户，每个用户都拥有自己独立的用户帐号。

用户在使用LINUX时都必须以自己的用户名进行登录。

登录提示为：login：在bash shell下“＃”为root用户的命令行提示符，“＄”为一般用户的命令行提示符。

（2）步骤login：（输入username）password：（输入密码）2、退出在UNIX系统提示符$下，输入logout、exit或shutdown 或按CTRL+ALT+DEL退出系统。

例：$ logout3、关闭系统LINUX与WINDOWS9X相似，在不使用计算机时应该先关闭系统，再关机。

关机一般由root用户进行。

关机的方法：halt或shutdown。

二、UNIX命令格式命令[选项] [处理对象]例：ls -la mydir注意：（1）命令一般是小写字串。

注意大小写有别（2）选项通常以减号（-）再加上一个或数个字符表示，用来选择一个命令的不同操作（3）同一行可有数个命令，命令间应以分号隔开（4）命令后加上&可使该命令后台（background）执行1、man获取命令帮助功能：查阅指定命令或资源联机手册。

语法：man 〈command〉说明：man是帮助手册manul的缩写，它的命令格式是man后跟需获取帮助的命令，显示过程中随时可用q退出。

示例：man ls2、用 - -help获取命令参数的说明功能：查阅指定命令所用的参数。

英语必修4译林牛津Unit 1精品教案（背景信息）U1 第三部分教案Background information（牛津译林版必修4）●Section 2 Background informationI. An introduction to Advertising1. Definition:American Marketing Association (AMA) defines advertising as “the non-personal communication of information usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through the various media.” Today, with the development of the technology and the diversity of the mass media, advertising has influenced us pervasively in our daily life. However, whatever the promotive strategies advertising takes, language is the main carrier of message all along, as The Language of Advertising, by Vesterg ard & Schroder, says, “Advertising takes many forms, but in most of the m language is of crucial importance.” Advertising language is a style of immediate impact and rapid persuasion. The point of an advertisement is to persuade you of the merits of a particular product or service, in order that you will take out some of your money.2. Advertising Components: According to the definition of the advertising, most of the advertisements should have the following components:(1) AdvertiserThe advertiser is the sender of information and all the advertising activities should be consistent with the purpose and willingness of the advertiser. Therefore, the advertiser is the main body of advertising, namely, every advertisement should have its specific owner of the advertising information. The specific owner should be a recognizable group, including corporation, enterprise, government, organization and individual. There are three significances of an advertiser (both for the advertiser themselves, and for the public): firstly, it’s easy for the target audience to recognize the company and the products of it, which will promote the propagandas andthe sale of its products; secondly, it will establish a high reputation for the group, enterpr ise, or the individual in order that the consumer will trust the brand; finally, it will prevent the advertiser from counterfeiting and deceiving by legal supervision.(2) A certain amount of money paidThe advertising fees a re paid by the advertiser no matter it’s operated by itself or other agency. Because advertising is a kind of marketing action, an advertiser has to pay for its advertisement. There are quite a few people who consider that too much advertising fee will inevitably raise the price and cost of the product, and thereby will influence the sale of the product. However, this conclusion is a one-sided view. Advertising can bring you a huge profit by reasonable planning a nd proper operation.(3) Advertising InformationAdvertising information is the principal content s an advertisement wants to disseminate. Advertising is a serious of planning action, so the information of adve rtising should be aimed at the certain target market and consumers, and should avoid aimlessness. The dissemination of information should be accurate, definite, recognizable and moderate in length. An effe ctive advertisement involves not only “what to say”, but also ‘how to say”.(4) Advertising MediaMedia are the means of the dissemination of advertising, including newspaper, magazine, broadcast, TV program, billboard and mail. The newspaper, magazine, broadcast and TV are called the four main media of advertising. Moreover, any kind of objects or tools can be a medium for the advertisement, such as airplane, train, bus, building, neon light, movie, package, exhibition, and etc. Different kinds of media have different features, disseminating area, target audience and speed.II．经典英文广告麦斯威尔咖啡 Good to the last drop 滴滴香浓，意犹未尽。

