现代英语词汇学概论8 Meaning and Context

English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary词汇Vocabulary: all the words in a language make up its vocabulary词语分类Classification of English Words：1.By use frequency: basic word stock & non basic vocabulary基本词汇的特征:1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability3)Productivity（多产性） 4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的词:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words (6)Archaisms（古语） (7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms2.By notion: content words实词 & functional words虚词3.By origin: native words & borrowed wordsNative words（本族语词）: Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)1) denizens(同化词，融入英语): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词，可以看出源头）: kowtow3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see / tofu4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed withreference to the form,but their meanings are borrowed pioneer本指开拓者，先引申为先锋。

1.Motivation 分类：onomatopoeic motivation拟声理据, morphological motivation形态理据, semantic motivation语义理据, etymological motivation词源理据.2. Types of meaning:grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~, collocative ~,)Associative meaning : 1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.3. Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more senses or meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time.4.同形同音异义关系Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning fromanother, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs (same spelling) and homophones （some sound）. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/ (v) to put up with. Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig. Homophones refer to the words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person;deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal.5. 同形同音异义词与多义词的区别Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. One important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, e. g. neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) . On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.6. 同义关系Synonyms are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. Sources of Synonyms1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions如何区分同义词？1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application7.What are the characteristics of antonyms?1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.8.上下义关系:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaningof a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes9.词义变化的种类There are five types of meaning, changes: extension, narrowing, degradation,elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy).10.词义的扩大Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to covera broader or less词义的缩小Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense；词义的升格Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or appreciative sense；词义的降格Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,；11.词义的转移Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a differentbut related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus, which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer. There are other kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation. 12.语境的种类:非语言语境。

张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析第一部分Chapter Ⅰ英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary)Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。

然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。

首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。

另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。

随着词汇学的发展跟完善，人们给词下了较为完整的定义。

“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。

”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社）一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。

纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。

特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。

现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。

一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。

英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。

根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。

口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。

基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。

第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )(一)词素（Morphemes）单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。

