New words formation

Word Formation Processes of English1.Borrowing(外来词）-——One of the most common sources of new words in English, that is, the taking over of words from other languages。

Eg: alcohol（Arabic）boss（Dutch) piano（Italian）Tycoon(Japanese）yogurt（Turkish）Kunfu（Chinese）pounding（合成词)——-This is a very productive source of new terms. A joining of two separate words can produce a single form。

Eg: bookcase fingerprint sunburn wallpaper waterbed classmate wastebasket3.Blending（混成词）—--The beginning of one word is joined to the end of another word. The is the way how a Blending formed。

Eg: Chinese + English=Chinglish(中国式英语）Spanish + English = Spanglish（西班牙式英语）smoke + fog = smog(烟雾）breakfast + lunch = brunch(早午餐）Climb + maximum= climax(高潮）television + broadcast= telecast（电视广播）Motor + hotel= motel（汽车旅馆)information + entertainment= infotainment（信息娱乐)4.Clipping（缩略词）-—-Clipping comes from the element of reduction, which is also a commonly used way of new forms in English。

Chapter 4Word Formation II一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：词缀法，复合法，转类法，拼缀法，截短法，首字母缩略法，逆生法，专有名词普通化。

通过对本章的学习，考生应该了解现代英语的主要构词法，这些构词法在英语词汇发展中的地位，提高构词能力，自觉扩大词汇量。

在历年考试中：常常以选择题，名词解释，填空题的形式对本章知识点进行考核。

二、【知识串讲】重点知识锦集：1. The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation.2. According to the positions which affixes occupy in words, affixes falls into two subclasses:prefixation and suffixation.（前缀和后缀）3. Affixation is also known as derivation.4. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.5. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.6. We shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, etc.7. Compounds can be written solid, hyphenated and open.（连写的，加连字符号的，不连写的）8. Most compounds consist of only two stems but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationships within the words are considerably complex.9. Conversion is also known as functional shift.（功能转换）10. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs.11. The most productive, however, is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.12. Unlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion,（完全转换）others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion.（部分转换）13. Blending（拼缀法）is a very productive process and many coinages resulting from blending have become well-established.14. As far as the structure is concerned, blends fall into four major groups: head+tail, head+head, head+word, word+tail.15. The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns.16. Blends are mostly used in writing related to science and technology, and to newspapers and magazines.17. There are four common types of clipping: front clipping, back clipping, front and back clipping, phrase clipping.18. Both intialisms and acronyms have become very popular since the Second World War and thus extremely productive.19. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs.20. Stylistically, back-formed words are largely informal and some of them have not gained public acceptance.21. Open compounds look like free phrases as the elements forming each word are writtenseparately.22. As a rule, the stress of compounds falls on the first element.23. A compound functions as a single grammatical unit, so the internal structure can not be changed.24. Conversion（转换法）refers to the use of words of one class as that of a different class.25. Partial conversion and full conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted to nouns.名词解释：1. affixation（词缀法）: Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.2. prefixation（前缀法）: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.3. suffixation（后缀法）: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.4. compounding（合成法）: Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds.5. conversion（转换法）: Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.6. blending（拼缀法）: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words.7. clipping（截短法）: Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping.8. acronymy（首字母拼音法）: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.9. initialisms（首字母缩略词）: Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter.10. acronyms（首字母拼音词）: Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.11. back-formation（逆生法）: Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes.论述问答题：1. In what aspects do compounds differ from free phrases?答：Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1). Phonetic features. In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress.2). Semantic features. Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3). Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence, for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective.2. What is the best way to classify prefixes? Why?答：Prefixes do not usually change the word-class of the stem but only modify lts meaning. Although present-day English finds an increasing number of class-changing prefixes, they make up only an insignificant number in the huge contemporary vocabulary. It might be the best way to classify prefixes by their non-class-changing feature.3. In what way are compound verbs generally formed? Give examples to illustrate your point.答：Compound verbs are created either through conversion or back-formation. This could be illustrated by two words, nickname and chain-smoker. Nickname, which is originally a noun, can be used as a verb through conversion. Chain-smoker, which is originally a noun, can turn into a verb through back-formation.4. What is the difference between partial and full conversion? Explain them with examples. 答：When converted to nouns, not all adjectives can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. When a noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of a noun, it can take an indefinite article or-(e)s to indicate singular or plural number. For example, adjective “white”can be fully converted to a noun “white”, which can take indefinite article: a white. When a noun partially converted from adjectives do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with the definite article, and they retain some of the adjective features. For example, the poor, the rich.5. Both back-formation（逆生法）and back-clipping（截后留前）are ways of making words by removing the endings of words. How do you account for the coexistence of the two? Can you explain the difference?答：Back-formation is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. It’s considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. For example, “loafer”may be assumed to derive from the verb “loaf”’on the analogy of known derivatives, such as “swimmer” from “swim” or “driver” from “drive”. By removing the supposed suffixes –er from “loafer”, a verb “loaf”‟is coined. Majority of back-formed words are verbs. Back-clipping is different. The deletion occurs at the end of the word(usually a noun). Both the original long word and its short form remain in the same word class. In diffe rent context, one could be used in other‟s place.6. After he comes back, he oiled machine.In above sentence, which word is the converted word? Explain the type of the conversion and the effect of the conversion.答：In this sentence, the word “oil”is the converted word. It is converted from a noun to a verb. When it was used as a noun, the meaning of it is that “油”. But in this sentence, it was used as a verb, the meaning is “给…加油”; As is often the case, a noun can be converted to a verb without any change. The use of the verb converted is both economical and vivid.Chapter 5Word Meaning一、【考情分析】本章主要考核的知识点为：“意义”的意义，词义的理据，词义的类别。

