Chapter 7 Meaning and Context

英语词汇学试题汇编Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Words and Vocabulary1. Which of the following statements is CORRECT?A. The English language is noted for its modest borrowings.B. Loan words only refer to those borrowings in form.C. Loan words are all unrecognizable as being foreign in origin.D. Loan words can be grouped according to manner of borrowing.2. The term "vocabulary "is used in different ways because of all the following reasons EXCEPT that_____.A. it can refer to the common core of a languageB. it can refer to the total number of the words in a languageC. it can represent all the words used in a certain historical periodD. it can stand for words in a given dialect or field3. A word is a symbol that________.A. is used by the same speech communityB. represents something else in the worldC. is both simple and complex in natureD. shows different ideas in different sounds4. Some words in the basic word stock are said to be stable because theyA. are complex words.B. are technical wordC. refer to the commonest things in life.D. denote the most important concepts.5. The basic word stock forms the common____of the language.6. The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary or____. 7．Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but have limited_____________概念：jargonChapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary1. __is considered to be a highly-inflected language.A Old English B. Middle EnglishC. Early Modem EnglishD. Late Modem English2. The introduction of______ at the end of the'-6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.A. printing, B Christianity C. French words D. all the above3. Though still at work today, ___can hardly compare with what it was inthe past.A. word-formationB. borrowingC. derivationD. conversion4. Early Modern English refers to the language spokenA. from 1066 to 1500B. from 1150 to 1500C. from 1500 to 1700D. from 1600 to 18005. Old English has a vocabulary of about_______words.A. 30,000 to 40,000B. 50,000 to 60,000C. 70,000 to 80,000D. 80,000 to 90,0006. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of___in the Middle English period.A. Dutch originB. Danish originC. Latin originD. Greek origin概念：Germanic，Old English简答：Is it true that archaic and obsolete words in English will remainfor ever out of use?Chapter 3 Word Formation I1. A morpheme that can stand alone as a word is thought to be----- .A. affixationalB. derivationalC. freeD. bound2. Affixes added to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationshipsare known as____A. bound rootsB. free morphemesC. inflectional morphemesD. derivational affixes3. ______are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separatewords.A. RootsB. StemsC. Affixes D, Compounds4. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and____5. Almost all affixes are_____________ morphemes because few can be usedas independent words.概念：morphs，allomorph，morpheme简答：1。

