英语语言学教程课后整理

胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案1. Design feature:are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2.Function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics,et16. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).20．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds. 21．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22．Voicing:pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24．Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 25．Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26．Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.27． Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28．Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29.Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30．Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31．Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. 32．IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33．Suprasegmental:suprasegmental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.34．Suprasegmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.36. compoundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37.inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38.affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41.allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42.Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.44.free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45.lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)46.lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49.open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52.loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54.acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.55.loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.57.assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which ismore specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.58.dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59.folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous60.category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61.concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence,or between elements which are all present.63.paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element present and he others absent.64.immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65.endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.66.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67.deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.68.surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. 69.c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.ernment and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.municative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72.ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..74.textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75.conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76.denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77.connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78.reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79.reference: the use of anguage to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80.sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81.synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.plentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,absent.83.gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such aslong:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.84.converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitutea positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85.relational opposites:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other. Theshorter,better;worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86.hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87.superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88.semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with twovalues,e.g<+human>positionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90.selection restriction:semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that a particular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires a human subject.91.prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92.proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94.assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95.cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.96.context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97.frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98.inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinarysense,e.g.in a specific context.99.immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight. nguage comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.nguage production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.nguage production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106.modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107.parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108.propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110.psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuingdevelopmeng.municative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115.gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116.linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117.linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120.sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community. 121.variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.122.performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123.constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. 124.locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126.perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literalutterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knowswhy and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from theother:e.g.”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129.ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131.relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132.Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133.division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134.constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135.third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136.I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.137.direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. 138.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form. 139.indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140.narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141.narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.142.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144.narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.145.indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146.fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147.narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148.free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late. 149.direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..puter system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,diskdrives,programs,etc.puter literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.puter linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.153.Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154.programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.155.local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156.CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157.machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158.concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information, 160.annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information. rmational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retrieval system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of)the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162.document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retrieval.163.precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164.recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165.applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etcmunicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167.syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.168.interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.169.transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170.validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171.rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.172.hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of bothfrequency,i.e.overpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting thetarget,i.e.extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.173.discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174.integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.。