Word-FormationAbstract : A further way besides borrowing in which the vocabulary of English has expanded to accommodate to the natural and social world in which it is used has been to employ means internal to the language itself for devising new word. This is the area of word-formation. Morphological productivity can be defined as the property of a given word formation process to be used to derive a new word in a systematic fashion. Most linguists divide the word-formation into major word-formation and minor word-formation .The major word-formational processes are :-Affixation-Compounding-ConversionThe minor word-formational processes are :-Abbreviation-Back formation-OnomatopoeiaKey Word : affixation, derivative, compounding, abbreviation, onomatopoeia1 AffixationAffixation, also called derivation, is a process in which a free morph is combined with a bound morph, a prefix, or a suffix. It is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases . There are two types of derivative . One bases on free root with affix or bound root , the other bases on bound with affix or other bound root .1.1 Types of affixes- prefixes- suffixes- infixesModern English has a number of highly productive affixes. For example, the prefix over can be added to verbs which express activities to indicate that too much has taken place, i.e. something has been overdone, cf. overcook, overcoat, overstay. Likewise, the suffix –n ess can be added to an adjective make a noun designating the quality express by the adjective, its nouniness, so to speak.1.2Two types of derivative’s structure1.2.1 Free root + affix/bound root1) prefix + free roote.g.: In definite (a. uncertain), un forgettable (a. memorable) , mini bus (coach)2)free + suffixe.g. : wealth y (a. rich) , success ful (a, achieving aims) , extreme ly(adv, to a very high de.g.ree) , comfortab ly(adv. in a comfortableway)3)prefix +free root + suffixe.g. : en rich ment (a. sb/sth being rich or richer) , in ternation al (a.connected with two or more countries) , unchangeable (a. that can notbe changed)4)combining form + free roote.g. Afro-American , Afro-Asian , techno-chemistry , microwave1.2.2Bound root + affix/bound root1)prefix + bound root (without formation)e.g. contradict (v. to say sb has said is wrong) , descend (v. go down) ,despair (v. give up all hope)2)bound root (without formation)+ suffixe.g. confidence (n. trust in) , liberate (v. emancipation) , linguist (n. aperson who knows several foreign languages well)3)prefix + bound root (without formation)e.g. distinctive (a. special ) , intolerable (a. can’t bear) , contradiction(n. a lack of agreement between facts)24)combining form + combining forme.g. macrobiosis (n. long life) , microscope (n. an instrument used inscientific study for making very small thing look larger)2CompoundingComposition or compounding is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit, that is, a compound. Compounding is perhaps the most common way of expanding the vocabulary of English. It allows users to combine two familiar words to form a new lexeme.Very often compounds are written as two words, which means that they are accepted into dictionaries a little reluctantly. Certainly, dictionaries seem not to list compounds in anything like the numbers in which they are in use. This may be justified perhaps because compounds are frequently transparent and their meanings are relatively accessible without a dictionary. Furthermore, many of them do not become lexicalized, but have a very transitory life.According to the words’characteristic, there are compound nouns, compound adjectives , compound pronouns , compound verbs , compound adverbs , etc .2.1Compound Nounsn. + n.: bar code , mouse mat , Websitea. + n.: blueprint , compact discadv. + n.: off chance , overdose , underclothes-ing + n.: learning strate.g.y , marketing campaign , parking metern. + v.: daybreak , earthquake , parking meteradv + n : downfall , income , offset , output , upliftv. + adv.: get-together , handout , makeupn. + -ing: air-conditioning , brainstorming , family planningprep.+n.: afternoon , by-product , overcoat2.2Compound AdjectivesAs adjective is a core : airsick , band-new ; dark-blue , icy-cold ;3all-mighty , evergreen , overripeAs noun is a core : blue-collar , present-day ; breaknecl , cross-country ;chicken-hearted , dog-eared , wine-coloredAs –ing or –ed is a core : energy-saving , epoch-marking ; easy-going ,far-reaching ; mass-produced , poverty-stricken ; absent-minded ,half-done , newly-built2.3Compound Verbs1)Formed by back-formation : house-keep from housekeeperwindowshop from window-shoppinghenpeck from henpecked2)Formed by conversion : to blue-printto cold-shoulderto honeymoon3) adv. + v. : cross-questionoffsetoverthrow3ConversionConversion is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero derivation. In other words, conversion or zero derivation is a type word class change without the addition, removal ,or change of any element in the word. In this process a noun maybe used as a verb or a verb can be used as a noun. Furthermore, a noun can be used attributively as an adjective. The most frequent type of conversion is from noun to verb, probably because there are so relatively few verbalizing affixes in English.3.1 n.→ v.1)to put in/on, such as, bottle(n.)→to bottle(=to put …into a bottle)2)to give, to provide with, such as, butter(n.) →to butter(=to spread butteron)3)to deprive of, such as, skin(n.) →to skin(=to remove the skin from)44)to…with, such as, hammer(n.) →to hammer(=to strike with a hammer)5)to be/act as …with respect to, such as, ape(n) →to ape(=to imitate like aape)6)to make/change…into, such as, fool(n.) →to fool(=to make a fool of)7)to send…/go by, such as, bicycle(n.) →to bicycle(=to go by bicycle)3.2adj.→ v.bare(adj.) →to bare, calm(adj.) →to clam, brave(adj.) →to brave3.3v.→ n.Verb converting into noun express the verb’s original action or condition mostly, such as, attempt, look, swim, smile, walk, etc.3.4adj.→ n.Most adjective can be used as noun, such as, an American, an Canadian,etc. There are three type of conversion, full conversion, partial conversionand special conversion.3.5n.→ adj.a brick garage (The garage is brick.)a cotton dress (The dress is cotton.)a gold watch, an iron box, the job market4ShorteningAbbreviation or shortening is the way of shortening or simplifying syllables to make new words. There are various forms of abbreviation, but main forms are four: clipped word, initialism, acronym, blend.4.1 ClippingsSpeakers of English have a great tendency to shorten words. This term refers to the process by which a word of two or more syllables is shortened without a change in its function taking place. It includes apocope, aphaeresis, front and back clipping, and syncope.1) Apocopeapprox.← approximately, auto← automobile52) Aphaeresisburger→ hamburger, bus→ omnibus3) Front and back clippingsThe shortening may occur at the start and the end of the word. e.g., flu(=influenza) / fridge(=refrigerator) / tec(=detective)4) Syncopefluidics← fluidonics, fossilation← fossilizationContractions which is the clipping word with punctuation also can be regarded as this type.4.2 Initialisms and AcronymsInitialisms are words from the initial letters of words which are pronounced as sequences of letters e.g., EEC. Acronyms are also formed from the initial letters of words, but are pronounced as a word, e.g. radar(radio detecting and ranging). Acronyms have always been an integral part of computer culture, and they have since spawned a new language on the Internet. Commonly thought of as a series of letters that make up a “word” there is a distinction between acronyms and shorthand.4.3BlendsBlends are words formed by combining the first element of the first word and the last element of the second word. Blends are created originally for comic effect. Following are some examples:Chunnel(=channel + tunnel) / brunch(=breakfast + lunch) / motel(=motorist+hotel)5Back-formationBack-formation is the process of word-building by which elements are subtracted from a complex word.e.g. beggar---beg burglar---burgleThe majority of backformed words are verbs. There are two types of syntactic relation in verb compounds formed by backformation:1)Object + verb as sightsee (from sight-seeing) meaning somebody sees6sights. Similar examples are: globe-trot(from globe-trotter orglobe-trotting).2)Adverbial + verb, as spring-clean (from spring-cleaning) meaningsomebody cleans in the spring.Back-formations of all kinds are more frequently found in informal than in formal language.6OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia is a word-formation which imitate the sound. Imitative words are words formed by imitation of sound. Imitative words divide into primary onomatopoeia and secondary onomatopoeia.The barking of a dog.The crack of a whip.The roll of thunder.The tinkling of bells.There are three types of words formed by imitation of sound:1)The repetition of words: quack; ticktack2)The repetition of words with a vowel change: clitter-clatter; ping-pong;tick-tack.3)Repeating one or more syllables with a consonant change : rub-a-dubt;ran-danReference: Wang Rongpei, Wang Zhijiang, An Advanced Reader of English Lexicology, Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2006汪榕培，王之江，《英语词汇学》，上海外语教育出版社，2008789。