Chapter 8 Meaning and Context8.1 Types of ContextTypes of context: extra-linguistic context (non-linguistic context)非言语and linguistic context (verbal context)言语.Extra-linguistic context or non-linguistic context refers to the physical situation(自然语境）, embracing the people, time, place and even the whole cultural background. Extra-linguistic context is of great importance to pin down the meanings of the words and phrases. Look at the following examples (quick; look out; trade union; landlord and weekend).Linguistic context (verbal context) refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. Sometimes linguistic context may cover a paragraph, a chapter and even the entire book.Subdivision of linguistic context: lexical context and grammatical context.A . lexical context (词汇语境) refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring words. For instance, “head” has quite a few meanings in the dictionary, yet in each of the following contexts, it conveys only one sense.from head to foot(从头到脚) a head of state (国家元首) a head of cabbage (一棵白菜) a department head(一个部门的主任) to count heads (点人数) one hundred head of sheep (一百头羊) at the head of the list (在名单的开头) to discuss the question under five heads（分五个小组讨论问题）to lose one’s head (丧命) to use your head (动动脑筋) Two heads are better than one (两人智慧胜一人)hard: hard work, hard blow, hard discipline, hard winter, hard heartpaper: a sheet of paper, a white paper（白皮书），a term paper, today’s paper, examination paperdo: do a sum, do one’s teeth, do the flowers, do fish（烹饪鱼）, do a city/country（到访一个城市）A car can do 160 miles an hour.I will do you if you do not stop.B. grammatical context (语法语境): In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context. For instance, “make” can be used in different sentence patterns, its meanings will be different.SVO) God made the country, man made the town. (创造) SVOC) The bad news made everybody depressed. (使得……)SVC) She will make a good teacher. (成为……)SVOO) He is going to make us a report. (给……作……)8.2 Role of verbal or linguistic context1. Elimination of ambiguityAmbiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. When a word with more than one meaning is used in inadequate contexts, it creates ambiguity.e.g. 1) Are you engaged? ---Are you busy?---Are you betrothed?2)This door is unlockable.---This door is not able to be locked.---This door is able to be unlocked.3) She is an ′English teacher. --- She is a teacher who teaches English.She is an English ′ teacher --- She is a teacher with British nationality.He is a hard businessman. (hardworking/ difficult)He ran an interesting game. (participate/organize)They saw her duck. (a kind of poultry/ lower ones ′ body quickly)The ball was attractive. (dancing party/ a round object to play in a game)Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.e.g. 1) Jack and Jane are married.--- Jack is married to Jane. Or: Jack and Jane are married to each other.---Jack is married and so is Jane.2) a married man and woman. --- a married man and a married woman--- a married man and a woman.The fish is ready to eat. (The fish is ready to eat things/ The fish is cooked or served, so ready for people to eat.)I like Xiao Li better than Zhang Tong. (I like Xiao Li better than I like Zhang Tong./ I like Xiao Li better than Zhang Tong likes Xiao Li. )2. Indication of ReferentsEnglish has a large number of words such as now/then, here/there, I / you, this/that, these/those, which are often used to refer directly to people, time, place, etc. without clear contexts, the referent can be very confusing. e.g. city/town, afternoon/ evening, evening/night,forest/wood, etc. Their referents are very vague.3. Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning Context may prove extremely valuable in guessing the meanings of new words. In a piece of writing, the author generally gives hints which help readers to understand the idea or grasp the concept. Context clues vary a great deal but can be summed up as follows:1)Definition. We often find that the author gives formal definition immediately after the new term.Perhaps the most startling theory to come out of kinesics , the study of body movement, was suggested by Prof. Birdwhistell.2)Explanation. If the concept is complicated and must involve technical terms in its definition, the author might explain the idea in simple words.It’s just one more incredible result of the development of microprocessors—those tiny parts of a computer commonly known as “silicon chips”.3)Example. In some cases, instead of giving a formal definition or explanation, the author may cite an example which is sufficient to throw light on the meaning of the term.Many United Nations employees are polyglots. Mary, for example, speaks five languages.4)Synonymy同义. The author often uses synonyms or synonymous expressions to explain new words.Their greatest fear was of a conflagration, since fire would destroy their flimsy wooden settlement before help could arrive.5)Antonymy反义. The author frequently uses contrasting words or statements to explain unknown words.As the fighting on all fronts reached its peak, the economy neared its nadir.Unlike her gregarious sister, Jane is a shy, unsociable person.6)Hyponymy上下义关系. Superordinates and subordinates often define and explain each other, thus forming an important context clue.The village had most of the usual amenities: a pub, a library, a post office, a village hall, a medical centre, and a school.7)Relevant details. In some contexts, the author provides details relating to the unknown word, such as the functions, characteristics, nature, etc. of the referent.In spite of the fact that the fishermen were wearing sou’westers, the storm was so heavy that they were wet through.8)Word structure. The morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and derived words offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown words.Copernicus believed in a heliocentric universe, rather than in the geocentric theory.8.3 questionsState the vital roles of context in determination of word meaning.Context is a vital clue in determining word meaning. Namely, it can eliminate ambiguity, indicate referents, and provide clues for inferring word meaning.First, a word or even a sentence without adequate context can be quite ambiguous. So it is hard to determine the exact meaning especially when the word is polysemous or the sentence structure has a difference in interpretation. Second, some referents like pronouns, nouns, may refer to anything or anybody. As for a pronoun or a noun, if we know what its exact meaning or referent is, we have to know it from its context. Third, context provides important clues in understanding unknown words or inexact meanings.The clues can be: 1) definition, 2) explanation, 3) example, 4) synonymy, 5) antonymy, 6) hyponymy, 7) relevant details, 8) word structure.。