《英语语言学实用教程》课后练习提示Unit 1 Some Preliminaries about Language■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1. What do you think is essential to the emergence of language?The existence of social activities; the need to express diverse ideas, emotions, etc.; the need to communicate ideas to distant places; etc.2. Can our pets learn human languages? Why or why not?No. They are genetically not endowed with the capacity.3. What role does body language play in language communication?Omit.4. Naturally occurring “experiments” with so-called “wolf-children”, “bear-children”, “Mowgli”or “monkey-children” and other such feral youngsters have been widely reported for hundreds of years. None of these children could speak or understand speech and, indeed, most efforts to teach them language ended in failure. How would you account for the failure?The language acquisition device has to be triggered before a certain age (that of puberty). Sufficient expose to a language environment at the right time is essential to language acquisition.5. The following are some instances of using English for communication. What specific functiondoes each use of English serve in the following pictures?Informative (in the form of commanding)Directive (Advertising in the form of requesting)Directive (Persuading in the form of threatening)Directive (Recruiting)6．Iconicity of language is an aspect of language where form echoes meaning. Onomatopoeia, also known as “sound symbolism”, is one type of iconicity. Some researchers have found other evidence of iconicity. For example, words beginning with the sound combination sl- in English often have an unpleasant sense, as in slithering, slimy, slugs. Here are some questions:a. Is the “unpleasant” sense actually true of all, or even most, words beginning with sl- in English? No. e.g. slight.b. Are there any other sounds or sound combinations that you associate with particular meanings? Gliding: slide, slip, slippery;Rolling: tumble, crumble, stumblec. How about the vowel sounds in words that identify near-to-speaker concepts (this, near, here) versus far-from-speaker concepts (that, far, there)? What is the difference? Is it a general pattern distinguishing terms for things that are near versus far in English? What about the case inChinese?Front vowels for near-speaker concepts; central or back vowels for far-from-speaker concepts. There seems to be a similar kind of pattern in Chinese. C.f. 近jin /远yuan；这zhe /那na7. In many of the world’s languages there are so-called nursery names for parents. In English, for example, corresponding to the word mother is the nursery name mama, and for father one finds dada and papa. There is remarkable similarity across different languages in the form of these nursery names for parents. For example, in Chinese and Navajo ma corresponds to English mama. Why do you think that this is the case?Bilabials are learned and produced first because they are the easiest.8.a. What are some of the changes which appear to have taken place in the child’s ability to use English during that period?Like the basically proper use of interrogatives and the correct use of inflection.b. What do these changes suggest about the order of language acquisition?Complete sentences are acquired later than elliptical ones. Inflection is acquired at a late stage.Unit 2 The Sounds of English■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1.a. Does the string of sounds mean anything to you?If we want to talk really good, we’ll have to invent vowels.b. What does the picture suggest to you about the role of consonants and vowels in English? Consonants are the backbones of syllables and words.2. Some phonetic transcriptions below are English words, some are not existing words but are possible words or nonsense words, and others are definitely “foreign”or impossible because they violate English sequential constraints. Specify each of the a-e cases as illustrated.Word Possible Foreign ReasonExample:[pa:k][tif][lkib]a. [ŋa:f] √[☠] must occur after a vowel.b. [ski:] skic.[knait] √d.[meij] √[ ] must occur initially before avowel.e.[blaft] √3. In English, the /i/ vowel becomes almost as long as /i:/ under certain conditions (written as /i:/ for convenience). Consider the examples listed below:a. List the phonemes that condition the change.voiced consonantsb. State the rule that seems involved.[i] is lengthened before a voiced] consonant.Note: Start with the fact that the /i/ is basic and that short /i/ becomes long /i:/. The change from short /i/ to long /i:/ is phonologically determined; that is, the lengthening takes place in the presence of certain phonemes. A good strategy is to first list the phonemes to the right of long /i:/, then list those to the left. As an answer to (a), then, one would propose that /i/ become /i:/ whenever the phonemes to the right (/d, m, l, b, z, j, ŋ/) occur immediately after that vowel. This hypothesis looks promising because, in fact, the short variant /i/ never occurs before these segments. The next question is, what is it about the phonemes on the right that unify them as a class? One may find that these phonemes are all voiced ([+voice]), and, in fact, the short /i/ never lengthens before voiceless segments. Thus the answer to (b) is that the vowel /i/ is lengthened before (the natural class of) voiced consonants.4. The use of plural–s in English has three different, but very regular, phonological alternatives.a. Can you work out the set of sounds which regularly precedes each of these alternatives?/s/ to words like ship, bat, book and cough;voiceless plosives [voiceless]/z/ to words like cab, lad, cave, rag and thing;after voiced consonants [voiced]/əz/ to words like bus, bush, judge, church and maze.after /s/, /☞/, /d✞/, /z/b. What features does each of these sets have in common?[palatal] or [alveolar]+[fricative]c. Is there any pattern regarding the different pronunciations of the past tense marker?[t] after voiceless consonants except [t]; [d] after voiced consonants except [d]; [id] after [t] or [d].d. Do you think that one of these phonological forms for –ed is more basic, with the others beingderived from it in a regular way? Which, and how?[d] is more basic. [t] after devoicing. [id] after epenthesis (i.e. addition of a sound).5. Below are three columns of words with different patterns of stress:a. How is stress distributed in each column?penultimate for A; last syllable for B; on the last syllable.b. In Column B, what kinds of vowels appear in the last syllable? How does the syllabic structure of Column C differ from A and B?In Column B, long vowels or diphthongs appear in the last syllable.The last syllable of the words in C ends in consonant clusters.[Note] For “usurp”, “r” may be pronounced as in /ju(:)΄zə(r)p/.6. The following is a list of words that are spelt in a similar way:fuddy-duddy hocus-pocus namby-pambyfuzzy-wuzzy hurly-burly razzle-dazzlehanky-panky lovey-dovey roly-polyhelter-skelter mumbo-jumbo super-dupera. What similarity can you spot among the words listed?All pairs are the same except the initial consonants.b. What effects may such words have in common when they are put into use?Redundancy, repetitiveness, etc.7. Write the phonetic transcription for each of the following words.Omit.8. Read the following words or phrases and point out the phonological processes that yield assimilation.(a) pat /pæt/ pan /pãn/ sat /sæt/ Sam /sãm/Nasalization rule: [-nasal] →[+nasal] /_____ [+nasal](b) since /sins/ sink /siŋk/ hint /hint/ dink /diŋk/Velarization rule: [-velarl] →[+velar] /_____ [+velar](c) five pits /faifpits/ love to /l∧ftə /Devoicing rule: [+voiced →[-voiceless] /_____ [-voiceless]9.a. Comment on the use of rhyme, alliteration, and assonance(that is, use of syllables with a common vowel, as in “come” - “love”) in this poem. How are they used to stress the sense of superficiality and lack of meaning the poet is trying to convey here? (Note especially the role of rhyming pairs of monosyllables and their effect on meter.)assonance: [ri:t☞] [skri:n] [spi:t☞][♈ud] [huk] [buk]The ryhmed words, all monosyllabic and stressed, are semantically unrelated and separated.Alliteration is only sporadically used. Assonance suggests apparent connection but actual disconnectedness.b. Comment more carefully on meter in the first two stanzas. How does it contribute to the meaning? How and where does it work against our expectations?Lack of regularity and thus unpredictability.10. Collect some data to show that English advertisements, newspaper headlines, English songs,and presidential addressee sometimes make use of alliteration and rhyming.Omit.11. What interesting things do speech errors tell us about language and its use? Collect a few casesof slips of tongue from daily conversations.Speech errors are often explainable, often semantically motivated.Unit 3 The Units of English■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1. Point out the word-formation process that applies to each of the following words: Affixation: worsen endearmentConversion: dust (v.) plane (v.)Compounding: laptop airsick daughter-in-lawBack-formation: edit televise peddle swindle (swindler)Shortening: tec (detective) prof (professor) bike (bicycle)Blending: brunch urinalysis (urine + analysis) fantabulous (fantasy + fabulous)Initialism: WTO (World Trade Organization)Acronym: laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football Association)Coinage (in the forms of invention and eponym—words derived from proper names): Xerox nylon jumbo (name of an elephant brought to the United States by P. T. Barnum)2. How are the open-class words and the closed-class words different from each other?Open-class words:(1)large in number;(2)easy to expand;(3)mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Closed-class words:(1) small in number;(2) stable;(3) basically pronouns, prepositions, function words, etc.3. What are the inflectional morphemes in the following phrases?(a) the government’s policies ’s; -s(b) the latest news -est(c) Isn’t it snow ing! -ing(d) two frightened cows-ed; -s4. Suppose a speaker of English invents the following italicized English words as a joke: “they’re always causing a commotion. I tell them not to commote, but they insist on being big commoters.” What process of word creation does this example illustrate, and why? What do the new words mean?It is a process of back-formation. “Commote”means the act of causing disorder and “commoter” means someone who causes disorder.5. Count the function words in the following passage excerpted from Stephen Crane’s The Red Badge of Courage (p.1).The cold passed reluctantly from the earth, and the retiring fogs revealed an army stretched out on the hills, resting. As the landscape changed from brown to green, the army awakened, and began to tremble with eagerness at the noise of rumors. It cast its eyes upon the roads, which were growing from long troughs of liquid mud to proper thoroughfares. A river, amber- tinted in the shadow of its banks, purled at the army's feet; and at night, when the stream had become of a sorrowful blackness, one could see across it the red, eyelike gleam of hostile campfires set in the low brows of distant hills.Note: Function words are those that have little semantic content of their own and chiefly indicate grammatical relationships. Common function words include prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. They are a lso called “form word s” or “functor s”.6. Which of the following contain verb phrase idioms? For each idiom, provide a paraphrase withone word instead of the idiom.(1) a. John went in for stamp collecting. [like]b. Jane went in for a check-up.(2) a. John came down with the guns.b. Jane came down with the flu. [contracted](3) a. John came up with the guns.b. Jane came up with a brilliant idea. [got](4) a. That music does n’t exactly turn me on. [excited]b. Jane didn’t turn on the tap.(5) a. John passed over the house.b. The president passed over the peace proposal. [disregarded](6) a. John ran after dinner.b. John ran after Jane. [pursued]7. In English, some intransitive verbs can be converted into a special type of transitive verbs called causative verbs. Here are some examples. Can you give more examples?halt, alter, end8. The distinction between auxiliary verbs and main verbs is a basic one in English. Auxiliaryverbs are fronted to form questions whereas main verbs cannot be fronted in this fashion.The following sentences illustrate three additional differences between main verbs and auxiliary verbs. What are these differences?placement of “not”; contraction possible; tag questions; etc.9. Count the number of clauses in the following paragraphs and categorize them into different types.The amount of stress a person can withstand depends very much on the individual. Some people are not afraid of stress, and such characters are obviously prime material for managerial responsibilities. Others lose heart at the first signs of unusual difficulties. When exposed to stress, in whatever form, we react both chemically and physically. In fact we make choice between “flight and fight” and in more primitive days the choice s made the differencebetween life and death. The crises we meet today are unlikely to be so extreme, but however little the stress, it involves the same response. It is when such a reaction lasts long, through continued exposure to stress, that health becomes endangered. Such serious conditions as high blood pressure and heart diseases have established links with stress. Since we cannot remove stress from our lives (it would be unwise to do so even if we could), we need to find ways to deal with it.(1) a person can withstand(2) The amount of stress depends very much on the individual(3) Some people are not afraid of stress(4) such characters are obviously prime material for managerial responsibilities(5) Others lose heart at the first signs of unusual difficulties(6) When exposed to stress(7) (When exposed to stress,) in whatever form(8) we react both chemically and physically(9) In fact we make choice between “flight and fight”(10) in more primitive days the choices made the difference between life and death(11) we meet today(12) The crises are unlikely to be so extreme(13) however little the stress(14) it involves the same response(15) when such a reaction lasts long, through continued exposure to stress(16) It is …. that….(17) health becomes endangered(18) Such serious conditions as high blood pressure and heart diseases have established links withstress(19) Since we cannot remove stress from our lives(20) it would be unwise to do so(21) even if we could(22) we need to find ways to deal with it(6), (7), (13), (19), and (21) are adverbial clauses (of time, reason, concession, supposition, etc.);(1) and (11) are attributive clauses; (15) is a predicative clause. Others are either independent clauses like (3), (4), (5), (9), (10), and (18), or the main clauses in the complex sentences, like (2), (8), (12), (20), and (22).10. The following is an excerpt from James Joyce’s Ulysses. What has been deleted in many of itssentences? What effect does Joyce achieve by using this deletion?No, not like that. A barren land, bare waste. Vulcanic lake, the dead sea: no fish, weedless, sunk deep in the earth. No wind would lift those waves, grey metal, poisonous foggy waters. Brimstone they called it raining down: the cities of the plain: Sodom.Gomorrah. Edom. All dead names. A dead sea in a dead land, grey and old. Old now. It bore the oldest, the first race. A bent hag crossed from Cassidy’s clutching a naggin bottle by the neck. The oldest people. Wandered far away over all the earth, captivity to captivity, multiplying, dying, being born everywhere. It lay there now. now it could bear no more.Dead.The deletion gives people the impression that the thoughts of the character are not smooth, coherent, complete, etc.Unit 4 The Structures of English (I)■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1. It is important that the rules of syntax specify all and only the grammatical sentences of the language. Why is it important to say “only”? That is, what would be wrong with a grammar that specified as grammatical sentences all of the truly grammatical ones plus a few that were not grammatical?The grammatical rules will become invalid because we will not know which sentences are grammatical.2. Analyze how the following sentences are incorrect according to English grammar.a. Snowing outside.“It is/was” cannot be deleted.b. Jane loves John, she calls him every day.This is a run-on sentence. The sentence contains two independent sentences.c. There are two boys play football on the ground.The sentence contains two finite verbs.d. Jane is very kind to John, for example, she prepares dinner for him whenever she can.This is a run-on sentence. “For example” is not a conjunction and thus cannot link two clauses into a complex sentence.e. Diligent is very important to succeed.“Diligent” cannot function as the subject because it is an adjective. In English, the subject as well as the object must be nominal.f. John find the two book very interesting.There is a lack of grammatical concord in number between the subject and the predicate verb.g. John is a great leader, however, he is sometimes too strict.This is a run-on sentence. “However” is not a conjunction and thus cannot link two clauses into a complex sentence.h. Although Jane loves John, but she never says “I love you” to him.In English, “although” and “but” do not co-occur.i. The reason Jane loves John is because he is kind to her.In English, we say “the reason (….) is that ….j. – Have you seen John lately, Jane?-- Not seen.When answering a question, one repeats the auxiliary verb, rather than the main verb.k. Finish the job in two days is impossible.In English, the subject as well as the object must be nominal. “Finish the job” is verbal rather than nominal.l. Why Jane didn’t go to Bei jing with John?There must be the movement (or addition) of the auxiliary when forming an interrogative sentence in English. The correct form is Why didn’t Jane go to Beijing with John?3. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved:(1) Smoking grass can be nauseating.a. To smoke grass can be nauseating.b. Grass for smoking can be nauseating.(2) John finally decided on the boat.a. On the boat John finally made a decision.b. John finally decided to use (buy, etc.) the boat.(3) Jane’s appointment was shocking.a. Jane’s appointment of someone was shocking.b. Jane’s being appointed by someone was shocking.(4) Old men and women are hard to live with.a. Both old men and old women are hard to live with.b. Women and old men and are hard to live with.(5) The governor is a dirty street fighter.a. The governor is a fighter against dirty street.b. The governor is a street fighter who is mean and corrupt.(6) I cannot recommend him too highly.a. I cannot recommend him too highly because he is not so good.b. I can recommend him as highly as I can because he is so good.4. Questions typically come from a first-person speaker and are addressed to a second-person hearer. Can you relate this use of questions to the fact that you is deleted from abbreviated questions? Can any subject be deleted from abbreviated questions as long as use and context make the deletion recoverable?Like the book?Fancy meeting John Here?Want to have a cigarette?When questions are used to make an offer, seek information, etc., the understood “you” can be deleted.5. Give the passive version of the following sentences.(1) Phil watered the garden too much.The garden was too much watered by Phil.(2) Bill expected me to leave soon.I was expected to leave soon by Bill.(3) The doctor expected the technician to develop the X-rays fast.a. The technician was expected by the doctor to develop the X-rays fast.b. The doctor expected the X-rays to be developed fast by the technician.c. The X-rays were expected by the doctor to be developed fast by the technician.6. Study the following sentences and analyze them in terms of sentence patterns.a. John seems happy. [SVC]b. The girls sing quite often. [SV]c. They elected Bush president again. [SVOC]d. Chasing cats is fun for dogs. [SVC]e. Jane sent John a bunch of roses. [SVOO]f. John never keeps his room clean. [SVOC]g. The film lasted two hours. [SV A]h. John let Jane out. [SVOC]Unit 5 The Structures of English (II)■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1. What differences and similarities exist between conversation and written discourse (text)? Similarities:a. both are rule-governed and structured.b. both are communicative by nature.Differences:CONVERSATION DISCOURSE/TEXTa. often spontaneous and transient a. often involving much planningb. involving two or more people b. monologicc. often fraught with errors c. usu. error-freed. often informal or colloquial d. generally formal2. What is the typical global or macro structure of a data-driven MA thesis /a note of thanks / aresum⑥?The main body of an M.A thesis; Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Results and Discussion, Conclusion.A note of thanks includes terms of address, words of thanks, reason(s) for giving thanks, apromise of some reward, complimentary close, and signature.A resum⑥generally includes the heading, name, correspondence address, educationalbackground, occupational background, personals (such as age/date of birth, sex, marital status, etc.).3. The following conversation is taken from Harold Pinter’s The Birthday Party. What aspects ofthis fragment of conversational speech would you point to as characteristic features of this type of language-in-use?A great deal of ellipsis; informal.4. a. A story can be divided into orientation, evaluation, complicating action, and resolution.Analyze the texts in terms of these categories (not all of these will be present in all texts).Note: Orientation identifies the participant(s) in the narrative and provides the necessarybackground information; evaluation is used when one wants to make clear the significance being attributed to the event(s) and shows the narrator’s personal judgment or attitude; by means of complicating action, the narrator builds the dramatic structure or plot and sets it in motion; the narrative ends with a resolution to signal the result or consequence of the complicating action.(a) One day some people moved in a house[0]. The army ant gobbled up the house[C]. So thepeople had to start all over again[R].(b) Once there was a parrot and she laid an egg[0]. The egg didn’t hatch and the mother parrot,whose name was Sheila, started crying. One day Sheila heard a peck-peck and the baby bird walked out[C]. The mother bird was very happy[R].(c) Once upon a time there was a lady bug who was busy eating aphids. There are plants in thegarden. The lady bug is always in the garden. Every day the lady bug eats aphids. The lady bug is always on plants. The lady bug is always catching aphids[O].(d) Once there was a shark and there was another shark[0] and they ate fishes and they got sofat that they exploded. The sea got so hot that it got on fire and all the fish died[C] and sharks and plants died and the sea was not there[R].(e) One day I planted a seed [0] and I waited and waited and waited until I was an old man.Then it grew a little bit [C]and I died[R].b. Are there any examples here that are not narrative (i.e., that do not use temporally orderednarrative clauses)?c. There is no development of plot.c. Causal and/or chronological sequence in a text may not be explicitly specified. Give twoexamples where they are established by implication.One day Sheila heard a peck-peck and the baby bird walked out. The mother bird was very happy.5. Find two more examples of each from novels by such authors as James Joyce, Henry James, and William Faulkner.Omit.6. An ad is a short discourse. Study the following ad and analyze the way it is constructed. Discuss the perspective employed and its effect on communication.a. by parallelism;b. The ad takes the perspective of those who stress about the brochure, fret about the expense, are bored with some common color and/or business.c. The perspective is effective in that it appeals to people by addressing their concerns.Unit 6 The Meaning of English (I)■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1. a. How would you describe the oddness of these sentences in terms of semantic features?(1) Lighting is non-human and thus cannot do anything willingly.(2) A cat is non-human and thus cannot study linguistics.(3) A table is inanimate and thus cannot listen.b. Semantic violations are frequent in poetry. For example, we may say “a week/hour/century ago”, but usually do not say “a table/dream/mother ago”. However, Dylan Thomas does write “a grief ago”. How would you account for the effect of such usage?The usage adds a durational feature to grief for poetic effect.c. Can you find more similar use of language in English literature?The following are from e. e. cummings: “the six subjunctive crumbs twitch”, “a man …wearing a round jeer for a hat”.2. While “listen” and “hear” are semantically related, we usually say “we listen and we hear”.Why is this order reversed in the picture?Those disabled who may go deaf need to recover their hearing with the help of donators. If they can get the help needed they may recover their hearing and listen to others like normal people.3. Which of the following opposites are gradable, non-gradable, or reversive?gradable: high- low fair- unfairnon-gradable: absent- present fail- passreversives/converse antonyms/relational opposites: up- down left- right4. Study the following pairs of words. What is the basic lexical relation between these pairs of words?(1) shallow deep antonymy (gradable)(2) mature ripe s ynonymy(3) suite sweet homonymy (homophones)(4) table furniture hyponymy(5) single married antonymy (non-gradable / complementary)(6) move run hyponymyFor “mature” and “ripe”, give an example where one can be used for collocation but not the other. For “suite” and “sweet”, give another pair with a similar semantic relation. For “move” and “run”, give more words that are in the same semantic relation to “move” as “run”.Mature/ripe: a mature player a ripe timeSuite/sweet: flour / flower past / passedMove/run: dash, hop, walk, jog, etc.5. The following are more pairs of antonyms:alive-dead male-female boy-girl present-absent true-false hit-missa. Which of the following are complementary opposites?alive-dead male-female boy-girl true-false hit-missb. How do you account for the following usages or misuses:half dead/alive *very dead/alivemore dead than alive *A is more dead than B“dead/alive”are complementary opposites and thus they do not take degree modifiers. “half。