美国文学笔记III. The Romantic period （浪漫主义时期）: （1800-1865）American Transcendentalism(美国超验主义）（1830s- Civil War）Summit of Romanticism/ American Renaissance1. Appearance1836, ―Nature‖ by Emerson2. Features of Transcendentalism(1). Spirit(思想）/Oversoul（超灵）(2). importance of individualism(3). nature – symbol of spirit/God；garment of the oversoul(4). focus in intuition (irrationalism and subconsciousness)IV. The American Realism 现实主义时期(1865-1918)1. Three Giants in Realistic PeriodWilliam Dean Howells –―Dean of American Realism‖Henry JamesMark Twain2. Comparison:Theme:Howells –middle classJames –upper classTwain –lower classTechnique:Howells –smiling/genteel realismJames –psychological realismTwain –local colourism and colloquialismMark Twain (1835-1910):1. Summary:American writer, short story writer/Humorist2. Major works:The Celebrated jumping Frog of Calaveras County (1865)《卡拉维拉县弛名的跳蛙》Innocents Abroad (1869) 《傻子国外旅行记》The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) 《汤姆.索亚历险记》Life on the Mississippi (1883) 《密西西比河上》The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1886)《哈克贝里.费恩历险记》: All modern American literature comes from his masterpiece ―The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.‖——Ernest Hemingway3. Style:(1). colloquial language（口语）, vernacular (本土的）language, dialects(2). local colour(3). syntactic feature: sentences are simple, brief, and sometimes ungrammatical(4). humour(5). tall tales (highly exaggerated) （荒诞不经的故事）(6). social criticism (satire on the different ugly things in society)4. ContributionOne of Mark Twain’s significant contributions to American literature lies in the fact that he made colloquial speech an accepted, respectable literary medium in the literary history of the country.Henry James (1843-1916)1. Summary:An American and British novelist, literary criticFounder of psychological realismFirst of the modern psychological novelistInitiator of the international theme: American innocence in face of European sophistication2. Major works:Daisy Miller （1878）《戴茜·米勒》The Portrait of a Lady (1881) 《贵妇的肖像》The Wings of the Dove (1902)《鸽翼》The Ambassadors (1903)《专使》The Golden Bowl (1904)《金碗》The Art of Fiction(1884)《小说的艺术》3. His Point of view(1). Psychological analysis, forefather of stream of consciousness(2).Psychological realism(3). Highly-refined language4. Style –“stylist”(1). Language: highly-refined, polished, insightful, and accurate(2).V ocabulary: large(3). Construction: complicated, intricateNaturalism（自然主义）1. Background:(1). Dar win’s theory: ―natural selection‖(2).Spenser’s idea: ―social Darwinism‖(3). French Naturalism: Zora2. Features(1). environment and heredity(2). scientific accuracy and a lot of details(3). general tone: ironic and pessimistic, hopelessness, despair, gloom, ugly side of the societySt ephen Crane (1881-1900)1. Summary:Novelist, poetPioneer in the naturalistic traditionPrecursors（先驱）of Imagist poetry2. Major Works:Maggie: A Girl of the Streets 《街头女郎麦姬》: the first naturalistic novel in AmericaThe Red Badge of Courage 《红色英勇勋章》The Open Boat《海上扁舟》V. AMERICAN MODERNISM (1918-1945)（美国现代主义）F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896-1940)1. Summary:Famous American novelist, short story writer, and essayistthe representative of the 1920sthe spokesman for the Jazz Ageone of the“lost generation”writers2. Major WorksThis Side of Paradise (1920) 《人间天堂》Tales of the Jazz Age (1922) 《爵士乐时代的故事》Tender Is the Night (1934) 《夜色温柔》The Great Gatsby (1925) 《了不起的盖茨比》:Narrative point of view – Nick CarrawayTheme: The decline of the American Dream3. His Point of view(1). He expressed what the young people believed in the 1920s, the so-called ―American Dream‖ is false innature.(2). He had always been critical of the rich and tried to show the integrating effects of money on theemotional make-up of his character. He found that wealth altered people’s characters, making them mean and distrusted. He thinks money brought only tragedy and remorse.