Chapter8Meaningand__ContextChapter 8 Meaning and ContextContext refers to the words around a word, phrase etc. often used for helping to explain the meaning of the word, phrase, etc. Context is of paramount importance for the understanding of word-meaning because the meaning is influenced immediately by the whole speech situation as well. Meaning lives in context and the context throws light on meaning.8.1 Types of ContextContext is used in different senses. In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context or co-text, which may extend to embrace a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book. In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation where a word is employed. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, covering the participants (addresser and addressee), time, place, and even the whole cultural background.8.1.1 Extra-linguistic ContextThe non-linguistic situation can often exercise greater influence on the meaning of words than we realize, e.g. look out; trade union; landlord.8.1.2 Linguistic ContextLinguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context.1) Lexical ContextThis refers to the lexemes that co-occur with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring lexemes. For instance, paper has a number of meanings in the dictionary, yet in each of the following context,it conveys only one concept.(1)a sheet of paper (thin flat sheets of substance for writing, printing, decoratingwalls, etc.)(2)a white paper (government document)(3)a term paper (essay written at the end of the term)(4)today’s paper (newspaper)(5)examination paper (a set of questions used as an examination)2) Grammatical ContextIn some cases, the meanings of a polysemant may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context. Let us consider the verb become for example.(1)become + adj. /n (used as predictive), meaning ‘begin to be’, e.g.Daydreams have become realities.She became increasingly anxious about her husband’s strange behavior.(2)become + pron. /n (used as object), meanin g ‘suit, befit’, e.g.This sort of behavior hardly becomes a person in your position.Sarcasm doesn’t become you.(3)become + of, meaning ‘happen to , often in a bad way’,e.g.(4)I don’t know what will become of us if the company goes bankrupt.8.2 The Role of Context8.2.1 Elimination of AmbiguityAmbiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. When a word with multiple meanings is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity, e.g. He is a hard businessman.Homonymy is another cause of ambiguity as two separate lexemes share the same form, e.g.(1)They saw her duck.(2)The ball was attractive.Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity, e.g.(1)The fish is ready to eat.(2)I like Mary better than Jean.8.2.2 Indication of ReferentsEnglish has a large number of deictic words such as now/then, here/there, I/you, this/that, which are often used to refer directly to the personal, temporal or locational characteristics of the situation. Without clear context, the reference can be very confusing, e.g. now.8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inference of Word-meaningContext may prove exceptionally valuable in guessing the meanings of new words. In many cases, when a new word appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints, which might help the readers to grasp the concept or comprehend the idea. Context clues vary a great deal but can be summed up as follows:1) DefinitionOften we may find that the author gives formal definition immediately after the new term, e.g.Perhaps the most startling theory to come out of kinesics, the study of body movement, was suggested by Professor Birdwhistell.2) ExplanationSometimes the author might explain the idea in simple words. That is, he might make a restatement in known words, e.g.It’s just one more incredible result of the development of microprocessors―t hose tiny parts of a computer commonly known as ‘silicon chips’.3) ExemplificationIn some cases, the author may cite an example which is sufficient to throw light on the meaning of the term, e.g.Many United Nations employees are polyglots. Ms Mary, for example, speaks five languages.4) SynonymySynonyms or synonymous expressions are frequently employed by authors to explain new words, e.g.Their greatest fear was of a conflagration, since fire would destroy their flimsy wooden settlement before help could arrive.5) AntonymyContrasting words or statements are also commonly used to explain unknown words, e.g.As the fighting on all fronts reached its peak, the economy neared its nadir.6) HyponymySuperordinates and subordinates often define and explain each other, thus forming an important context clue, e.g The village had most of the usual amenities: a pub, a library,a post office, a village hall, a medical centre, and a school..7) Relevant DetailsIn some cases, the author provides details in context which are related to the unknown word, such as the functions, characteristics, nature, etc. of the referent, e.g.In spite of the fact that the fishermen were wearingsou’westers, the stor m was so heavy that they were wet through.8) Schematic KnowledgeThere are cases where the key words and structures provided in the context help activate the reader’s schematic knowledge of the word to make sense of the unknown word, e.g.The fortune-teller was unable to prognosticate the events of the following week.9)Finally, the morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and derived words offers clues for inferring the meanings of unknown words, e.g.Copernicus believed in a heliocentric universe, rather than in the geocentric theory.。