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazellesin the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, someguidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associativemeaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。

What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language.----A person who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.Prescriptive &Descriptive规定性&描写性(定义、区别)Prescriptive ---- If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)Descriptive ---- If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use (modern linguistic)Synchronic & Diachronic 共时性对历时性（定义）Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time in history (modern linguistics)Diachronic study---- description of a language as it changes through time (historical development of language over a period of time)Langue &Parole (F. de Saussure) 语言对话语Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Competence &Performance (Chomsky) 语言能力对语言运用（定义）Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of this languagePerformance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Traditional grammar & Modern linguistics 传统语法对现代语言学（区别）Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based frameworkThe design features of human language (Charles Hockett)Arbitrariness（任意性）声音和事物之间的关联Productivity/Creativity（能产性）Duality（双层性）Displacement（移位性）Cultural transmission（文化传承）Phonetics语音学(定义和分类)Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the wor ld’s language.Three branches of phonetics（发音语音学，听觉语音学，声学语音学）Articulatory phonetics----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”Auditory phonetics----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”Acoustic phonetics----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.Classification of vowels（元音）Monophthongs or pure/single vowels（单元音）Diphthongs or gliding vowels （双元音）According to which part of the tongue is held highest in theprocess of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:。

（完整word版）新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递The design features mentioned in the course book include arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission.By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for.The feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, includingsentences they have never heard before.Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system, which consists of two levels. At the lower level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless, while at the higher level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units, unlimited in number.The feature of displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or unreal, in the past, present, or future.Cultural transmission, in contrast to genetic transmission, refers to the fact that human babies, though born with the ability to acquire a language, must be taught to use it.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

Exercisesto Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech munity.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard〞behaviour in using language, i.e. to tellpeople what they should day and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to bedescriptive;petence:Chomsky defines petence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic munication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language：Language is a form of human munication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.〞2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be bined freely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one to one relationshipbetween signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.3.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do bodylanguage and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is petence and performance an importantdistinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic petence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinitenumbers of sentences and to recognizegrammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’spetence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of petence, notperformance. The distinction of the two terms “ petence and performance〞represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say petence and performance is an importantdistinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways:Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditionalgrammar. The two are plementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[] voiced dental fricative2)[] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[] velar nasal4)[] voiced alveolar stop5)[] voiceless bilabial stop6)[] voiceless velar stop7)[] (alveolar) lateral8)[] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate;kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive []a voiced labio-dental fricative []a voiceless velar plosive []4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [:] is produced with the lips spread, this resembling a smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [] being velar while [] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology:Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to the task of munication.Phone:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic munication are all phonesPhoneme:Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particularlanguage.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English. pare the words peak and speak, for instance.The // in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [] while the // in speak is unaspirated, phonetically[＝]. [ ,] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme //. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are calledSuprasegmental features.Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited〞and “waded〞follows anotheralveolarplosive. [d] in “waved〞follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped〞follows voicelessconsonants, there being voicingassimilation.3. which of the following would be phonologicallyacceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl〞and “tritch〞4.Why can we not use the sequence [kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs pare the position of the stress. ment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the followingutterances as indicated by the bold type:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wanted to do thisto day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.pound: Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard,snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats,as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to, e.g.the plural morpheme in “dogs〞.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.2.p lete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme〞is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expressionand content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one? What isits relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Definethe following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntacticrelationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories Syntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituentsSurface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. Theme:The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme:All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmatic andparadigmaticrelations?As the relationbetween a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents. Butthe main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g.the love of God. In terms of both the tree diagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units, words and sentences in particular. Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world. Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes. Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context.Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy:a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym)semantic ponent: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values, e.g. [+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same, one ofthem will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless〞, which has been replaced by “radio〞. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they may not be considered to besynonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed. The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalk is a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.Illocutuonary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle: in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds,a general principle which all participants are expectedto observe. He calls this guiding principle the Cooperative Principle, CPfor short.. It runs as follows: "make your conversational contribution such as isrequired, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of thetalk exchange in which you are engaged.〞Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable to thelistener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and howhe violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle(CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin〞is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody“Can you open the door?〞he answered “Yes〞but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door〞is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes〞but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?〞he answers “Nothing.〞What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing〞will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing〞here means “Nothing interesting〞. If A adds after “Nothing〞“The workers are on strike today〞or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight〞, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’ will be cancelled.。