词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。

单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。

如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。

Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabula ry（练习1）I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words,primarily through the use of _________construct.A. wordB. formC. morphemeD. root2.________ is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words.A. SemanticsB. LinguisticsC. EtymologyD. Stylistics3.Modern English is derived from the language of early ______ tribes.A. GreekB. RomanC. ItalianD. Germanic4. Semantics is the study of meaning of different _________ levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc.A. linguisticB. grammaticalC. arbitraryD. semantic5.Stylistics is the study of style . It is concerned with the user’s choices of linguistic elements in a particular________ for special effectsA. situationB. contextC. timeD. place6.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form , meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a _______ difference.A . spelling B. semantic C. pronunciation D. pragmatic7. Terminology consists of _______ terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas.A. technicalB. artisticC. differentD. academic8. __________refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades, and professions communicate among themselves.A. SlangB. JargonC. Dialectal wordsD. Argot9 ._________ belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words.A. JargonB. ArgotC. Dialectal wordsD. Slang10. Argot generally refers to the jargon of _______.Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups and outsiders can hardly understand it.A. workersB. criminalsC. any personD. policeman11.________ are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question.A. ArgotB. SlangC. JargonD. Dialectal words12. Archaisms are words or forms that were once in _________use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use.A. commonB. littleC. slightD. great13. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on ______meanings.A. newB. oldC. badD. good14. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals.A. functionalB. notionalC. emptyD. formal15. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called _______words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category.A. contentB. notionalC. emptyD. newII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and _____of words.17.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the ______ structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantics, relations, _____development, formation and ______.18.English lexicology embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology,______,etymology, stylistics, ________.19.There are generally two approaches to the study of words , namely synchronic and _______.nguage study involves the study of speech sounds, grammar and_______.I. 1. A2.C3.D4.A5.B6.D7.A8.B9.D10.B11.D12.A13.A14.B15.CII.16.meanings17.morphological, historical, usages 18. semantics, lexicography19.diachronic20. vocabularyChapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary and Chapter 3 Word Formation I(练习2)I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000( some put it 5,000)languages, which canbe grouped into the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.A. 500B. 4000C. 300D. 20002.The prehistoric Indo-European parent language is thought to be a highly ______language.A. inflectedB. derivedC. developedD. analyzed3.After the _________, the Germanic tribes called Angles ,Saxons, and Jutes came in greatnumbers.A. GreeksB. IndiansC. RomansD. French4.The introduction of ________had a great impact on the English vocabulary.A. HinduismB. ChristianityC. BuddhismD. Islamism5.In the 9th century the land was invaded again by Norwegian and Danish V ikings. With theinvaders, many ________words came into the English language.A. GreekB. RomanC. CelticD. Scandinavian6.It is estimated that at least ______ words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modernEnglish.A. 500B. 800C. 1000 .D. 9007.The Normans invaded England from France in 1066. The Norman Conquest started acontinual flow of ______ words into English.A. FrenchB. GreekC. RomanD. Latin8.By the end of the _______century , English gradually came back into the schools, the lawcourts, and government and regained social status.A. 12thB. 13thC. 14thD.15th9.As a result , Celtic made only a ________contribution to the English vocabulary.A. smallB. bigC. greatD. smaller10. The Balto-Slavic comprises such modern languages as Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech,Bulgarian, Slovenian and _______.A. GreekB. RomanC. IndianD. Russian11.In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian , Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which arederived from the dead language.A. SanskritB. LatinC. RomanD. Greek12.Greek is the modern language derived from _______.A. LatinB. HellenicC. Indian D . Germanic13.The five Roamance languages , namely, Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Romanian allbelong to the Italic through an intermediate language called _______.A. SanskritB. LatinC. CelticD. Anglo-Saxon14.The ________family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian,Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages.A. GermanicB. Indo-EuropeanC. AlbanianD. Hellenic15.By the end of the _______century , virtually all of the people who held political or socialpower and many of those in powerful Church positions were of Norman French origin.A. 10thB.11thC.12thD. 13thII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.Now people generally refer to Anglo-Saxon as _______.17.. If we say that Old English was a language of full endings , Middle English was one of______.18.It can be concluded that English has evoked from a synthetic language (Old English) to thepresent _____ language.19.The surviving languages accordingly fall into eight princ ipal groups , which can be groupedinto an Eastern set: Balto-Slavic , Indo-Iranian ,Armenian