英语词汇学试题汇编Chapter 1 Basic Concept of Words and Vocabulary1. Which of the following statements is CORRECT?A. The English language is noted for its modest borrowings.B. Loan words only refer to those borrowings in form.C. Loan words are all unrecognizable as being foreign in origin.D. Loan words can be grouped according to manner of borrowing.2. The term "vocabulary "is used in different ways because of all the following reasons EXCEPT that_____.A. it can refer to the common core of a languageB. it can refer to the total number of the words in a languageC. it can represent all the words used in a certain historical periodD. it can stand for words in a given dialect or field3. A word is a symbol that________.A. is used by the same speech communityB. represents something else in the worldC. is both simple and complex in natureD. shows different ideas in different sounds4. Some words in the basic word stock are said to be stable because theyA. are complex words.B. are technical wordC. refer to the commonest things in life.D. denote the most important concepts.5. The basic word stock forms the common____of the language.6. The relationship between sound and meaning is arbitrary or____.7．Pronouns and numerals enjoy nation-wide use and stability, but havelimited_____________概念：jargonChapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary1. __is considered to be a highly-inflected language.A Old English B. Middle EnglishC. Early Modem EnglishD. Late Modem English2. The introduction of______ at the end of the'-6th century had a great impact on the English vocabulary.A. printing, B Christianity C. French words D. all the above3. Though still at work today, ___can hardly compare with what it was in the past.A. word-formationB. borrowingC. derivationD. conversion4. Early Modern English refers to the language spokenA. from 1066 to 1500B. from 1150 to 1500C. from 1500 to 1700D. from 1600 to 18005. Old English has a vocabulary of about_______words.A. 30,000 to 40,000B. 50,000 to 60,000C. 70,000 to 80,000D. 80,000 to 90,0006. Besides French words, English also absorbed as many as 2,500 words of___in the Middle English period.A. Dutch originB. Danish originC. Latin originD. Greek origin概念：Germanic，Old English简答：Is it true that archaic and obsolete words in English will remain for ever out of use?Chapter 3 Word Formation I1. A morpheme that can stand alone as a word is thought to be----- .A. affixationalB. derivationalC. freeD. bound2. Affixes added to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as____A. bound rootsB. free morphemesC. inflectional morphemesD. derivational affixes3. ______are bound morphemes because they cannot be used as separate words.A. RootsB. StemsC. Affixes D, Compounds4. Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and____5. Almost all affixes are_____________ morphemes because few can be used as independent words.概念：morphs，allomorph，morpheme简答：1。

Chapter 7 Victorian AgeSymbol (象征): Literary symbols are of two broad types: the conventional ones and the occasionally-coined ones.Certain symbols occur again and again in literature, thus becoming conventional and possessing almost settled symbolic meanings. For instance, spring symbolizes life, and winter death. These conventional symbols are easy to recognize and identify. However, in order to convey particular meanings, writers often create their own symbols in their writing. This type of symbols acquires its suggestiveness not only from qualities inherent in itself but also from the way in which it is used in a given work or context.Tone (格调): the author’s attitude toward the subject or audienceTheme (主题): the controlling idea or meaning of a work of artStyle (风格): The author’s characteristic manner of expression; style includes the author’s diction, syntax, sentence patterns, punctuation, and spelling, as well as the use made of such devices as sound, rhythm, imagery, and figurative language.Dramatic monologue (戏剧独白): It is a type of poem in which a character, at some specific and critical moments, addresses an identifiable silent audience, thereby unintentionally revealing his or her essential temperament and personality.Notes1.I would : I wish2.O for : how I wish for3. the tender grace : 诗人与亡友之间的友谊Questions:1. Why does the poet describe the stones as “cold ” and “gray ”?2. What effect do the joyful scenes in the second stanza bring to the whole poem?3. Whose is the “voice that is still ”?Sophocles 3 long agoHeard it on the Agaean, and it brought Into his mind the turbid ebb and flow Of human misery; weFind also in the sound a thought,Hearing it by this distant northern sea.Was once, too, at the full, and round earth's shoreLay like the folds of a bright girdle4 furled.But now I only hear5Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar,Retreating, to the breathOf the night-wind, down the vast edges drearAnd naked shingles of the world.Ah, love, let us be trueTo one another! for the world, which seemsTo lie before us like a land of dreams,So various, so beautiful, so new,Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light,Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain;And we are here as on a darkling plainSwept with confused alarms of struggle and flight,Where ignorant armies clash by night.Notes1.moon-blanched: whitened by the light of the moon.2. A grating roar: Here, grating introduces conflict between the sea and the land and, symbolically, between long-held religious beliefs and the challenges against them.3. Sophocles . . . Aegean: In his play Antigone, Sophocles says the gods can visit ruin on people from one generation to the next, like a swelling tide driven by winds.4. girdle: sash, belt; anything that surrounds or encircles5. I only hear: I alone hear6. Where . . . night: E.K. Brown and J.O. Bailey suggest that this line is an allusion to Greek historian Thucydides' account of the Battle of Epipolae (413 B.C.), a walled fortress near the city of Syracuse on the island of Sicily. In that battle, Athenians fought an army of Syracusans at night. In the darkness, the combatants lashed out blindly at one another. Brown and Bailey further observe that the line "suggests the confusion of mid-Victorian values of all kinds . . .”Questions:1.Is it the sea that brings the eternal sadness to the poet? Or is it the poetwho brings the sadness to the sea?2.In what ways does the sea resemble Faith?3.What is the suggested cure for the faithless world in the poem?。