《语言学教程》（第五版）英文版读书笔记《语言学教程》是一本全面介绍语言学基本概念、理论和方法的英文教材，涵盖了语音、音系、形态、句法、语义、语用、社会语言学和语言变化等领域的内容。

本书采用了丰富的实例和分析方法，让读者能够深入了解语言学的细节和精髓。

本次读书笔记将从整体结构、核心概念、具体章节和思考题四个方面进行总结。

一、整体结构本书共分为18章，按照语言学的各个分支领域进行组织。

每章都以一个具体的主题为核心，通过讲解、举例、分析等方式，向读者呈现该领域的基本概念、理论和研究方法。

每章末尾还提供了关键词和思考题，便于读者巩固所学内容和进行深入思考。

全书结构清晰，内容丰富，具有很强的系统性。

二、核心概念本书涉及的核心概念包括语言的性质、语言的分类、语言的演变、语言的交际功能、语言的内部结构、语言的习得和第二语言习得等。

这些概念是语言学研究的基础，对于理解语言学的各个分支领域具有重要的意义。

本书在介绍这些概念时，采用了通俗易懂的语言和生动的实例，使读者能够轻松地理解和掌握这些概念。

三、具体章节第一章：语言的性质本章介绍了语言的定义、语言与文化的关系以及语言的多样性。

重点讲解了语言的符号性质和非任意性，强调了语言与文化之间的密切联系以及语言在不同文化中的差异。

此外，本章还介绍了语言在人类生活中的重要性以及语言习得的必要性。

第二章：语言的分类本章介绍了语言的分类方法，包括形态分类法和功能分类法。

形态分类法主要依据语言的词汇和语法特征进行分类，而功能分类法则更注重语言在实际交际中的作用。

本章还详细介绍了世界上各种语言的分布情况以及汉语和英语的分类地位。

第三章：语言的演变本章介绍了语言演变的定义和原因，分析了语言演变的规律和趋势。

重点讲解了语音、语法和词汇方面的演变，并通过实例展示了不同语言在不同历史时期的演变过程。

此外，本章还介绍了语言演变的研究方法和意义。

第四章：语言的交际功能本章介绍了语言的交际功能，包括信息传递、情感表达、社交联系和权力关系等。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版 课后练习题 答案Chapter 1 Introduction1.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2.What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1)phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2)phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language a s the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speechis prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its usersto record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languagesthat can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and tohim competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett toshow that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement”means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not geneticallytransmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration. 答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech i s more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is thetranscription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h”is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think willbe more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?–答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are。