Word Formation：词汇构成详解Word formation is the process of constructing words from their constituent parts. It involves both the creation and alteration of existing words, which are known as morphological operations. Word formation includes the use of prefixes, suffixes, infixes, compounding, reduplication and more.Prefixes are word elements added to the beginning of a word that modify its meaning. They come from other languages, such as Latin and Greek, and have been adapted into English. Examples of common prefixes include “un-” (not), “dis-” (opposite or reverse), and “re-” (again).Suffixes are word elements added to the end of a word that modify its meaning. Examples of common suffixes in English include "-ing" (present participle), "-ed" (past tense), and "-ize" (to make).Infixes are word elements that are added within a word, usually to modify its meaning. In English, there are few true infixes; most examples are truncated versions of words, such as the informal past tense form "-ed" ("I walk-ed").Compounding is the process of combining two or more words to create a new, single word. Examples of compound words in English include "sunflower," "sunlight," and "sunshine." Reduplication is a type of word formation that involves either repeating part or all of a word. Reduplication can be used to convey emphasis or to add a humorous effect. Examples of reduplication in English include "pitter-patter" and "fancy-shmancy."Blending is another type of word formation in which two words are combined to create a new one. Commonly used blends include "chillax" (chill+relax) and "bromance" (brother+romance).Clipping is a type of word formation in which part of a word is removed. This is done to create a shorter version of the word, often for convenience or to reduce ambiguity. Examples of clipped words used in English include "fridge" (refrigerator) and "fax" (facsimile).Back-formation is a process of word formation in which a “new” word is created by removing a suffix from an existing word. Often the resulting word has a different meaning than the original. Examples of back-formation in English include "edit" (from editor) and "burgle" (from burglar).Conversion is a type of word formation in which a word changes its part of speech without any changes to its spelling or pronunciation. It involves taking a verb or noun and turning it into an adjective or adverb. Examples of conversion in English include "careless" (from "to care"), "homely" (from "home"), and "slowly" (from "slow").Word formation is an important part of language, as it allows us to expand our vocabulary and communicate more effectively. By understanding the various processes involved in word formation, we can communicate more accurately and clearly.。