Module 1 My lifeUnit 1 Making friends本课是教材Module 1 Unit 1的教学设计。

本单元的语言功能项目是To revise vocabulary and expressions to describe people.主要话题是To generate ideas about people’s appearance and personalities,本课内容贴近学生的生活和学习实际，为学生操练对话创设了一个真实的语言情景，有利于学生在比较接近实际的情景中听听说说，从而培养他们运用英语进行交际的能力。

【知识目标】1. To revise vocabulary and expressions to describe people2. To guess meaning from context3. To categorize adjectives to describe important qualities of a friend according to personal preferences.【能力目标】To use the sentences in context.【情感目标】利用多种游戏或活动形式培养学生对英语学习的浓厚兴趣。

【教学重点】To generate ideas about people’s appearance and personalities.【教学难点】通过阅读活动，引导学生通过阅读抓住关键信息，了解故事大意，通过角色扮演，让学生巩固和运用本单元所学核心词汇和句型。

Tape recorder, Multimedia.Step 1. Lead-in1. Free talkT: I’m very happy to be here and teach you English. First, let me introduce myself.2. Ask three questions:(1) Can everyone be your friend?(2) How many friends do you have in our class?(3) When you choose a friend, how do you want he is like?Step 2. Listen and read1. Play the tape for students to listen and answerQ: (1) What food does Eddie give Hobo? (a cake, some milk)(2) What does Hobo want at last? (the pizza in Eddie’s bowl).2. Read after tape while thinking about the following questions:(1) If you are Eddie, will you give the pizza to Hobo?(2) What will you do?3. Act the dialogue out.Step 3. PresentationT: Do you like Eddie or Hobo? Why? How is your friend like?Students discuss in groups of 4 and then report.Step 4. Choose and read1. T: Let’s look at some qualities of good friend. Please match the words with the questions.2. Check the answer and read the questions and words together.Step 5. Brain-storming1. T: Do you have any other ideas of a good friend? Can you use some words to describe your best friend?2. Discuss in pairs and write down the word.3. 2—3 students to report.Step 6. Tick and answerT: Which qualities do you think are very important while others are not so important? Please tick them. Then report it to class.It is (very/quite/not) important for my friend to be+ adj.Step 7. SummarizeT: Today we have learned some important qualities about a good friend. It seem that we all think appearance is not so important, but he should be helpful and honest. And I hope everyone can be like that and you will have more friends.略。

张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析第一部分Chapter Ⅰ英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary)Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。

然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。

首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。

另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。

随着词汇学的发展跟完善，人们给词下了较为完整的定义。

“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。

”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社）一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。

纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。

特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。

现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。

一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。

英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。

根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。

口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。

基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。

第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )(一)词素（Morphemes）单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。