《语言学教程》重点笔记（2020年）语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。

1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。

例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。

任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。

（2）句法层面上的任意性。

（3）任意性和规约性。

2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。

话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。

因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。

二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。

3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。

4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。

因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。

语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。

移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。

词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。

他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。

5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。

6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。

元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。

比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。

这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。

《英语语言学实用教程》教学提示Unit 1 Some Preliminaries about Language[Check your understanding]State whether each of the following statements is True or False.(1) There is universal agreement about the origin of language. F(2) Pet dogs can speak human languages. F(3) All human infants can speak some language. FNote: All normal human infants can learn to speak some language.(4) By creativity we mean the creative use of language as often practiced by poets. FNote: By creativity we mean that we can always create and understand new sentences never used before.(5) With different cultures there will be different languages. FNote: Some cultures can share the same language.(6) Not all uses of language are meant to convey new information. TNote: Example: language used for phatic communion is not meant to convey new information.■ In-Class Activities1. ASK:(1) What does “language” mean in each of the context s?a. a natural language; language in particular.b. a human-specific tool for communication; language in general.c. individual style of language use.d. a metaphorical way of referring to bees’ system of communication.(2) Is there any other context in which the use of the word means something else?Yes. Example: language for the computer like C+2. ASK:(1) What if there were no language?Omit.(2) What if there were only one language the world over?Omit.(3) What can we learn from this Bible story?Language is powerful as a tool of human communication.3. ASK:(1) Do you think the two statements are equally probable, and if not, why not?(a) is more likely than (b), because the word as the basic unit of meaning that can occurindependently in language is finite in number, whereas the sentence as composed of words, though almost infinite in number, is made possible by our knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. We can always produce and understand sentences that we never come across before. In that sense, no sentence is really new.(2) In what context do we make the second statement?When we focus our attention on the meaning of a sentence or when we are concerned with the form of a sentence as found in a language class.4. ASK:(1) Are there onomatopoeic words in Chinese?Yes. e.g. “哗啦”、“扑通”、“喀嚓”.(2) Does the existence of onomatopoeic words overthrow the claim that language is arbitrary?No. Onomatopoeic words account for a very limited percentage in the vocabulary of a language.5. ASK:(1) Can one really invent a language of one’s own?No.(2) If not, why?A language comes into being and use by convention or agreement among its speakers.6. ASK:(1) Is there any basic flaw in this experiment?The process is not strictly controlled. There may have been some coincidence. The sample size is too small for the experiment to be valid.(2) Do you think we really can answer the question about the beginning of language?No, at least in the present condition where/when we cannot perform experiments on the human brain, the key organ of speech.7. ASK:(1) Can you identify the most likely order (from least to most advanced) of these samples?C→B→A(2) What features in each child’s utterances can you use as evidence to support your ordering?Child A: good syntax except for improper question form.Child B: visible development of syntax; overgeneralizationChild C: Not much syntax; two-word utterances; telegraphic sentences (sentences that contain only content words but lack function words)8. ASK:(1) It is often assumed that children imitate adults in the course of language acquisition. Canimitation account for the above production on the part of the child?Not wholly. There is counter evidence against the assumption, like the overgeneralization “go-ed” for “went”.(2) What distinguishes the child’s production from that of the adult?Overgeneralization of “-ed” for the past tense as shown by “holded”.9. ASK:(1) How do adults reinforce the process of children’s acquisition as exemplified here?They use explicit correction.(2) Do children know what they are doing wrongly?Not exactly.(3) Do the adults succeed in their reinforcement?Not always, at least.(4) How should we treat the “mistakes” that children make while acquiring their mother tongue?We may ignore them sometimes, although some amount of reinforcement may turn out to be helpful.10. ASK:(1) Do children learn through structured or simplified input, as suggested?Not always. There is evidence for both sides.(2) Can you offer some examples illustrating, representing the way adults talk to infants?Omit.Note: Motherese is characterized by shorter sentences, higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, higher proportion of content words to function words, simple syntax, more interrogatives and imperatives, more repetitions. Yet it is not syntactically simpler. Rather, it may include syntactically complex sentences such as questions: Do you want your juice now?Embedded sentences: Mommy thinks you should sleep now. Imperatives: Pat the dog gently! Negatives with tag questions: We don’t want to hurt him, do we?Indeed, it is fortunate that motherese is not syntactically restricted. If it were, children might not have sufficient information to extract the rules of their language.11. ASK(1) What measures do you suggest for protecting dialects as well as languages?Omit.(2) Do you think that someday people all over the world will speak only one language, or somedayno dialect will exist?Omit.12. ASK:Are there any universals that you think all languages share but are not mentioned here?E.g. All languages have internal structures.All languages have numericals.■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1. What do you think is essential to the emergence of language?The existence of social activities; the need to express diverse ideas, emotions, etc.; the need tocommunicate ideas to distant places; etc.2. Can our pets learn human languages? Why or why not?No. They are genetically not endowed with the capacity.3. What role does body language play in language communication?Omit.4. N aturally occurring “experiments” with so-called “wolf-children”, “bear-children”, “Mowgli”or “monkey-children” and other such feral youngsters have been widely reported for hundreds of years. None of these children could speak or understand speech and, indeed, most efforts to teach them language ended in failure. How would you account for the failure?The language acquisition device has to be triggered before a certain age (that of puberty). Sufficient expose to a language environment at the right time is essential to language acquisition.5. The following are some instances of using English for communication. What specific functiondoes each use of English serve in the following pictures?Informative (in the form of commanding)Directive (Advertising in the form of requesting)Directive (Persuading in the form of threatening)Directive (Recruiting)6．Iconicity of language is an aspect of language where form echoes meaning. Onomatopoeia, also known as “sound symbolism”, is one type of iconicity. Some researchers have found other evidence of iconicity. For example, words beginning with the sound combination sl- in English often have an unpleasant sense, as in slithering, slimy, slugs. Here are some questions:a. Is the “unpleasant” sense actually true of all, or even most, words beginning with sl- in English? No. e.g. slight.b. Are there any other sounds or sound combinations that you associate with particular meanings? Gliding: slide, slip, slippery;Rolling: tumble, crumble, stumblec. How about the vowel sounds in words that identify near-to-speaker concepts (this, near, here) versus far-from-speaker concepts (that, far, there)? What is the difference? Is it a general pattern distinguishing terms for things that are near versus far in English? What about the case in Chinese?Front vowels for near-speaker concepts; central or back vowels for far-from-speaker concepts. There seems to be a similar kind of pattern in Chinese. C.f. 近jin /远yuan；这zhe /那na7. In many of the world’s languages there are so-called nursery names for parents. In English, for example, corresponding to the word mother is the nursery name mama, and for father one finds dada and papa. There is remarkable similarity across different languages in the form of these nursery names for parents. For example, in Chinese and Navajo ma corresponds to English mama. Why do you think that this is the case?Bilabials are learned and produced first because they are the easiest.8.a. What are some of the changes which appear to have taken place in the child’s ability to use English during that period?Like the basically proper use of interrogatives and the correct use of inflection.b. What do these changes suggest about the order of language acquisition?Complete sentences are acquired later than elliptical ones. Inflection is acquired at a late stage.Unit 2 The Sounds of English[Check your understanding]State whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. [i:] and [i] are allophones of the same phoneme. F2. Not all English phonemes have allophones. TNote: // and /j/ occur in one single position and therefore do not have allophones.3. The same set of vowels is used in all languages. F4. All syllables must contain at least one vowel. FNote: Some syllables may contain no vowels. They may, instead, employ some syllabic consonant, as in people and muscle.5. The marking of word stress is arbitrary for the most part in English. F6. English is a tone language. FNote: Chinese is a tone language.■ In-Class Activities1. ASK:(1) What is the phonetic environment of [t] in [pit]?[i_#](2) Are the following pairs of words minimal pairs?(a) desk vs. task No.(b) leave vs. Leak Yes. ( li:v vs. li:k )2. ASK:(1) Characterize how the allophones of the phoneme /k/ are complementarily distributed.[k h ] in initial position; [k]after /s/; [k¬] in final position.(2) Is there any other way of charactering the complementary distribution of clear [l] and dark [ł]?[l] before vowels; [ł] elsewhere.3. ASK:(1) What distinctive feature makes /f/ and /v/ different?[voiced](2) Can you specify the distinctive features for the following phonemes?(a) // [fricative] + [voiceless] + [palatal](b) /k/ [velar]+[voiceless]+[plosive](c) /n/ [nasal]+[voiced] +[alveolar]4. ASK:(1) Are [r] and [l] in complementary distribution? In what environment does each occur?Yes. [r] occurs before vowels; [l] occurs after vowels.(2) Do they occur in any minimal pairs?No.(3) Suppose [r] and [l] are allophones of one phoneme. State the rule that can derive the allophonicforms.[r] is lateralized when it occurs after vowels.5. ASK:(1) Can you give more examples of assimilation?compatriot, sing(2) Can you find any exceptions?input, unbeatable, Canberra(3) What phonetic segments condition this change?The consonant immediately after the vowel.[Note] 2) [tai] should be [tay].6. ASK:(1) Can you give more examples of free variation?advertisement [əd΄və:ti s mənt] [əd΄və:ti z mənt]association [əsəu s i΄eiən] [əsəu i΄eiən](2) Why do you think such a phenomenon exists in a language like English?Individual variation is responsible for this phenomenon.7. ASK:(1) Which sound is deleted in “sign”, “design”, and “resign”?[g](2) Can you offer other examples of deletion?paradi g m (atic), condem n(ation)(3) Can you give some words that involve total deletion?plum b, plum b er; clim b, clim b ing(4) Are there any other types of deletion in English?de b t, k now8. ASK:(1) Can you think of a phonetic description of the regular pattern in these expressions?They all start with a front, high vowel and follow up with a mid or low vowel.(2) Can you think of any possible explanation for the observed pattern?[i] involves the least degree of mouth opening while the mid or low vowels necessitate biggeropening. There is an increase of mouth opening in pronouncing the whole word, which is symbolic in meaning.9. ASK:(1) What are likely positive effects of using alliteration? Use one of the poetic examples toillustrate.Coherence, connectedness, smoothness, consistency. Take “I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance”for example. The double alliteration involved helps to create a picture of smooth and coherent dance.(2) Is there a similar use of alliteration in Chinese?Yes, though less often. 花好月圆is a good example.10. ASK:(1) What is the stylistic effect of rhyming?echoing, agreement, correspondence, etc.(2) Can you find more proverbs that involve internal rhyming?First thrive and then wive.Fancy passes beauty.■ ExercisesTask 3: Study Questions1.a. Does the string of sounds mean anything to you?If we want to talk really good, we’ll have to invent vowels.b. What does the picture suggest to you about the role of consonants and vowels in English? Consonants are the backbones of syllables and words.2. Some phonetic transcriptions below are English words, some are not existing words but are possible words or nonsense words, and others are definitely “foreign”or impossible because they violate English sequential constraints. Specify each of the a-e cases as illustrated.Word Possible Foreign ReasonExample:[pa:k][tif][lkib]a. [ŋa:f] √[] must occur after a vowel.b. [ski:] skic.[knait] √d.[meij] √[] must occur initially before avowel.e.[blaft] √3. In English, the /i/ vowel becomes almost as long as /i:/ under certain conditions (written as /i:/ for convenience). Consider the examples listed below:a. List the phonemes that condition the change.voiced consonantsb. State the rule that seems involved.[i] is lengthened before a voiced] consonant.Note: Start with the fact that the /i/ is basic and that short /i/ becomes long /i:/. The change from short /i/ to long /i:/ is phonologically determined; that is, the lengthening takes place in the presence of certain phonemes. A good strategy is to first list the phonemes to the right of long /i:/, then list those to the left. As an answer to (a), then, one would propose that /i/ become /i:/ whenever the phonemes to the right (/d, m, l, b, z, j, ŋ/) occur immediately after that vowel. This hypothesis looks promising because, in fact, the short variant /i/ never occurs before these segments. The next question is, what is it about the phonemes on the right that unify them as a class? One may find that these phonemes are all voiced ([+voice]), and, in fact, the short /i/ never lengthens before voiceless segments. Thus the answer to (b) is that the vowel /i/ is lengthened before (the natural class of) voiced consonants.4. The use of plural–s in English has three different, but very regular, phonological alternatives.a. Can you work out the set of sounds which regularly precedes each of these alternatives?/s/ to words like ship, bat, book and cough;voiceless plosives [voiceless]/z/ to words like cab, lad, cave, rag and thing;after voiced consonants [voiced]/əz/ to words like bus, bush, judge, church and maze.after /s/, //, /d/, /z/b. What features does each of these sets have in common?[palatal] or [alveolar]+[fricative]c. Is there any pattern regarding the different pronunciations of the past tense marker?[t] after voiceless consonants except [t]; [d] after voiced consonants except [d]; [id] after [t] or [d].d. Do you think that one of these phonological forms for –ed is more basic, with the others beingderived from it in a regular way? Which, and how?[d] is more basic. [t] after devoicing. [id] after epenthesis (i.e. addition of a sound).5. Below are three columns of words with different patterns of stress:a. How is stress distributed in each column?penultimate for A; last syllable for B; on the last syllable.b. In Column B, what kinds of vowels appear in the last syllable? How does the syllabic structure of Column C differ from A and B?In Column B, long vowels or diphthongs appear in the last syllable.The last syllable of the words in C ends in consonant clusters.[Note] For “usurp”, “r” may be pronounced as in /ju(:)΄zə(r)p/.6. The following is a list of words that are spelt in a similar way:fuddy-duddy hocus-pocus namby-pambyfuzzy-wuzzy hurly-burly razzle-dazzlehanky-panky lovey-dovey roly-polyhelter-skelter mumbo-jumbo super-dupera. What similarity can you spot among the words listed?All pairs are the same except the initial consonants.b. What effects may such words have in common when they are put into use?Redundancy, repetitiveness, etc.7. Write the phonetic transcription for each of the following words.Omit.8. Read the following words or phrases and point out the phonological processes that yield assimilation.(a) pat /pæt/ pan /pãn/ sat /sæt/ Sam /sãm/Nasalization rule: [-nasal] →[+nasal] /_____ [+nasal](b) since /sins/ sink /siŋk/ hint /hint/ dink /diŋk/Velarization rule: [-velarl] →[+velar] /_____ [+velar](c) five pits /faifpits/ love to /l∧ftə /Devoicing rule: [+voiced →[-voiceless] /_____ [-voiceless]9.a. Comment on the use of rhyme, alliteration, and assonance(that is, use of syllables with a com mon vowel, as in “come” - “love”) in this poem. How are they used to stress the sense of superficiality and lack of meaning the poet is trying to convey here? (Note especially the role of rhyming pairs of monosyllables and their effect on meter.)assonance: [ri:t] [skri:n] [spi:t][ud] [huk] [buk]The ryhmed words, all monosyllabic and stressed, are semantically unrelated and separated.Alliteration is only sporadically used. Assonance suggests apparent connection but actual disconnectedness.b. Comment more carefully on meter in the first two stanzas. How does it contribute to the meaning? How and where does it work against our expectations?Lack of regularity and thus unpredictability.10. Collect some data to show that English advertisements, newspaper headlines, English songs,and presidential addressee sometimes make use of alliteration and rhyming.Omit.11. What interesting things do speech errors tell us about language and its use? Collect a few casesof slips of tongue from daily conversations.Speech errors are often explainable, often semantically motivated.Unit 3 The Units of English[Check your understanding]State whether each of the following statements is True or False.1. All words in English have a hierarchical structure. FNote: Mon-morphemic words do not.2. Clipping is one of the three most important devices of word-formation in English. FNote: The three most important devices are affixation, compounding (or composition) and conversion (or functional shift).3. Idioms in English are modifiable in some grammatical ways. T4. The presence of constructions is unique to English. F5. Every English sentence has a subject. FNote: Imperative sentences do not have any subject.■ In-Class Activities1．ASK:(1) What is the infix used in the above language data?“-um-“(2) What is the verb form in Bontoc for “to be poor”, given that pusi means “poor”?“pumusi”2. ASK:(1) What is the Samoan for: (a) “they travel” (b) “he sings” respectively?(a) savavali (b) pese(2) Formulate a morphological rule regarding how to form the plural verb form from the singularverb form in Samoan.Duplicate the penultimate syllable.3. ASK:(1) Which other affixes are there in English that function as markers of negation?dis-, non-, a-, in-, il-, im-, ir-(2) What pattern underlies the use of un- in the data above?Positive terms can have negative morphemes added to them, as in “happy-unhappy”, but semantically negative ones rarely do, because un- is deprecatory as well as negative.(3) Why are “ungood” and “unbig” not found in English, although George Orwell coined“ungood”in his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four? Do you think they are accidental gaps in the lexicon of English?There already exist words that correspond to “ungood” and “unbig”. It is not accidental. This is what is technically called lexical blocking.(4) Read the following extract from Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking-Glass. How do you think Humpty Dumpty would explain the word “un-birthday” to Alice?“Un-birthday” means some day that is not one’s birthday.(5) The fact that un- can be both a verb prefix and an adjective prefix may explain the occurrenceof the ambiguous word “unlockable”. Can you imagine two situations corresponding to the t wo senses of the word?? Can you give more examples like “unlockable”?Imagine you are inside a room and you want some privacy. You would be unhappy to find the door is unlockable–“not able to be locked.” Now imagine you are inside a locked room trying to get out. You would be very relieved to find that the door is unlockable–“able to be unlocked.” These two meanings correspond to two different structures, as follows:Adjective Adjectiveun- Adjective Verb -ableV erb -able un- V erblock lockIn the first structure the verb “lock” combines with the suffix –able to form the adjective lockable (“able to be locked”). Then the prefix un-, meaning “not,” combines with the derived adjective to form a new adjective unlockable (“not able to be locked”). In the second case, the prefix un- combines with the verb lock to form a derived verb, unlock. Then the derived verb combines with the suffix –able to form unlockable, “able to be unlocked.”Other examples are unbuttonalbe, unzippable, and unlatchable.4. ASK:(1) How are the verbs in Column A different from those in Column B?Verbs in Column A are transitive while those in Column B are generally intransitive.(2) Can we use “able to be X-ed” to paraphrase “perishable”?No. “Perish” is intransitive.(3) A further complication with -able is that in words like “unthinkable”, the suffix means morethan “able to be X-ed”. Why? Can you think of more words of this type?unbreakable,presentable, readable, questionable, payable, washable.(4) Now, let’s look at another complicatio n. None of the following words are permitted. What doesthis suggest about the use of the suffix “-able”?“-able” are not attached to nouns, adjectives, or prepositions.5. ASK:(1) Note the contrast between list A and List B. Can you think of any reason that can explain whythe set of words on List B are impossible words in English?Verbs on List B are intransitive.(2) How are the re- words on List C and List D different from those on List A?Words on List C are made up of re- +adjectives. In the words on List D, “re-” means “back”instead of “again”.(3) Some re- prefixed words may mean more than the simple addition of the meaning of re- andthe meaning of its base. For example, “rewrite” means “write something again, especially in a different or improved form”. Can you give more examples like “rewrite”?rebuild, rethink, retry, retell, reorganize, reconsider, reform, etc.6. ASK:(1) Can you give some examples that you consider to be chunks?Omit.(2) Read the following spoken data of a Chinese student. Can you point out the chunks used in it? Can you classify them into some types?It is the most unforgettable birthday um ... that I ... and I can not forget it for forever. Um ... it it was when I was a freshman. It is the first year um ... I l eft my family and spend my birthday alone. Um ... I remember clearly um ... that day I strode gloomily at campus along for a long time um. And um ... um ... I I felt very ... I I felt ...I felt very gloomy because no one, um no one except my parents um remember my bir thday and, and, wan and wanted to um ... and wanted to stay with me for my birthday. Um ... um ... I did, I did not went back I did not go back to the dormitory um ... until um ... until seven o’clock in the evening. Um ... the light, the light in the dormitory was of f. Obviously, um there was no ... there was nobody staying in the dormitory. Um ...but now um ... it may ... it ... it ... seemed um ... it seemed that it doesn’t matter. Um ... And I open the door um ... and I found except darkness there was nothing. Suddenly a song “Happy birthday to you” sound. I felt, I felt very astonished. Then, the light was turned on. Some familiar faces um ... um full of full of sweet smiles towards me. Um they were my dorm they were my dorm mates ... Yes, they still remembered um ...my birthday, my birth day. And in fact they have ... they indeed prepared for it two years ago. They bought er ... a very beautiful cake for me, and that night um ... we sang, we danced and ... and had that delicious cake. I felt very happy, and and later I (I)made a call to my parents that told them that I has spent a very unforgettable birthday with my roommates.verbal: went/go back; turn(ed) on; prepare for; make a call toadjectival: full ofprepositional: at campus (it should be “on campus”, though); for a long time; in the evening; in factclausal: it seemed that ….; it doesn’t matter7. The notion of subject may be classified into three types: grammatical subject(the major nominal part corresponding to the predicate), logical subject (the doer or executor of the action concerned), and psychological subject(the first major component of the sentence, like a nominal phrase, an adverbial phrase, or a prepositional phrase). For instance,a. John(grammatical subject, psychological subject, logical subject) robbed the City Bank last night.b. The City Bank (grammatical subject, psychological subject) was robbed by John (logical subject) last night.c. Last night (psychological subject) John (grammatical subject, logical subject) robbed the City Bank.Analyze the following newspaper headlines from the Washington Post (July 21-24, 2006) in terms of the effect of subject type selection.(a) In Iraq, Military Forgot Lessons of Vietnam (psychological)(b) Evacuation Rules Separate N.Va. Friends (grammatical)(c) Woods Is Closely Followed At British (logical, grammatical)8. ASK:(1) Can you write the public signs in complete forms?You may push the button and wait for the signal of walk.You must use caution when the ground is wet.(2) What rules are there when we write elliptical English newspaper headlines?a. Omit auxiliary or linking verb BE;b. Omit determiners;c. Omit indefinite nouns of person.d. Omit There Be.Task 3: Study Questions1. Point out the word-formation process that applies to each of the following words: Affixation: worsen endearmentConversion: dust (v.) plane (v.)Compounding: laptop airsick daughter-in-lawBack-formation: edit televise peddle swindle (swindler)Shortening: tec (detective) prof (professor) bike (bicycle)Blending: brunch urinalysis (urine + analysis) fantabulous (fantasy + fabulous)Initialism: WTO (World Trade Organization)Acronym: laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) FIFA (Federation Internationale de Football Association)Coinage (in the forms of invention and eponym—words derived from proper names): Xerox nylon jumbo (name of an elephant brought to the United States by P. T. Barnum)2. How are the open-class words and the closed-class words different from each other?Open-class words:(1)large in number;(2)easy to expand;(3)mainly nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.Closed-class words:(1) small in number;(2) stable;(3) basically pronouns, prepositions, function words, etc.3. What are the inflectional morphemes in the following phrases?(a) the government’s policies ’s; -s(b) the latest news -est。