and Albanian; a Western set :Celtic, Italic, Hellenic, _______.20.It is necessary to subdivide Modern English into Early (1500-1700)and _____ ModernEnglish.I. 1.C 2.A 3.C 4.B 5.D 6.D 7.A8.B 9.A10.D 11.A12.B 13.B14.A 15.BII.16.Old English 17. Leveled endings 18. analytic 19. Germanicte(1700-up to the present )Chapter 3 The Development of the English V ocabulary and Chapter 4 Word Formation II（练习3）I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.The prefixes in the words of ir resistible, non classical and a political are called _______.A.reversative prefixesB. negative prefixesC. pejorative prefixesD. locative prefixes2.The prefixes contained in the following words are called ______: pseudo-friend, mal practice,mis trust.A. reversative prefixedB. negative prefixesC. pejorative prefixesD. locative prefixes3.The prefixed contained in un wrap, de-compose and dis allow are _________.A. reversative prefixedB. negative prefixesC. pejorative prefixesD. locative prefixes4.The prefixes in words extra-strong, overweight and arch bishop are _____ .A . negative prefixes B. prefixes of degree or size C. pejorative prefixes D. locative prefixes5.The prefixes in words bi lingual ,uni form and hemis phere are ________.A. number prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. pejorative prefixesD. locativeprefixes6.________ are contained in words trans-world, intra-party and fore head.A.Prefixes of orientation and attitudeB. Prefixes of time and orderC. Locative prefixesD. Prefixes of degree or size7. Rugby ,afghan and champagne are words coming from ________.s of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames8. Omega,Xerox and orlon are words from _________.s of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames9.Ex-student, fore tell and post-election contain________.A.negative prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. prefixes of time and orderD. locative prefixes2.Mackintosh, bloomers and cherub are from _______A. names of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames3.The prefixes in words new-Nazi, autobiography and pan-European are ________.A.negative prefixesB. prefixes of degree or sizeC. prefixes of time and orderD. miscellaneous prefixes4.The prefixes in words anti-government , pro student and contra flow are _____-.A.prefixes of degree or sizeB. prefixes of orientation and attitudeC. prefixes of time and orderD. miscellaneous prefixes5.Utopia ,odyssey and Babbit are words from ________.s of booksB. names of placesC. names of peopleD. tradenames6.The suffixes in words clockwise, homewards are ______.A. noun suffixesB. verb suffixesC. adverb suffixesD. adjective suffixes7.The suffixes in words height en, symbol ize are ________.A. noun suffixesB. verb suffixesC. adverb suffixesD. adjective suffixesII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16. Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stem. This process is also known as_____.pounding , also called ________, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems . Words formed in this way are called _________.18. __________ is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.19. _________ is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word . Words formed in this way are called blends or _____words.20 A common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called _______.Key to exercises :1. B2. C3. A4. B5. A6.C7.B8.D9.C 10.C 11.D 12.B 13.A14.C 15.B II. 16. derivation position, compounds 18. Conversion 19. Blending(pormanteau) 20.clippingChapter 5 Word Meaning (练习4)I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.A word is the combination of form and ________.A. spellingB. writingC. meaningD. denoting2._______is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the humanmind.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SenseD. Context3.Sense denotes the relationships _______the language.A. outsideB. withC. beyondD. inside4. Most English words can be said to be ________.A. non-motivatedB. motivatedC. connectedD. related5.Trumpet is a(n) _______motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. semanticallyC. onomatopoeicallyD. etymologically1.Hopeless is a ______motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically2.In the sentence ‘ He is fond of pen ’ , pen is a ______ motivated word.A. morphologicallyB. onomatopoeicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically3.Walkman is a _______motivated word.A. onomatopoeicallyB. morphologicallyC. semanticallyD. etymologically4.Functional words possess strong _____ whereas content words have both meanings, andlexical meaning in particular.A. grammatical meaningB. conceptual meaningC. associative meaningD. arbitrary meaning10._______is unstable, varying considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.A.Stylistic meaningB. Connotative meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Affective meaning11.Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s _______towards the person or thing in question.A. feeling .B. likingC. attitudeD. understanding12. _________ are affective words as they are expressions of emotions such as oh, dear me, alas.A. PrepositionsB. InterjectionsC. ExclamationsD. Explanations13. It is noticeable that _______overlaps with stylistic and affective meanings because in a sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocations.A.conceptual meaningB. grammatical meaningC. lexical meaningD. collocative meaning14.In the same language, the same concept can be expressed in ______.A. only one wordB. two wordsC. more than threeD. different words15.Reference is the relationship between language and the ______.A. speakersB. listenersC. worldD. specific countryII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.1.In modern English one may find some words whose sounds suggest their ______pounds and derived words are ______ words and the meanings of many are the sum totalof the morphemes combined.3._______ refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word.4.The meanings of many words often relate directly to their ______. In other words the historyof the word explains the meaning of the word.5.Lexical meaning itself has two components : conceptual meaning and _________.Key to exercises:I. 1. C 2.B 3.D 4.A 5.C 6.A7.C 8.D 9.A10.B 11.C 12.B 13.D 14.D15.CII.16. meanings 17.multi-morphemic 18.Semantic motivation 19.origins 20.associative meaningChapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field (练习5)I.