词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。

单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。

如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。

永不言弃大学英语教材翻译Chapter 1: IntroductionIn recent years, the demand for English language learning materials has been growing rapidly. As more and more students strive to improve their English proficiency, the need for high-quality textbooks becomes crucial. "永不言弃" (Yǒngbù Yánguì), meaning "Never Give Up" in English, is a pioneering university English textbook that aims to provide comprehensive language instruction for learners. In this translation project, we will explore the key features and challenges of translating "永不言弃" into English.Chapter 2: Target AudienceBefore delving into the translation process, it is important to identify the target audience of the English version of "永不言弃." The textbook primarily caters to undergraduate students majoring in English or related fields. Additionally, it can also be utilized by self-learners who wish to enhance their English proficiency. Recognizing the diverse needs of the target audience allows us to adapt the translation to suit their requirements effectively.Chapter 3: Translating Vocabulary and ExpressionsOne of the primary challenges in translating "永不言弃" is capturing the essence of the original Chinese vocabulary and expressions. This requires a deep understanding of the cultural nuances and context. The translator must diligently select and adapt words and phrases that accurately convey the intended meaning while ensuring they are easily understood by the targetaudience. Additionally, cultural references unique to Chinese language and culture may need to be localized appropriately.Chapter 4: Grammar and StructureEnglish and Chinese differ greatly in terms of grammar and sentence structure. To maintain the integrity of the original content, the translator must be adept at restructuring sentences and adjusting grammar to ensure clarity and coherence in the English version. This involves careful consideration of tenses, pronouns, and idiomatic expressions, as well as maintaining consistency throughout the text.Chapter 5: Cultural AdaptationCultural adaptation is crucial in translating "永不言弃" into English. The Chinese textbook may contain examples, stories, or references that may be unfamiliar or less relevant to an English-speaking audience. The translator must assess the cultural appropriateness and make necessary adaptations to ensure the content resonates with the target audience. This process involves striking a balance between preserving the original cultural elements and making the content accessible to English learners.Chapter 6: Localization and Regional DifferencesConsidering the wide distribution of English learners across different regions, it is essential to address localization and regional differences while translating "永不言弃." This includes adapting language, examples, and exercises to cater to the linguistic variations and cultural norms of specific English-speaking communities. By incorporating regional considerations,the English version can become more relatable and relevant to a global audience.Chapter 7: Review and ProofreadingOnce the initial translation is complete, it is vital to thoroughly review and proofread the text. This stage involves checking for grammar, punctuation, and consistency errors. Attention to detail is paramount to ensure a polished and error-free final product that meets the highest linguistic standards.Chapter 8: ConclusionTranslating "永不言弃" into English poses various challenges that require careful attention and expertise. By considering the target audience, cultural adaptation, grammar, and structure, as well as localization and proofreading, the resulting English version can effectively convey the essence of the original Chinese textbook. The translation of "永不言弃" contributes to the accessibility and enhancement of English learning resources, empowering students to never give up on their language learning journey.。

张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析第一部分Chapｔer Ⅰ英语词汇得概论(Ａｇenｅrａｌsurvey ofＥｎglｉｓh vocａbu ｌａry）Bloｏmfieｌd193３中对词得定义就是,每个单词都就是最小得自由词.然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。

首先，不就是所有得单词都可以独立出现，如ｔhe ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义.另外,Bｌoomfield得定义侧重在于语法（ｓyntax)却没有涉及到词得意义。

随着词汇学得发展跟完善，人们给词下了较为完整得定义.“词，今指语言组织中得基础单位,能独立运用,具有声音、意义与语法功能。

”(《辞海》1984(上）3７5页，上海辞书出版社)一种语言中所有得单词汇集起来便构成了该语言得词库。

纵观英语得发展历史,我们可以知道,大多数得英语词汇都就是外来词，它从拉丁语,法语与希腊语等语言中汲取词汇,不断得扩充自己，为己所用.特别就是第二次世界大战之后,英语词汇得到了空前得发展。

现代英语词汇快速发展得原因主要有四方面。

一就是科学技术得快速发展，二就是社会经济得全球化,三就是英语国家得政治与文化变化,最后就是其她文化与语言对英语得强烈影响。

英语词汇就是由各种不同类型得单词组成,而这些单词有着不同得分类标准。

根据词得起源可以分为本族语与外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。

口头词汇,俚语以及科学术语.基础语库得基本特征就是具有民族特征，稳定性,构词得能力与搭配能力。

第二部分Cｈaｐter Ⅱ到Ｃhａpter Ⅳ英语词汇得形态结构与词得构词(Morｐhｏｌogicaｌsｔｒucture of Eｎgli ｓｈｗoｒds ａnd wｏｒd—ｆormａtioｎ)(一)词素（Mｏrｐhｅmeｓ)单词就是有词素(mｏrphemes)构成得。