Chapter 1Introduction1. Define the following terms briefly.(1) linguistics语言学: the scientific or systematic study of language.(2) language语言: a system of arbitrary vocal 任意的声音symbols used for human communication.用于人类交流的任意声音符号系统(3) arbitrariness任意性: the absence of similarity betweenthe form of a linguistic sign and what it relates to in reality,语言符号的形式与现实的关系缺乏相似性e.g. the worddog does not look like a dog.(4) duality双重性: the way meaningless elements of languageat one level (sounds and letters) combine to formmeaningful units (words) at another level.在一个层面上（语言和字母）的无意义的语言元素结合在另一个层次上形成有意义的单位（词）(5) competence语言能力: knowledge of the grammar of alanguage as a formal abstraction and distinct from thebehavior of actual language use作为一种形式抽象的语言的语法知识，区别于实际语言使用的行为, i.e.performance.(6) performance语言运用: Chomsky’s term for actuallanguage behavior as distinct from the knowledge thatunderlies it, or competence.乔姆斯基对实际语言行为的术语不同于它的知识，或能力。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when theneed arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules. Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with theability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答：A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it isrepresented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet –indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows i t. Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which candistinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...We can formulate a single general phrasal structural rule in which X stands for the head N,3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.若详细回答，则要加上：Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meanings associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives. For example, when we say that pretty lady, we are attributing the property ‘pretty’ to the lady designated by the noun. Similarly, the properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs. For example, in Jenny left quietly the adverb quietly indicates the manner of Jenny's leaving.The second criterion to determine a word's category is inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word's category, it does not always suffice. Some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture, fog, do not usually take plural suffix -s and adjectives like frequent, intelligent do not take comparative and superlative affixes -er and -est.The last and more reliable criterion of determining a word's category is its distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay andwill go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.It has (或写Conjunction exhibits) four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to theconjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elementsbeing conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role each element can play:Head:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure(or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).（以下几题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual +head (read) V +complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det +head (argument) N +complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg +head (above) P +complement (the window) NPd) The apple might hit the man.S →NP (The apple) + Infl (might) +VP (hit the man)e) He often reads detective stories.S →NP (He) +VP (often reads detective stories)9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（斜体的为名词的修饰语，划底线的为动词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.（划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. （斜体的为深层结构，普通字体的为表层结构）a) Would you come tomorrow?you would come tomorrow。

