Chapter_1

语言学第一章Chapter 1 Invitation to linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageJacobson——language has six functions:1. Referential指称功能: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative意动功能: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic寒暄功能: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual元语功能: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday ——that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to thehearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spokenand written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.Hu Zhuanglin——language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, suc h as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” t o talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealtsolely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances (and in language acquisition for example).1.8.2 Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties1, the characteristics of their functions2, and the characteristics of their speakers3. (123相互作用构成一个speech community 语言社团)1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the history and structure of formerly unwritten language, the emergence of language and the divergence of languages.1.8.4 Computational linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive描写vs. Prescriptive规定A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses the facts observed.It is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for the “correct” use of language.1.9.2 Synchronic共时vs. Diachronic历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study.The description of a language as it changes through the time is a diachronic study.The distinction between synchronic and dischronic studies is only theoretically clear.原因：①Languages are in a constant state of changing.②The language of any speech community is never uniform.③When a language changes, one set o f features are not suddenly replaced by another set of features.1.9.3 Langue 语言& parole言语Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.区别：①Langue is abstract but parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.②Langue is not actually spoken by anyone; parole is alwaysa naturally occurring event.③Langue is relatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concretesituations is called performance.Competence is the ideal language user`s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.。

注：电气工程及其自动化专业英语翻译 1~7面班级：1002班学号：20姓名：王定瑞PART 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC ENGINEERINGChapter 1 Circuit Fundamentals第1部分的电气工程基础第1章电路原理Electrostatic Charges静电荷Protons and electrons are parts of atoms that make up all things in our world. The positive charge of a proton is similar to the negative charge of an electron. However, a positive charge is the opposite of a negative charge. These charges are called electrostatic charges. Each charged particle is surrounded by an electrostatic field.质子和电子部件的原子构成一切事物在我们的世界。

正电荷的质子是类似于负电荷的电子。

然而,一个正电荷的反面是一个负电荷。

这些指控被称为静电荷。

每个带电粒子周围是一个静电场。

The effect that electrostatic charges have on each other is very important. They either repel (move away) or attract (come together) each other. It is said that like charges repel and unlike charges attract.这个效应,静电指控对方是非常重要的。

他们要么排斥(离开)或吸引(一起)每个其他。

chapter用法"Chapter" 是一个英语词汇，通常翻译成中文为"章节" 或"篇章"。

在不同的语境中，"chapter" 有不同的用法：1. 书籍和文学作品：在书籍和文学作品中，"chapter" 表示书或文学作品中的一个主要部分，通常用来划分书籍的内容。

每个"chapter" 可能包含一个特定的主题、情节或思想。

例如：• "Chapter 1: The Beginning"• "第一章：开始"2. 生活中的经历或事件：有时人们也用 "chapter" 来形容生活中的经历或事件，表示人生的不同阶段或经历的特定时期。