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.Polysemy is a common feature peculiar to ______.A. English onlyB. Chinese onlyC. all natural languagesD. some natural languages2.From the ______ point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth anddevelopment of the semantic structure of one and same word .A. linguisticB. diachronicC. synchronicD. traditional3._______ is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and thesecondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.A Radiation B. Concatenation C. Derivation D. Inflection4. _________ is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in many cases, there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.A. DerivationB. RadiationC. InflectionD. Concatenation5.One important criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their ______.A. spellingB. pronunciationC. etymologyD. usage6. ________refer to one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.A. PolysemantsB. SynonymsC. AntonymsD. Hyponyms7. The sense relation between the two words tulip and flower is _______.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. antonymy8. _________ are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning, e.g. bow/bau/; bow/beu/.A. HomophonesB. HomographsC. Perfect homonymsD. Antonyms9. The antonyms: male and female are ______.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms1.The antonyms big and small are ______.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected terms2.The antonyms husband and wife are ______.A. contradictory termsB. contrary termsC. relative termsD. connected termsposition and compounding in lexicology are words of _______.A. absolute synonymsB. relative synonymsC. relative antonymsD. contrary antonyms4.As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly ______, they are often employedin a conversation to create puns for desired effect of humor, sarcasm or ridicule.A. homographsB. homophonesC. absolute homonymsD. antonyms5.From the diachronic point of view, when the word was created, it was endowed with only onemeaning . The first meaning is called ______.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. basic meaning6.Synchronically, the basic meaning of a word is the core of word-meaning called_______.A. primary meaningB. derived meaningC. central meaningD. secondary meaningII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.7.One important criterion for differentiation of homonyms from polysemants is to see their ____,the second principal consideration is ________.8.In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one ______whereas homonymsare listed as separate ______.9.The differences between synonyms boil down to three areas : _______, connotation ,and_____.10.Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a morespecific word is included in that of another more general word. The general words are called the _____terms and the more specific words are called the _____ terms.11.The massive word store of a language like English can be conceived of as composed arounda number of meaning areas. Some large, such as ‘philosophy’ or ‘emotions’, other smaller,such as ‘kinship’ or ‘color’. V iewing the t otal meaning in this way is the basis of ______.Key to exercises :I. 1. C 2.B 3.A 4.D 5.C6.B 7.A8.B 9.A10.B 11.C 12.A13.B 14. A15.CII.16. etymology, semantic relatedness 17.headword, entries 18.denotation, application19. superordinate, subordinate 20.field theoryChapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning and Chapter 8 Meaning and Context (练习６)I.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the onethat would best complete the statement.1.The original meaning of manuscript is ________.A.any author’s writingB. handwritingC. any author’s worksD. a piece ofpaper2.The original meaning of barn is ______.A. a place for storing only barleyB. a storeroomC. a restroomD. a bathroom3.The extended meaning of journal is ______A. daily paperB. any paperC. magazinesD. periodical4.In Shakespearean line ‘rats and mice and such small dee r’, deer obviously designates‘_____’ in general.A. a doeB.. animalC. a deerlike animalD. buck5.The original meaning of wife is _______.A. a married womanB. a young womanC. womanD. widowed woman6.The meaning of meat changed by mode of _______.A. extensionB. narrowingC. elevationD. degradation7.The meaning of fond changed by mode of _______.A. extensionB. narrowingC. elevationD. degradation8.The original meaning of minister is ______.A. head of a ministryB. a tutorC.a farmerD. servant9.The original meaning of success is ______.A.resultB. progressC. eventD. incident10.The meaning of churl changed by mode of _______.A. elevationB. extensionC. degradationD. narrowing11.The original meaning of knave is _______.A. elevationB. extensionC. degradationD. narrowing12.The original meaning of silly is ______.A. sadB. jealousC. happyD. cold13.Loud colours belongs to ______.A.transfer of sensationsB. transfer between abstract and concrete meaningsC.transfer from objective to subjectiveD. transfer from subjective to objective14. Dreadful and hateful belong to _______.A. transfer from subjective to objectiveB. transfer of sensationC. transfer fromobjective to subjective D. transfer between abstract and concrete meanings15. The meaning of picture changed by modes of _____.A. extensionB. narrowingC. degradationD. elevationplete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book .16. V ocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changesboth in form and _____.17. Word-meaning changes by modes of extension, narrowing, degradation, ____and trandfer.Of these, extension and _______are by far the most common.18. Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and ______.19. The extra-linguistic context may extend to embrace the entire _____,which may also affectthe meaning of words .20.Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and _____.Key to exercises :I. 1.B 2. A 3. D 4. B 5. C 6. B 7. C 8. D 9. A10. C 11. D 12. C 13.A14. A15. AII.16. content 17. elevation , narrowing 18. grammatical context 19. cultural background 20.homonymyChapter 9 English Idioms (练习7 )I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement.1.Jack of all trades is an idiom ________.A. nominal in natureB. adjectival in natureC. verbal in natureD. adverbial in nature2.Let the dog see the rabbit is an idiom ________.A. nominal in natureB. adjectival in natureC. verbal in natureD. adverbial in nature3.How are you is a(n) __________.A.idiom nominal in natureB. idiom verbal in natureB.idiom adjective in nature D. sentence idiom4.tooth and nail is an idiom ________.A. nominal in natureB. adjectival in natureC. verbal in natureD. adverbial in nature5.Beyond the pale is an idiom _________.A. nominal in natureB. adjectival in natureC. verbal in natureD. adverbial in nature6.Play fast and loose shows the feature of ________.A. repetitionB. reiterationC. juxtapositionD. rhyme7.Spend money like water is an example of _________.A．metaphor B. simile C. metonymy D. synecdoche8.The salt of the earth is an example of _______.A. simileB. metaphorC. metonymyD. synecdoche9. From cradle to grave is an example of _________.A. simileB. metaphorC. synecdocheD. metonymy10.Fall into good hands is an example of _________.A. simileB. metaphorC. synecdocheD. metonymy11.The pot calls the cattle black is an example of _______.A.metaphorB. personificationC. synecdocheD. euphemism12.Powder one’s nose is an example of _________.A. personificationB. euphemismC. synecdocheD. hyperbold13.A world of trouble is an example of ________.A. euphemismB. personificationC. hyperboleD. metonymy14.Chop and change shows the feature of __________.A. rhymeB. repetitionC. reiterationD. repetition15.By hook and by crook is an example of ________.A. alliterationB. rhymeC. reiterationD. repetitionII. Complete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book.16.In a broad sense , idioms may include colloquialisms, _____, slang expressions, proverbs, etc.17.As far as sentence types are concerned, they embrace declarative, interrogative, ________andexclamative sentences.18.In terms of complexity they can be further divided into simple, compound and _____sentences.19.Apart from the stylistic features , idioms manifest apparent rhetorical coloring in such respectsas of phonetic manipulation, lexical manipulation and ______.20.When idioms are used in actual context, they do experience _______changes such as differentforms of verbs, agreement of personal pronouns and number and so on.Key to exercises:I.1.A 2.C 3.D 4.B 5.B 6.C 7.B 8.B 9.D 10.C 11.B 12.B 13.C 14.D 15.B II. 16. catchphrases 17. imperative 18. complex 19. figures of speech 20. grammatical Chapter 10 English Dictionaries (练习8)I.Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one thatwould best complete the statement and the letter in the bracket.1.The dictionary that contains information on all branches of knowledge or treatscomprehensively a particular branch of knowledge usually in articles arrangedalphabetically is called __________.A. lexiconB. concordanceC. yearbookD. encyclopaedia2.A reference book listing alphabetically arranged along with information about theirforms, pronunciations, functions, etymologies, meanings, and syntactical and idiomaticuses is called ______.A. encyclopaediaB. dictionaryC. glossaryD. concordance3.A collection of textual glosses or terms limited to a special area of knowledge or usage iscalled ______.A. encyclopaediaB. dictionaryC. glossaryD. lexicon4.An alphabetical index of the principal words in a book ir the works of an author with theimmediate contexts is called ________.A. glossaryB. lexiconC. gazetteerD. concordance5.A book containing an alphabetical arrangement of the words in a language and theirdefinitions is called __________.A. concordanceB. lexiconC. glossaryD. encyclopaedia6.A book of words or of information about a particular field or set of concepts, especially abook of words and their synonyms is called_____.A. lexiconB. handbookC. thesaurusD. manual7.A book capable of being conveniently carried ad a ready reference is called _____.A. thesaurusB. yearbookC. handbookD. gazetteer8.A book that is conveniently handled, especially handbook is called _____>A. manualB. thesaurusC. yearbookD. gazetteer9.A book published yearly as a report or summary of statistics or facts is called _____.A.manualB. handbookC. thesaurusD. yearbook10.A geographical dictionary is called ______.A. yearbookB. gazetteerC. manualD. lexicon11.A Table Alphabetical by Robert Cawdrey was published in _____.A. 1523B. 1600C. 1604D.162312.The English Dictionary by Henry Cokeram was published in _____.A. 1623B. 1775C. 1828D. 192813.Universal Etymological English Dictionary by Nathan Bailley was published in____.A. 1623B. 1721C. 1775D. 182814.A Dictionary of the English Language by Sam Johnson was published in ______.A. 1721B. 1735C. 1775D. 182815.The American Dictionary of the English language by Noah Webster was published in____ .A. 1775B. 1785C. 1800D. 1828plete the following statements with proper words or expressions according to the course book .III.16. The dominant sense of the word dictionary by English-speaking people is a book which presents ______order the words of English , with information as to their spelling,pronunciation , meaning, usage, rules of grammar, and in some, their etymology.17. Dictionary is closely related to ______, which deals with the same problems: the form, meaning, usage and origins of vocabulary units.18. The target population of monolingual dictionaries are general _______or second language and foreign learners who have reached the intermediate and advanced stages.19. Linguistic dictionaries aim at ______ and explaining their usages in the language,.。