《新编简明英语道话教教程》第二版第1-3章训练题参照问案之阳早格格创做Chapter 1IntroductionP131. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language？问：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypothesesthus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?问： The major branches of linguistics are:(1)phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2)phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to conveymeaning in communication;(3)morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbolsrepresenting soundsare arranged and combined to form words; (4)syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined toform grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5)semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?问：The general approachthus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “t raditional gramma r.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?问：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?问：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any langu age is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writingis learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of spe ech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everydayspeech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?问：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?问：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially differentfrom animal communication system?（2．2道话的辨别性特性）好国道话教家 C. Hockett提出了人类道话的 12种辨别性特性，其中最要害的辨别性特种有5种：即道话的任性性、创制性、二沉性、移位性战文化传播性.那些特性是所有人类道话所公有的.人类道话的辨别性特性是动物“道话”所不具备的.1）任性性：它指音取义之间不逻辑通联.比圆道，分歧的道话使用分歧的音指相共的实物.2）创制性：道话的创制性主要表示正在道话使用者不妨以有限的道话准则为前提道出战明白无限的句子，包罗他们往日从不听道过的句子.3）二沉性：它指道话正在结构上存留二个条理：矮条理战下条理.正在矮条理是一个个不意思的音，如/p/,/g/,/i/等，然而是那些处正在矮条理的不意思的音不妨依照一定的道话准则分离正在所有产生道话体系的下条理，即：蓄意思的单位，如词汇素，单词汇等.4）移位性：移位性指人类不妨使用道话去道论往日的事务，当前的事务或者将去的事务；道话也不妨用去道论咱们客瞅天下中的事务，或者假念天下中的事务.总之，道话的使用不妨摆脱接际的间接情景语境，进而不受道话时空距离的做用.5）文化传播性：文化的传播性是指，虽然人类习得道话的本领有遗传果素的本果，然而是道话体系简曲实质的习得不是通过遗传去传播的，而是要通过后天的教习去赢得.问：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer tothe same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This iswhy they can produce and understand an infinitely large number ofsentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures,or two levels. At the loweror the basic level there is a structure ofsounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds oflanguage can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of unitsof meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language canbe usedto refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of thespeaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e.,we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details ofany language system are not genetically transmitted,but insteadhave to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration.问：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.For example:“China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive functionsupplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2PhonologyP301. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Ofthe two, which one is primary and why?问：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?问：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?问：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcriptionwith letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] inthe four words leaf[li:f], feel[fi:l], build[bild], and health[helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is calle d dark [ɫ] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [˜] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant[p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. Thisdifference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [p h ɪt] and spit is transcribed as [spɪt].4. How are the English consonants classified?问： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?问：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest.To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t]2) [ l ] 3) [ʧ] 4) [w] 5) [ʊ] 6) [æ]问：A. (1) [ʤ] (2) [f] (3)[d](4) [ɪ] (5)[ɔ:] (6) [p]B.(1)voiceless alveolar stop (2)voiced alveolar liquid(3)voiceless palatal affricate (4)voiced bilabial glide(5)back, close, short (6)front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [ɫ],[p h]and [p],a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?问：(1)Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language–– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of thetasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [ɫ], [p h]and[p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How areallophones related to a phoneme?问：A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/in English can be realized as dark [ɫ], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme/l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.问：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to anoth er by“copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighboring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g. discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefixin- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [ŋ]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm – phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme/g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are supra-segmental features? How do the major supra-segmental features of English function in conveying meaning?问：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called supra-segmental features. The main supra-segmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in Englishdistinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 MorphologyP401. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes byplacing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist问：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, andspecifythe types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, m otion pictures,etc.” translator, “one who translates”问：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestemtype:added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, andspecify the types of stem they may be prefixedto. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry”asexual, “without sex or sex organs”问：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : a ntinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial,“opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organizedcommunity. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: coun terproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.问：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize问：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectionalaffixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.问：(略)。

英语语言学知识点整理一、语言与语言学1、语言是什么？语言是一种符号系统，它由语音、词汇、语法和语用规则等构成。

2、语言学是什么？语言学是研究语言及其规律的科学，是社会科学的一门重要学科。

3、语言学的分支学科有哪些？语言学可以分为语音学、音系学、句法学、语义学、语用学等分支学科。

二、语音学与音系学1、语音学是什么？语音学是研究语音的学科，主要研究语音的物理属性、发音机制和语音的变化规律。

2、音系学是什么？音系学是研究语言的音系系统的学科，它的是语言的音位、音素、音节、语素等基本单位以及它们之间的组合关系和变化规律。

3、语音和音系的关系是什么？语音是音系的具体表现形式，而音系则是语音的基础和框架。

语音受到个人的发音和语境的影响，而音系则是一种抽象的概念，它是语言社团所共同遵守的规则。

三、句法学1、句法学是什么？句法学是研究句子的结构和规律的学科。

它主要的是词类、句子成分的构成和它们之间的组合关系。

2、句法学的核心概念有哪些？句法学的核心概念包括：词类、句子成分、句法关系、句型等。

3、常见的句法结构有哪些？常见的句法结构包括：简单句、复合句、并列句、复合并列句等。

四、语义学1、语义学是什么？语义学是研究语言意义的学科，主要研究词义、短语意义、句子意义和语篇意义等。

2、语义的分类有哪些？语义可以分为词汇意义、语法意义和语用意义。

词汇意义是指词汇的基本意义，语法意义是指词汇在句子中的组合关系和变化规律，语用意义是指词汇在特定语境中的特殊意义。

3、语义关系有哪些？语义关系包括：同义关系、反义关系、上下义关系等。

同义关系是指两个或多个词义相同或相似的词语之间的关系，反义关系是指两个或多个词义相反的词语之间的关系，上下义关系是指一个词所表达的概念是另一个词所表达的概念的一部分。