例如：• "This was a difficult chapter in my life."• "这是我生活中的一个艰难时期。

"3. 会议和讨论：在会议或讨论中，"chapter" 可能表示会议的不同议程或讨论的主要部分。

例如：• "Let's move on to the next chapter of our discussion."• "让我们继续进行我们讨论的下一个议程。

"总体而言，"chapter" 是一个多义词，其具体含义取决于上下文。

在文学和书籍中，它通常指代书籍的一个主要部分；在生活中，它可以用来描述人生的时期或经历；在会议和讨论中，它可能表示讨论的主要部分或议程。

1/ 1。

Chapter11. Given an account of the history of England from the Celtic settlement to the Nor man Conquest.●600 BC ,Celts (tribal)(Britons is a branch of Celts) began to migrate to the British Isles●55 BC-407 AD, Julius Caesar invaded Britain, defeated Celts, and began nearly four centuries ofRoman occupation●450 AD, The “Saxons”(the Teutonic or Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons, Jutes) ( originallyseafaring people along the coast of Denmark and Germany)came to the British Isles and drove the Celts to Wales, Scotland and Ireland, and settled down themselves and named the central part of the island “England”, became the masters of England and the ancestors of the English people.●Late 8-9th century, Viking(the Danes from Scandinavia ) invasions and be defeated by theWessex King, Alfred the Great (849-c899)●1066, Norman Conquest (from Normandy in northern France) : William, Duke of Normandy,defeated Harold (the last Saxon king) and became the King of England.2. How did Christianity come to England? Name the most important monasteries of this period.●It was in the year of 597 that Pope Gregory the Great of the Roman Catholic Church sent St.Augustine to England to convert the Anglo-Saxons. King Ethelbert of the Kent was the first to be converted and he founded in Kent the Canterbury Abbey. In the north, the earlier Christianized Ireland was engaged in sending missionaries to the Angles. The monasteries built by them in North Umbria were the earliest civilizing influences, and the well-known North Umbria School in literary history refers to the learned monks in these monasteries. From Canterbury and North Umbria, Christianity spread throughout the country.3. Analyze the artistic features of Beowulf, using the quoted passage to illustrate your points.①he most noticeable artistic feature of Beowulf is alliteration.②Another peculiar feature characteristic is the frequent use of kennings, to poetically present the meaning of one single word through a compound simile of two elements.③Finally, the general mood and spirit of Anglo-Saxon epic poetry is both solemn and animated, Chapter 21. What was the social and class reality of the Anglo-Norman period?●After 1066, the Anglo-Norman period began. The Norman was in origin Scandinavian. Theyprotected their feudal monarchy by a strong power. William the Conqueror divided the land of England among his followers who became barons, which the defeated Anglo-Saxons worked as serfs and peasants for them and were cruelly exploited and oppressed. Besides the king and the lords, one third of the land in the land in the country was owned by the Church. Norman-Frenchwas made the official language of the state, while English was ignored. The lowly people kept to English and gradually the invaders were assimilated. the English language survived, and becamea richer and more mature language after absorbing a great many French words into its vocabulary.At this time that the English language lost most of its old Anglo-Saxons flexions.2. Tell the three divisions of romances according to subject matter and give an example of the Matter of Britain.●Romances can be divided according to their subjects into three groups: Matter of France, Matterof Rome, and Matter of Britain. Matter of Britain: e.g. the Arthurian cycle which has its origin in the Celtic legends and consists of adventures of King Arthur and his Round-Table Knights, and Sir Gawain and Lancelot, Merlin the Magician, the quest of the Holy Grail.3. Say as much as you know about Chaucer‟s life and works.●Geoffrey Chaucer, a great narrative poet, is thought of as Father of English Poetry. He was born ina well-to-do wine merchant‟s family in London and studied at Oxford and Cambridge. In 1836he was elected during Member of Parliament. In 1389 he was made Clerk of the King‟s W orks at Westminster and Windsor. After he died, he was buried in the Westminster Abbey.●Chaucer‟s creative career is usually divided into three phases. 1, the phase of French influence, inwhich he did translations from French authors, e.g. the famous Romance of the Rose,and experimented with rhythm and structure though mostly following the conventional images and ideas. He favored and wrote allegorical visions and satires in the manner of middle Ages. The most significant work of this period is The Book of Duchess. 2, the phase of Italian influence, in which he showed an effort to learn from the Italian great poets such as Dante. The House of Fame, The Parliament of Fowls and Troilus and Criseyde are poems of this phase. 3, the English phases, or the phase of realism, in which his masterpiece The Canterbury Tales wad created.4. Comment on the artistic features of Canterbury tales.● 1 Realistic Presentation of Characters and Contemporary life. First of all we must mentionChaucer‟s realistic presentation of characters. The poet tries to give a comprehensive picture of the English society of his time and arranges to present a colorful gallery of pilgrims that covers a great range of social life.2 Chaucer‟s Humor: The Canterbury Tales wins readers with its humo r.He is well-skilled in mild and subtle irony to create humorous effects.3 unity Through a Framed Story: the Canterbury Tales is a framed story.5. Sum up Chaucer‟s achievements and contributions.