词素即英语语言中有意义得最小单位,同时具有声音与意义.单词可以有一个或一个以上得词素组成。

如:ｎaｔｉon就是一个词素，ｎatｉonal有nation+al 两个词素。

conceptual,meaning篇一：词汇学术语词汇学必须熟练掌握的术语Lexicology morphologysemantics etymology lexicography word Semantic field morphemelexememorphallomorphaffix( prefix suffix) Free morpheme( bound morpheme) reference( denotation tation sense) Conceptualmeaning( tative meaning social meaningaffective meaningReflected meaning collocative meaning thematicmeaning)root(stembase) polysemyhomonymy old English(middle English Modern English) inflection derivationCompounding(conversion blendingshorteningclippinginitialism backformation) Synonymy synonym antonymy antonym hyponymy hyponym meronymy collocation Idiommultiword verb proverbentryheadword bilingual dictionary(monolingual dictionary learners’ dictionary)dialect(register) style contexttaboo(euphemismslangjargon )meaning shift(broadening narrowing)mental lexicon(active vocabularypassivevocabulary)metaphor prototype attribute篇二：《数据库原理(双语)》试卷西南石油大学试卷第 1 页共 10 页西南石油大学试卷第 2 页共 10 页西南石油大学试卷第 3 页共 10 页西南石油大学试卷第 4 页共 10 页西南石油大学试卷第 5 页共 10 页篇三：历史老照片不能说的秘密慈禧军阀明末清初文革晚清历史老照片不能皖系说的秘密慈禧军阀明末清初文革晚清Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:It is beyond language is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It ats for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 1) Onomatopoeic motivation （拟声理据） 2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）Types of meaningGrammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicate the grammatical concept(become important only in actual context) Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaningLexical meaning has 2 components: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义) Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义)Associative meaning(关联意义):[tative隐含意义,Stylistic风格意义,Affective感情意义, Collocative搭配意义]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field （语义关系和语义三场） Polysemy（多义关系） Two approached to polysemy: diachronic approach(历时方法) synchronic approach (共时方法) Two processed of development: radiation （辐射型）and concatenation （连锁型） Homonymy（同形/同音异义关系）It refers words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. Types of homonyms1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）2）Homophones（同音异义词）3)Homographs（同形异义词） Origins of homonyms1）change in sound and spelling 2）borrowing 3）Shortening(缩略)The differences between polysemes（多义词） and homonyms （同音同形异义词） ).1)Homonymy refer to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word whichhas sevral distinguishable meaning.2)Homonymy are from different sources. Polysemy are from the same source. 3)The various meanings of polysemy are correlated and connected to one central meaning.Meanings of different homonymy have nothing to do with one another.values: Polysemic and homonymous word are stlyistically useful to achieve humour or irony（反话，讽刺）,or to heighten（提高） dramatic effect.Synonymy (同义关系):one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning : absolute synonyms and relative synonyms Sources of synonyms(同义词) are : 1)Borrowing2)Dialects and regional English 3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressionsAntonymy (反义关系)It is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词):these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning, such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees. (single/married)2)contrary terms （对立反义词）:antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(old/young) 3)relative terms（关系反义词）：（parent/child）sell/buy Some of the characteristics of antonyms反义关系的特点1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym 3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms The uses of antonymsTo express eically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(idiom:now and never) To form anithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together.(proverbs and sayings:easy come , easy go)Hyponymy(上下义关系)Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal Superordinate and Subordinate (118) Semantic Field(词义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis offield theorye.g.(apple, pear, peach,date,mango,orange,lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’) The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members indifferent language. e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 6 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes 词义变化的种类（extension,narrowing,degradation,elevation and transfer）Extension or generalization词义的扩大:is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo.[companion (old)one who shares bread (ex)a company]Narrowing or specialization词义的缩小：is the opposite of widening meaning. When a words is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed. [meat (old)food (na)flesh of animals]Elevation or amelioration of meaning词义的升华: the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的） beginnings to positions of importance. [knight (old)servant (el)rank below baronet从男爵]Degeneration or pejoration词义的贬降:A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or no-affective words come to used in derogatory sense.[silly (old)happy (de)foolish]Transfer词义的转移:Words which were used to designate指明 one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.