语言学知识点整理语言学是一门研究人类语言的学科，涉及语言的各个方面，包括语言的结构、使用、习得和进化等。

以下是一些常见的语言学知识点：1、语言与言语：语言是指一种符号系统，是人们用来表达思想、情感和意愿的工具。

英语语言学概论第三版课后练习题含答案第一章绪论
1.简述语言的定义及其特点。

答：语言是人类交流思想、感情和意志的符号系统。

它具有以下特点：•人类独有性：只有人类才能拥有语言能力。

•交际性：语言是交流的工具。

•社会性：语言是社会文化的产物。

•文化性：语言是文化中心。

•双重指指性：语言既可以指称实际存在的实体、事件和关系，也可以指称抽象的概念、意义和想象。

•交通性：语言符号的可传递性。

第二章语音学
1.简述国际音标的出现及其特点。

答：国际音标是国际音韵学者为了能够准确地表示各国语音而发展出来的一种共同表音符号。

它的特点包括：
•形式稳定：国际音标使用的符号稳定，统一且规范化。

•指音性别：国际音标能指明一个音到底是元音还是辅音，可以度量语音的音高。

•表示语音环境：国际音标可以显示语音的特定发音环境。

•独立的字母符号：国际音标各符号代表唯一的语音。

2.什么是音位?音素?请举例说明
答：音位是声音在一种特定语言或方言中的意义区别的最小单位。

音素是语言
中被认为是单个发音单位的最小音单位。

音位和音素有相似之处，但是音位是意义区别的最小单位，而音素是语音体系中的最小音单位。

例如，在英语中，“bat”和“pat”是两个不同的单词，它们的差别在于第一
个音位的发音不同。

即使两个单词中其他的音素相同，“b”和“p”都是辅音音素，但是它们被语言学家视为在英语中区别语义的两个不同音位。

Define the following terms:1. design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate, to think ,etc. Language functions inclucle imformative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic whi ch originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually, but not necessarily, the present),as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary. level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnograph, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc.16. compete nce: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).20. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23. Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24. Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26. Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme(e.g. <th>is an allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated <t>.Both <th> and <t> are allophones of the phoneme /t/.27. Vowel: are sound segments produced without such obstruction, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28. Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29. Place of articulation: in the production of consonants, place of articulation refersto where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air.30. Distinctive features: a term of phonology, i.e. a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31. Complementary distribution: the relation between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32. IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergone a number of revisions. IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources, such as Roman small letters, italics uprighted, obsolete letters, Greek letters, diacritics, etc.33. Suprasegmental: suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal supra-segmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.34. Suprasegmental: aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.第三章1. morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.2 .compound : oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snow-white, etc.3. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.4. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).5. derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.6. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.7. allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, inEnglish the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/in cats, as /z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.8 Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.9. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e.g. the plu ral morpheme in “dog’s”. 10. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.11. lexeme: A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of a word(e.g. “dog in the manger”)12. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.13. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.14. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.16. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.17. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.18. loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.19. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.20. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.21. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.22. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.23. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.24. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sou nd, which is more specifically called. “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.25. dissimilation: the influence exercised. By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.26. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.60. category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.61. concord: also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. 66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such as the relation between, the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation ofa construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities, or of the more general features, in these two government relations, is technically called constituent command, c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis, or the starting point, of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles, which include the communication roles created by language itself; and also for getting things done, by means of the interaction between one person and another.74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical, cognitive, or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of language to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely, such as male, female, absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable, such as long: short, big; small, fat; thin, etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers ofa pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition, such as buy; sell, lend, borrow, above, below, etc.85. relational opposites: converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations. There are always two entities involved. One presupposes the other. The shorter, better; worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words, in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym).87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy, i.e. the class name. A superordinate usually has several hyponyms. Under animal, for example, there are cats, dogs, pigs, etc.88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values, e.g. <+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction: semantic restrictions of the noun phrases thata particular lexical item can take, e.g. regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition; what is talk about in an utterance, that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus, which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound, word, syntax, etc.)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It assumes a “recognition lexicon” in which each word isrepresented by a full and independent “recognition element”. When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal, all elements matching it are fully acticated, and, as more of the signal is received, the system tries to match it independently with each of them, Wherever it fails the element is deactivated; this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition, from something someone has said, and so on. It includes things that, while not following logically, are implied, in an ordinary sense, e.g. in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception: language awareness of things through the physical senses, esp. sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research, which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity: ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: e.g. that of I saw a bat, where a bat might refer to an animal or, among others, stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition: general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular: which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing: the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents, traditionally e.g. to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions: whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement. It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure. Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics (being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind, and experimental psycholinguistics (being concerned somehow whth empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar, etc. as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker. Often opposed, in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars, to criteria of simplicity, elegance, and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing development.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules, conventions, etc. governing the skilled use of language in a society. Distin guished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence, in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is “genden difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis, i.e. there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism: many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society; one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics, which studies the relationship between speakers’ social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128. entailment: relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other: e.g. “Mary is running” entails, among other things, “Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance, or a proposition that it communicates, must, in the nature of communication, necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale, i.e. M ake your contribution necessary (Gradation, Quantity2, Manner); Say no more than you must (given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarked a(simpler, less “effortful”)alt ernate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134. constraints on Horn scales: the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to.135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse, and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141. narrator’s representation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts. For example, she considered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. For example, she thought that he would be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144. narrator’s representation of thought acts: a kind of the c ategories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g. He spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. For example, she thought that he would be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147. narra tor’s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g. He spent the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech, e.g. He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard, printer, screen, disk drives, programs, etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress, to direct students into appropriate lessons, material, etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom, lab, or building. They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information. Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word, sequence of words. or perhaps even a part of speech in a text. The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word, usually in a context, which is a further aid to the linguist. It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text, whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text, whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately, applied to the type of activity discussed in this volume. An information retrieval system does not inform (i.e. change the knowledge of) the user on the subject of his inquiry. It merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships, between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies. It covers specifically a logical organization of information, such as document representatives, for the purpose of information retrieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, and other areas such as translation, the compiling of dictionaries, etc.166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes, the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167. syllabus: the planning of course of instruction. It is a description of the cousr content, teaching procedures and learning experiences.168. interlanguage: the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language, i.e. the language system between the target language and the learn er’s native language.169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language. When structures of the two languages are similar, we can get positive transfer of facilitation; when the two languages are different in structures, negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure. There are four kinds of validity, i.e. content validity, construct validity, empirical valiodity, and face validity.171. rebiability: can be defined as consistency. There are two kinds of reliability, i.e. stability reliability, and equiralence reliability.172. hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features, in terms of both frequency, i.e. overpassing the speakers of higher social status, and overshooting the target, i.e. extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur, For example, pronouncing ideas as[ai'dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic[r] in an environment where it’s not supposed to occur.173. discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology, syntax and lexis.174. integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology, syntax。

Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。

语⾔学教程课后答案定义归纳胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》（第三版）---------课后习题单词定义归纳Chapter I Invitation to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:定义特征design feature:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.功能function:the role language plays in communication . to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations . religious, legal).共时的synchronic:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.历时的diachronic:said of the study of development of language and languages over time.规定式prescriptive:to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.描写式descriptive:to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.任意式arbitrariness:the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.⼆层式duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units . words) and meaningless segments . sounds, letters).移位式displacement:the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.寒暄phatic communion:said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.元语⾔metalanguage:a language used for talking about language.宏观语⾔学macrolinguistics:a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.语⾔能⼒competence:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.语⾔运⽤performance:the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.语⾔langue:the language system shared by a “speech community”.⾔语parole:the concrete utterances of a speaker.Chapter 2 Speech sounds1. Define the following terms:语⾳学phonetics:the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual/auditory phonetics.发⾳语⾳学articulatory phonetics:the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.⾳系学phonology:the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.发⾳器官speech organs:those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‘vocal organs’.带声器官voicing:the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate again st each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‘voiced’. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‘voiceless’.国际⾳标International Phonetic Alphabet:a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.辅⾳consonant:a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.元⾳vowel:a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.发⾳⽅式manner of articulation:ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.发⾳部位place of articulation:the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.基本元⾳Cardinal Vowels:a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.半元⾳semi-vowel:segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, . [j] and [w].滑元⾳vowel glide:vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived.协同发⾳coarticulation:simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the followingsound, it is known as ‘anticipatory coarticulation’; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‘perseverative coarticution’.⾳位phoneme:a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast ,between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.⾳位变体allophone:variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.同化现象assimilation:a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with ‘coarticulation’. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‘regressive assimilation’; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‘progressive assimilation’.剩余位置条件Elsewhere Condition:The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.区别特征distinctive features:a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.⾳节syllable:an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.最⼤节⾸原则Maximal Onset Principle:a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.重⾳stress:the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more‘prominent’, it is a ‘stressed’ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‘unstressed’ syllable.语调intonation:the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.声调tone:a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Chapter 3 Lexicon1.Define the following terms语素morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexically or grammatically. Take forexample, the word tourists contains three morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning –ist (meaning “person who does someth ing), and a minimal unit of grammatical function –s (indicating plural). Meanwhile, from the above example, we can further classify morphemes into different types on different dimensions: (a) free morphemes, which can stand by themselves as single words, . tour in tourist, and bound morphemes, which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, . –ist, -s. (b) lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. Both of these two types of morphemes fall into the “free” category. The first category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the “content” of message we convey, . house, long and follow. The second category consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, . but, above, the and it. (c) derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. These two types of morphemes fall into the “bound” category. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme –ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category ofa word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The –er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree. As a useful way to remember the different categories of morphemes, the following chart can be used: It should be pointed out, morphemes may also be divided into roots and affixes, the root being that partof a word structure which is left when all the affixes have been removed. Root morphemes may be bound or free, and are potentially unlimited in number in a language; Affixes are bound morphemes and limited in number. For instance, in try, tries, trying, tried, the root is try, and –s, -ing, -ed are affixes.复合词compound:refers to the words that consist of more than on lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate wordsto produce a single form, such as classroom, mailbox, fingerprint, sunburn. In terms of the word class of compounds, there are Noun compounds . daybreak), Verb compounds . brainwash), Adjective compounds . dutyfree) and Preposition compounds . throughout). Meanwhile compounds can be further divided into endocentric compound and exocentric compound in terms of its structural organization. The head of a nominal or adjectival endocentric compound is d is derived from a Verb, and it is usually the case that the first member is a participant of the process verb. Consider the following two examples: self-control and virus-sensitive. The exocentric nominal compounds are formed by V+N, V+A, and V+P, whereas the exocentric adjectives come from V+N and V+A. Here are some examples: Nouns scarecrow playboy cutthroat Adjectives take home Lackluster breakneck屈折变化inflection:is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.词缀affix:the collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morpheme. Affixes ina language are limited in number, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position around the root or stem of a word. Prefixes are these affixes that have be added to the beginning of a word . un- in unhappy); suffixes are those added to the end of a word . –ish in foolish); infixes, as a third type of affix, is not normally found in English but fairly common。

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazellesin the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, someguidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associativemeaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。