●Chaucer learned from both French and Latin poetry and then worked out a unique style for theEnglish poetry. The realism and humanistic concerns demonstrated in his works looked forward to the coming English Renaissance. Because he uses the English of the London dialect tocompose poetry, it becomes a literary language, that is a language rich and expressive enough to use for literary purposes. We call the English used and developed by Chaucer and his contemporaries Middle English, which was the foundation of modern English.Chapter 31) How did England become the most powerful country during the Tudor reign?●King Henry Ⅷ of the Tudor House, who reigned from 1509 to 1547 broke from the RomanCatholic Church, dissolved all the monasteries and abbeys in England, confiscated their lands and made himself head of the Church of England. Henry Ⅷ also adopted policies to please the rich merchants, handicraftsmen and manufacturers who formed the newly-born middle classes.The Tudor reign reached its summit during the time of Queen Elizabeth, who adopted moderate policies to achieve a balance both between the rising middle class and the feudal lords and between the Protestants and the Catholics. It was a peaceful time and England becomes a powerful state.2) What does the word …renaissance‟ mean and why do we call this historical period the Englishrenaissance period?●Renai ssance is a fence word, meaning …rebirth‟ or …revival‟, and in particular context, it means therevival of arts and sciences of ancient Greece and Rome after the long years of neglect in the medieval time. In England at first a great number of classical works were translated into English in the 15th and 16th centuries and English scholars and men of letters showed a strong interest in ancient Greek and Roman science. They followed in the wake of the intellectual and literary movement which began in the 14th century in Italy and later spread to France, Spain, Holland and other western European countries.3) Give a brief account of Thomas More‟s life and his major work Utopia.●Thomas More (1478~1535), a Parliament member and a judge by profession .he devoted hisspare time to writing and wrote the famous book Utopia in Latin, which was published in 1516.In the book More meets a traveler at Antwerp, who has seen a place called Utopia relend of nowhere‟, where communism is adopted as the social system, education is offered to all people, including women, and religious differences are tolerated. More is remembered for Utopia, which is first real significant expression of the English humanist ideal.4）Name Spenser`s major literary work and tell what it is about.●Edmund Spenser (1552~1599)●The Shepheardes Calender(1579), Spenser`s first important work, is a pastoral poem of 12 parts,one part for one month of the year, giving descriptions monthly of the English countryside. Thepoem is written in the tradition of Virgil`s verse dialogues with characters of shepherds and shepherdesses, but the main themes embodied are love, poetry and religion.●The Faerie Queene (1569), Spenser`s major achievement, however, is unfinished. It is anallegorical romance in verse. According to his plan, there should be 12 books, each telling the adventures of one knight dispatched by the Faerie Queen, Gloria, who represents glory in the general and Queen Elizabeth in particular.5）What are Bacon`s chief contributions?●The Advancement of Learning (1605), his classifies all branches of learning, which had a greatinfluence on the 18th~century compilers of encyclopedias and the 19th~century Comtians. In his Latin work Novum Organum(1620) Bacon presents his theory of scientific method which teaches how to interpret nature, discusses natural history including several natural phenomena such as the winds, and gives examples of his new method in use. Bacon is regarded as a forerunner of modern science and scientific learning.6). Who was the greatest playwright before Shakespeare? Discuss one of his plays.●Christopher Marlowe●Tamberlaine, the Great (1587), written in blank verse, is the life story of Timur the Tartar. In part 1,Marlowe shows how Tamburlaine rose to power from a shepherd-robber by defeating the king of Persia. Then he conquered the Turkish Emperor and the Soldan of Egypt. Part 2 tells more of his conquests, which went as far as Babylon. The play ended with tamburlaine`s death. In Tamburlaine we see the Renaissance pursuit of man`s power and authority. He is ruthless toward his enemies, but at the same time is capable of passionate love for the daughter of the Egyptian Soldan.7). What kind of comedy is Ben Jonson`s special contribution? And as a playwright how different is Ben Jonson from SP?●Jonson‟s theory of “humours” reduces his characters to types who represent greed,vanity,falsehood. They are flat, one-sided and have no development. Unlike him, Shakespeare digs deep into human nature and depicts the complexities of human relations. Also, Ben Jonson advocates classic Roman and Greek masters, strictly observes the three unities and disapproves of any mixture of the tragic with the comic, while Shakespeare creates according to his own judgment and the taste of the audience, and is very flexible in his handing of drama rules set by his predecessors. he was not pleased with Shakespeare for some time and criticized him for lacking good education. Their differences were so obvious that later Samuel Johnosn described one as the poet of art and the other as the poet of nature.Chapter 41) 。