（140）Causes of Semantic Change词义变化的原因 Extra-linguistic factors 1411 Historical reason2 Class reason (elevation or degradation)3 Psychological reasonLinguistic factors：the change of meaning may be causedby internal factors with in the language system.Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 意义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic andextra-linguistic contexts.Two types of contextLinguistic context：It refers to thewords,clauses,sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph,a whole chapter and even the entire book.1) Lexical context：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question.2) Grammatical context：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. Extra-linguistic context：In a broad sense,it includes the physical situaion as well.it embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.The role of context语境的作用 Elimination of ambiguity消除歧义1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity Indication of referents限定所指 Provision of clues for inferring word meaning 提供线索以猜想词义Chapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语 Idioms: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc.They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of IdiomsSemantic unity 语意的整体性 words in the idiom they have lost their individual identityStructural stability结构的稳定性: the constituents要素of idioms cannot be replaced, inverted or changed, deleted or added to, not even an article.The fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms1 idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语 (white elephant累赘物)2 idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail拼命） 5 sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms:习语的使用（stylistic features, rhetoric features and their occasional variations） Stylistic features 文体色彩〔colloquialisms（俗语）, slang 俚语,literary expressions〕 The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meaningRhetorical features 修辞色彩 (phonetic manipulation 语音处理，lexical manipulation and figures of speech) phonetic manipulation 语音处理 : alliteration头韵、 rhyme押韵lexical manipulation：reiteration（duplication of synonyms同义字重复） [scream and shout] repetition [out and out]、juxtaposition (of antonyms)反义词并列 [here and there]figures of speech : Simile（明喻）、Metaphor（隐喻）、Metonymy（换喻）、synecdoche(提喻)、Personification（拟人法）、Euphemism（委婉词） Variations of idioms习语的变异形式：addition,deletion,replacement,postion-shifting,dismembering(分解)179Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,priation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源） Types of dictionaries:Monolingual & bilingual dictionariesMonolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE,CCELD). The headword or entries are defined & illustrated in the same language.Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionariesLinguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, priation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是利皮扬卡或是双语的 Encyclopedic dictionary: encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not priation, meanings, or usages) but only information.Encyclopedic Dictionary: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (&l t;Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries Unabridged D: basic information about a word: its origin, meaning, priation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster’s Third New International Dictionary> Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000] Pocket D: about 50,000 entries or fewerSpecialized dictionaries: concentrate on a particulararea of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topicsas etymology, synonyms, idioms, priation, usage in language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other subjects.Use of the dictionary1 read the contents page to find out quickly what information is included in the dictionary2 read the guide to the use of the dictionaryThree good general dictionaries 3本常用字典Longman dictionary of contemporary English (LDCE) new edition(1987)莫雷县当代英语词典新版 Collins COBUILD English language dictionary (CCELD) (1987)科林斯合作英语词典 AChinese-English dictionary (revised edition) (CED)(2021)汉英字典修订版( 增加：English dictionaries can be divided into 11 types according to different specialized purposes. General Dictionaries for Current English通用现代词典,Dictionaries Complied on History Principles按照历史原则编纂的词典,Etymological Dictionaries词源词典,Pring Dictionaries发音词典,Dictionaries of Synonyms同义词词典,Dictionaries ofIdioms and Proverbs习语和谚语词典,Dictionaries of Slang俚语词典, Classified and Illustrated Dictionaries分类词典,Encyclopedic Dictionaries百科全书特殊性的词典,Dictionaries of Dialects方言词典, Dictionaries of Place Names 地名词典 )Supplementaries for terms:1. word equivalent（等同词）:denotes an idiom or set phrase representing a semantic unit and funtioning as asingle word in a sentence.2. register（语域）: It's one of the main factors thathas led to the growth of sociolinguistic reaserch has beenthe recognition of fact that language is very variable phenomenon,and that this variability is not haphazard(偶然性，任意性)3. dismembering（肢解）:It is what I mean by breaking up the idioms into pieces,an unusual case of use of idioms particularly in literature or popular press to achievespecial effect。