(3). His novels follow a pattern: dream – lack of attraction – failure and despair.4. His ideas of “American Dream”It is false to most young people. Only those who were dishonest could become rich.William Faulkner (1897-1962)1. Sumary:An American novelist and poetInitiator of American Southern RenaissanceOne of the most influential modern novelists of 20th centuryNobel Prize winner for literature in 19492. Major Works:The Sound and the Fury 《喧哗与骚动》As I Lay Dying 《在我弥留之际》Light in August 《八月之光》Absalom, Absalom 《押沙龙，押沙龙！》Go Down, Moses 《去吧，摩西》Barn Burning 《烧牲口棚》Yoknapatawpha County（约克纳帕塔法县）:--- A fictional county in northern Mississippi, the setting for most of William Faulkner’s novels and short stories, and patterned upon Faulkner’s actual home in Lafayette County, Mississippi.3. Major Themes of his Works(1). history and race(2). Deterioration(3). Conflicts between generations, classes, races, man and environment(4). Horror, violence and the abnormal4. Faulkner's narrative technique(1).Withdrawal of the author as a controlling narrator(2). Dislocation of the narrative time: The most characteristic way of structuring his stories is to fragment thechronological time.(3). the modern stream-of-consciousness（意识流）technique and the interior monologue（内心独白）：(4). Multiple points of view（多重视角）(5). symbolism and mythological and biblical（圣经的）allusionsErnest Hemingway (1899—1961)1. Summary:Novelist and short-story writerOne of the great American writers of the 20th centuryThe Spokesman of the ―Lost Generation‖Nobel Prize winner for literature in 19542. Major worksThe Sun Also Rises 《太阳照常升起》A Farewell to Arms《永别了，武器》For Whom the Bell Tolls 《丧钟为谁而鸣》/ 《战地钟声》The Old Man and the Sea 《老人与海》A Clean, Well-lighted Place 《一个干净，明亮的地方》3. Major Themes(1).The ―Nada‖(虚无) Concept(2).Grace under pressure(压力下的优雅）―Man is not made for defeats. A man can be destroyed but not defeated.‖------The Old Man and the Sea(3). Code Hero（准则英雄/ 硬汉）a. The Hemingway hero is not a thinker; he is a man of action.b.―Grace under pressure is their motto.c.The Hemingway code heroes are best remembered for their indestructible(不可毁灭的）spirit.4. Artistic features(1) .The iceberg（冰山）techniqueThe dignity of movement of an ice-berg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water.(2). Language stylea. simple and naturalb.direct, clear and freshc. lean and economicald.simple, conversational, common found, fundamental wordse. simple sentencesf. Iceberg principle: understatement, implied thingsg.SymbolismEzra Pound (1885—1972)1. Summary:A leading spokesman of the ―Imagist Movement‖(意象主义运动）One of the most influential American poets and critic2. Major works:Cathay:《华夏集》《神州集》《中国诗章》Hugh Selwyn Mauberley《休·赛尔温·毛伯利》Cantos /《诗章》3. Imagism (1909-1917)(1) .Background:Imagism was influenced by French symbolism, ancient Chinese poetry and Japaneseliterature ―haiku‖(2). Defintion : The imagists, with Ezra Pound leading the way, hold that the most effective means to expressthe these momentary impressions is through the use of one dominant image.(3): Manifesto of Imagism:•Direct treatment•Economy of expression•New rhythmIn a station of the Metro《在一个地铁站》: a quintessential（典型的）imagist textRobert Frost（1847-1963）1. Summary:the most popular American poetWon Pulitzer Prize four timesReceived honorary degrees from forty-four colleges and universitiesRead ― The Gift Outright‖ at the inauguration of President John F. Kennedy in 19612. Famous Poems:F ire and Ice《火与冰》The Road Not Taken 《未选择的路》Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening 《雪夜伫立林边有感》Mending Wall《补墙》After Apple-Picking《摘罢苹果》3. Frost’s writing featureHis combination of the traditional verse pattern and a colloquial distinctive language (New England Speech)Eugene O’Neil (1888-1953)1. Summary:America's greatest playwrightWon the Pulitzer Prize four timesWon Nobel Prize in 1936Founder of the American drama2. Major WorksBeyond the Horizon (1920) 《天边外》The Emperor Jones(1920) 《琼斯皇帝》The Hairy Ape (1922)《毛猿》Desire under the Elms (1924) 《榆树下的欲望》美国文学笔记整理完整版18世纪末-19世纪中后浪漫主义时期Romanticism1. 早期浪漫主义华盛顿·欧文美国文学之父father of American Literature(为美国文学第一次赢得世界声誉)Washington Irving 以笔记小说和历史传厅闻名，humor1783-1859 The Sketch Book见闻札记（标志浪漫主义开始）A History of New York纽约史---美国人写的第一部诙谐文学杰作；----The Legend of Sleepy Hollow睡谷的传说---成为美国第1个获国际声誉作家-----Rip Van Winkle里普·万·温克尔(李伯大梦)The Alhambra阿尔罕伯拉2.