第1章招投标（Tendering）【国际工程实务英语】Chapter 1 招投标(Tendering) 第一节招标的类型Types of Bidding竞争性招标competitive bidding协商性招标negotiated bidding竞标与协商相结合的招标combined bidding and negotiation第二节招投标活动T endering Activities一、招投标程序T endering Procedure1、招标前的活动Pre-tendering activities●对承包商的招标初步意向询问Preliminary inquiry to contractors●对投标人的资格预审Pre-qualification of tenderers2、邀请招标，发放招标文件Inviting tenders and supplying documents●邀请信Letter of Invitation●投标者须知Instructions to Tenderers●合同条件：通用条件和专用条件Conditions of Contract：Consisting ofGeneral Conditions and ParticularConditions●投标书格式Form of Tender●图纸Drawings●技术规格书Specifications●工程量表Bill of Quantity●附加资料表Schedules of Additional Information●资料数据Information Data●回函信封（递送投标书的信封，为了确保准确无误的送达，上面印有业主的地址）Return envelope (An addressedenvelope for the return of tender toensure that each tenderer has the sameand correct address of the Employer) 3、承包商编制投标书[ 'envil?up ]Preparation of tender by contractors●考察现场Visit and inspect the site●如有疑问可向业主提出质询[ 'kwi?ri ]Make queries to the Employer (if any)●承包商对现场的形状和性质感到满意The contractor is satisfied with the form and nature of the site●向业主收集资料Collect data from the employer●对业主提供的数据资料进行解释Interpret the data provided by the Employer ●根据数据资料编制标书Prepare tender based on the data●承包商认为中标合同金额是正确和足够Satisfy himself as to correctness andsufficiency of the Accepted ContractAmount●应考虑到合同第13.7和第13.8款，关于成本的增加与减少的规定Consider the provision s in Sub-clauses13.7 & 13.8 regarding increase or decreaseof cost4、提交投标书---附上投标函和投标担保Tender Submission (with Letter of Tender and Tender Security)5、评标与授标Evaluation of Tender and Decision on Award 6、双方就保险条件达成协议Both parties agree on the terms of insurance7、颁发中标函Issue the Letter of Acceptance8、向业主提交履约担保Submission of Performance Security to the Employer9、签订合同Signing of Contract二、资格预审Prequalification●组织形式和/或合法地位、注册地点和主要经营地等原始文件的复印件[ ?'rid??n?l ]copies of original documents definingconstitution and/or legal status, place ofregistration and principal place of busines s ●最近五年中每年完成的工程总量的年度营业总额total annual turnover expressed as totalvolume of engineering work carried out in each of the five year●财务报告（包括最近五年中的损益表，平衡表和审计报告，随后一年的财务预测）financial report (including profit and lossstatement s, balance sheets and auditor’sreports for the past five years, and afinancial forecast / an estimated financedprojection for the subsequent year)●信贷额度的使用证据，其他财务资源的可用性evidence of access to lines of credit, and availability of otherfinancial resources●业主请求时，能（且已被授权）提供证明的银行的名称及地址[ '?:θ?raizd ]name and address of banker(s) who will (and have been authorized to) provide references upon quest by the Employer●作为总承包商最近五年从事的类似性质和规模的工程及目前工程的业绩的详细资料details of performance as prime contractor on works of a similar nature and volume over the past five years and on current works●一份关于执行包括所有权的详细资料在内的合同的承包商设备的主要条款的清单a list of major items of Contractor’sEquipment proposed for carrying out theContract including details of ownership.