英语词汇学笔记之-----章节部分2010.1.11===================================第一章1. Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional. E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.3. The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors.（At least 80%of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. the internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spellingc）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500d）. Borrowing of foreign language4. Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given subject and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.5.Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion，by origin1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.1. all national character （most important）– natural phenomenamost common things and phenomena of the human body and relationsworld around us names of plants and animalsaction，size，domain，statenumerals，pronouns，prep. ，conj.2. stability – they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – pastelectricity，machine，car，plane —— now3. productivity – they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.e.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer4. polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.e.g. take to move or carry from one place to anotherto remove5. collocability – quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and otherse.g. heart – a change of heart，a heart of goldNon-basic vocabulary ——1. terminology – technical termsphotoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus2. jargon – specialized vocabulary in certain professions.Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid3. slang —— substandard words often used in informal occasionsdough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groupscan-opener，dip，persuadercant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.5. dialectal words – only by speakers of the dialectbeauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.7. neologism – newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mailold meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.Functional words are in a small number.b. Content words are growing.Functional words remain stable.c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.3）. Native words – are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.1.Denizens – words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，porkcup from cuppa（L）2.Aliens – retained their original pronunciation and spellinge.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo3.translation loans – formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.1）. Word translated according to the meaninge.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noirlong time no see，surplus value，master piece2）. Words translated according to the sounde.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchuptea4. Semantic loans – their meaning are borrowed from another languagee.g. stupid old dumpnew sassydream old joy and peacepioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering worknew a member of the young pioneerfresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++第二章1.Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）Balto –Slavic Indo-Iranian Italic GermanicPrussian Persian Portuguese NorwegianLithuanian Hindi Spanish IcelandiePolish Italian DanishBulgarian Roumanian SwedishSlovenian French EnglishRussian GermanAlbanian Armenian Celtic HellenicIrish GreekBretonScottish2. History （时间，历史事件，特征）1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 wordsThe 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions.The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer toAnglo-Saxon as old English.At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary.The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.特点：highly inflected languagecomplex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，FrenchUntil 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin come into English. 75% of them are till in use today.As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflectionsleveled ending3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）late modern English（1700-up to now）The Renaissance，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary heritage.The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.More words are created by means of word-formation.thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.more words are created by means of word-formation.in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.特点：ending are almost lost.3. Three main sources new words1.The rapid development of modern science and technology2.Social，economic and political changes3.The influence of other cultures and languages4. Three modes of vocabulary development1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（particularly in earlier time）4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++第三章1. Morpheme —— A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.3.Monomorphenic words – morphemes are realized by single morphs.4.Allomorph——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.6. Bound Morphemes —— The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection（re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.7. Bound root —— A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of ―say or speak‖ as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning ―tell beforehand‖。