超验主义New England Transcendentalism埃德加·爱伦·坡侦探小说之父Father of western detective stories and psychoanalytic criticism精神批Edgar Allan Poe 评，首开近代侦探小说先河，又是法国象征主义运动的源头1809-1849 Novelist小说家, poet, critic批评家good at writing Gothic(哥特式）and detective fictionPoetryThe Raven《乌鸦》To Helen《献给海伦》Short storiesHorror ( suspense, terror, Insanity, death，Revenge and rebirth）The Fall of the House of Usher《厄舍古屋的倒塌》The Masque of the Red Death 《红色死亡的化妆舞会》The Black Cat《黑猫》The Cask of Amontillado《一桶白葡萄酒》Ligeia《丽姬娅》Detective /ratiocinative(推理的）(originator)The Purloined Letter 《窃信案》The Muder in the Rue Morgue 《莫格街谋杀案》The Mystery of Marie Rog《玛丽.罗热疑案》The Gold Bug 《金甲虫》拉尔夫·沃尔多·爱默生Nature论自然-----新英格兰超验主义者的宣言书manifestoRalf Waldo Emerson The American Scholar论美国学者;American essayist,lecturer, poetThe Founder of Transcendentalism1803-1882 Self-reliance论自立The Transcendentalist超验主义者Representative Men代表人物School Address神学院演说Days日子-首开自由诗之先河free verseRalph Waldo Emerson was an American philosopher, essayist, and poet, best remembered for leading the Transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. He was seen as a champion of individualism个人主义.纳撒尼尔·霍桑subject: human soul first great American writer of fiction 虚构Nathaniel Hawthorne 象征主义大师American novelist and short story writer1804-1864 The Scarlet Letter红字Twice-told Tales尽人皆知的故事Mosses from an Old Manse古屋青苔The House of the Seven Gables有七个尖角阁的房子The Marble Faun玉石雕像The Blithedale Romance福谷传奇Young Goodman Brown年轻的布朗The Birthmark胎记His point of view : Hawthorne is influenced by Puritanism（清教主义）deeply.(1). Evil is at the core of human life 邪恶是人类生活的中心(2).whenever there is sin 罪恶, there is punishment 惩罚. Sin or evil can be passed from generation to generation 代代相传(3). Evil educates. 邪恶的教育(4). He has disgust in science科学. One source of evil is overweening (自负的) (too proud of oneself) intellect . His intellectual characters聪明的特征are villains反派角色, dreadful可怕的and cold-blooded冷血的赫尔曼·迈尔维尔擅长航海奇遇和异域风情Herman Melville Moby Dick/The White Whale白鲸（first American prose epic史诗）1819-1891 Main characters: Ishmael(以实玛利）: the narrator 叙述者Ahab（埃哈伯）: the protagonist 主要人物Moby DickTypee泰比Omoo奥穆Mardi玛地White Jacket白外衣Pierre皮尔埃; Billy Budd比利·巴德沃尔特·惠特曼Father of free verse自由诗之父Walt Whitman Leaves of Grass草叶集（the birth of truly American poetry and the1819-1892 end of romanticism）共和圣经Democratic Bible 美国史诗American EpicAmerican poet, essayist散文家, journalist新闻工作者, and humanist人道主义学家The father of free verse（自由诗）Song of Myself自我之歌Democratic Vistas 民主的前景One’s Self I Sing 《我歌唱一个人的自己》O Captain! My Captain! 《噢，我的船长！我的船长！》3.Writing themes (almost everything):equality of things and beings 平等的事情和人divinity 神学of everythingImmanence（无所不在）of GodDemocracy 民主evolution of cosmos（宇宙的演化）multiplicity 多样性of natureself-reliant spirit 自力更生的精神death, beauty of deathexpansion of America 美国的扩张brotherhood 手足情谊and social solidarity（社会团结）(unity of nations in the world世界统一的国家) pursuit 追求of love and happiness4.S tyle: “free verse（自由诗）: the verse that does not follow a fixed metrical pattern固定的韵律模式, the verse without a fixed beat 固定的节拍or regular rhyme scheme规律的格律.(1).Parallelism（排比）(2).phonetic recurrence（同字起句法）（the repetition重复of words or phrases at the beginning of the line, inthe middle or at the end)(3).the use of a certain pronoun ―I‖ (the first person narrator)(4).strong tendency to use oral English使用英语口语的强烈倾向(5).the habit of using snapshots 生活小照(6).a looser and more open-ended syntactic structure语法结构(7).use of conventional image 传统的想象(8).vocabulary – powerful, colourful, rarely used words of foreign origins, some even wrong(9). sentences – catalogue目录technique: long list of names, long poem lines5. Significance of Leaves of GrassLeaves of Gras s, either in content or in form, is an epoch-making work in American literature:无论是在内容还是在形式上,是一个划时代的作品在美国文学→Its democratic content marked the shift from Romanticism to Realism. 其民主内容标志着从浪漫主义到现实主义的转变→Its free-verse form broke from old poetic conventions to open a new way for American poetry.其生发的形式从旧的诗意的约定了打开新的思路对美国诗歌。