三、投标者须知Instructions to Tenderers1、说明Introduction1) 定义Definition2) 工程描述Description of Works3) 资金来源Source of Funds [ 'elid??bl ]4) 合格的投标人Eligible Tenderers5) 投标费用Cost of Tendering6) 现场考察Site Visit2、招标文件T endering Documents1) 招标文件内容Contents of Tendering Documents2) 招标文件的澄清Clarification of Tendering Documents3) 招标文件的修改Amendment of Tendering Documents3、投标文件的编制Preparation of Tenders1) 投标的语言Language of Tender2) 组成投标书的文件Documents Comprising the Tender3) 定价方法及投标报价Pricing and Tender prices4) 货币要求与汇率Currency Requirements and ExchangeRates5) 证明投标人合格和资格的文件Documents Establishing Tenderers’Eligibility and Qualification6) 投标担保Tender Security7) 投标有效期Tender Validity Period8) 标前会议Pre-tender Meeting9) 投标书的式样和签署Format and Signing of Tender4、投标书的提交Submission of Tenders1) 投标文件的密封和标记Sealing and Marking of Tenders2) 投标截止期Deadline for Submission of Tenders3) 迟交的投标书Late Tenders4) 投标文件的修改、替代与撤回Modification, Substitution andWithdrawal of Tenders [ s?bsti'tju:??n ] 5、开标与评标Opening and Evaluation of Tenders1) 开标Opening of Tenders2) 投标文件的澄清Clarification of Tender Documents3) 投标文件的初审Preliminary Examination of TenderDocuments4) 最终评标价的确定Determination of Final Evaluated TenderPrices5) 错误的修正Correction of Errors6) 评标Evaluation of Tenders6、授予合同Award of Contract1) 资格后审Post Qualification2) 合同授予标准Award Criteria3) 接收投标与拒绝任何或所有投标的权力Right to Accept Tender and to RejectAny or All Tenders4) 中标通知书Notification of Award /Letter of Acceptance5) 签订合同Signing of Contract6) 履约担保Performance Security7) 预付款担保Advance Payment Security附录A：投标保函格式Appendix A: Form of Tender Bond附录B：协议书格式Appendix B: Form of Agreement附录C：现场视察确认书Appendix C: Confirmation of Site Visit附录D：履约保函格式Appendix D: Form of Performance Bond 附录E：预付款保函格式Appendix E: Form of Advance PaymentBond附录F：预付款指南Appendix F: Guideline for AdvancePayment四、工程量表（工程量清单）Bill of Quantities (BOQ)1、预备Preliminaries （包括业主的要求及承包商的职责）1) 合同双方的名称Names of parties2) 工程的描述Description of the works3) 合同的形式及种类Form and type of contract4) 承包商将要提供的基本设施General facilities to be provided by thecontractor ……2、序言Preambles（包括……）1) 材料的质量及性能Quality and performance of materials2) 工艺标准Standard of Workmanship3) 材料及工艺的测试the testing of materials and workmanship 4) 材料及工艺样品Samples of materials and workmanship3、工程量明细表Breakdown of bill of quantitiesa) 工种工程量表trade bill of quantitiesb) 单位工程量表elemental bill of quantities4、主要成本和暂定金额Prime cost and provisional sums（备用款）5、附录Appendices [?'pendisi:z]1) 投标总结tender summary2) 一份主要承包商、分包商名单a list of the main contractors andsubcontractors3) 材料及主要承包商愿意指定分包商投标的工程的基本价目单a basic price list of materials andnominated subcontractor’s work for whichthe main contractor desires to tender五、投标决策Decision to Tender工程应该在规定时间内开工。