现代英语词汇学概论随着现代社会的发展，现代英语已成为几乎全球范围内最常用的国际语言，因此，学习现代英语的词汇学知识具有重要的意义。

本文将对现代英语词汇学进行概论性介绍，具体内容包括词汇学的定义、其发展历史及其与语言学关系等。

首先，现代英语词汇学是一门使用系统研究法研究词汇知识的学科，以研究词语本身的构成、性质、发生和演变等为研究的核心，旨在揭示英语语言的实质特性和本身的内部结构特征。

其次，现代英语词汇学的发展史相对较晚，可以追溯到19世纪的拉丁语和希腊语研究，到20世纪中叶的中世纪英语研究、词形学和语义学，乃至截止到当代英语语言学的研究。

最后，现代英语词汇学与语言学密切相关。

通过词汇学研究，可以有效地揭示语言的实质性属性、归纳出英语语法规律以及具有指导意义的语言技巧，从而深入了解语言，提升英语水平。

综上所述，现代英语词汇学是一门涉及英语词汇系统研究及其它语言学知识的研究学科，它的研究可以帮助我们了解英语的实质特性、语言结构和语言技巧，从而能够有效地提升英语水平。

现代英语词汇学的研究方法主要包括分类法、历史方法、概率法、系统语用分析法等。

通过这些研究方法，可以有效地揭示词义的内在联系，不仅可以有效理解和记忆单词，还可以有效掌握英语的技巧。

例如，分类法可以有效地将单词分类组合，以便于记忆和理解；通过历史方法，可以更好地理解英语变化的规律，掌握固定搭配和表达方式；而通过概率法，可以有效地把握单词的使用倾向及相关熟词。

系统语用分析法则可以有效地把握语篇表达的价值观，例如把握上下文和情境，从而掌握英语表达方法。

从上述内容可以看出，现代英语词汇学对于英语学习者有很重要的教育意义，它可以帮助我们了解英语的实质特性、把握语言结构及其它知识，从而更好地提升我们的英语水平。

现代英语词汇学概论
作为英语学习的重要组成部分，词汇学的研究对于英语学习者有着至关重要的意义。

现代英语词汇学概论作为一门涉及英语词汇学研究的重要课程，在英语学习中具有特殊的作用。

现代英语词汇学主要由3个基本概念组成，即词汇意义、词汇结构和词汇使用。

词汇意义是指每一个英语词汇的含义，它可以从五个不同的角度来看待，即反义词辨析、比较辨析、语法辨析、系统性辨析和字义区分。

通过这些角度，学习者可以全面而准确地理解和掌握英语词汇的含义。

词汇结构包括词素和词形，它们可以帮助学习者更好地理解每个单词的组成。

例如，“teach”和“teacher”都有相同的词素“teach”，但其词形不同，一个是动词，另一个是名词。

词汇使用是指英语词汇如何使用，它包括词汇类别、搭配、句法功能、语用功能等。

这些有助于学习者获得与英语词汇使用有关的技能，提高英语语言表述的准确性和流利性。

以上是现代英语词汇学的概述。

学习者们可以通过对这些概念的深入分析，全面地理解和掌握英语词汇的结构、意义和使用，从而提升英语学习的能力。

现代英语词汇学的研究具有多方面的意义。

首先，这可以帮助学习者更好地理解英语语言，提高学习者阅读理解能力。

其次，它可以帮助学习者提高英语口语能力，改善口头表达交流。

最后，它还可以
帮助学习者更好地掌握英语写作技巧，使学习者在英语写作方面独树一帜。

综上所述，现代英语词汇学不仅是英语学习中的重要课程，而且具有深远的意义，可以更有效地帮助学习者提升英语学习能力。

现代英语词汇学（课后总结中文）第一篇：现代英语词汇学(课后总结中文)第一章一个词可以被定义为一个基本单位的言论和作为一个最低的自由形式。

它是一个统一的声音和意义，帽子能够执行一个给定的句法功能，所有的话在一个语言的共同组成的词汇。

英语的历史发展表明，英语是一个沉重的借用者，它采用了几乎所有已知语言的词汇，尤其是拉丁语、法语和希腊语。

第一次世界大战的英语词汇¬拉里扩大的速度比以前快后渣土。

对了一天英语词汇快速增长的根本原因是科学技术进步的标志，社会经济、政治和文化的变化¬宝在英语母语国家的发生，和其他国家的语言和文化的强烈影响，由于在历史发展过程中出现大规模借贷，英语词汇极其丰富和异质。

词汇量从旧英语的50000个增加到了60000个，增加到了世界上最大的一百万个单词。

尽管外来词在本土词汇上占优势，但后者却是英语词汇中最熟悉、最有用的部分。

前者增加了灵活性和语言资源¬丰满。

英语词汇包含不同种类的词汇。

可根据不同的¬租金标准分类。

词汇可以根据其来源分类为母语反借词。

通过使用水平，词可以分为普通（或流行〉词文学的话口语词、俚语和术语。

一个词的状态不是固定不变的，而是不断变化的。

技术术语可能会很流行，而流行词可以用作专门术语。

一些俚语也成为常用词或俗语词可以分为实词和虚词前有独立的词汇意义，后者，在大多数情况下，没有词汇本身的含义，作为语法信号显示内容之间的连接词。

虚词比内容词少得多，但使用频率更高。

第二章词是由语素构成的，语素是英语最有意义的单位，既有音也有义。

一位是任何一个рЬешеMOR的变体形式。

语素111ay被归类为自由或束缚，自由语素是一个可以成为一个独立的COM¬完整的话语，而粘着语素不能单独存在；它必须出现至少一个其他语素自由或束缚。

语素可以分为根和根进行affixies，在аіягогсІ意义的重要组成部分，根可以免费或黏着语素自由根可以独立成为单词，并为语言的形成提供基础。

张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析第一部分Chapter Ⅰ英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary)Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是，每个单词都是最小的自由词。

然而这个定义不够全面，存在着缺陷。

首先，不是所有的单词都可以独立出现，如the ，a ，my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。

另外，Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法（syntax）却没有涉及到词的意义。

随着词汇学的发展跟完善，人们给词下了较为完整的定义。

“词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，具有声音、意义和语法功能。

”（《辞海》1984（上）375页，上海辞书出版社）一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。

纵观英语的发展历史，我们可以知道，大多数的英语词汇都是外来词，它从拉丁语，法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇，不断的扩充自己，为己所用。

特别是第二次世界大战之后，英语词汇得到了空前的发展。

现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。

一是科学技术的快速发展，二是社会经济的全球化，三是英语国家的政治和文化变化，最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。

英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成，而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。

根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语；根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇，文学词汇。

口头词汇，俚语以及科学术语。

基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征，稳定性，构词的能力和搭配能力。

第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )(一)词素（Morphemes）单词是有词素（morphemes）构成的。

词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位，同时具有声音和意义。

单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。

如：nation 是一个词素，national有nation+al 两个词素。