A CATALOGUE OF IJK PHOTOMETRY OF PNe WITH DENIS

a r X i v :a s t r o -p h /0506343v 1 15 J u n 2005Astronomy &Astrophysics manuscript no.2262February 2,2008(DOI:will be inserted by hand later)A Spectroscopic Search for the non-nuclear Wolf-Rayet Population of the metal-rich spiral galaxy M 83⋆L.J.Hadfield 1,Paul A.Crowther 1,H.Schild 2,and W.Schmutz 31Department of Physics &Astronomy,University of Sheffield,Hicks Building,Hounsfield Rd,Sheffield,S37RH,United Kingdome-mail:L .Hadfield@sheffi 2Institut f¨u r Astronomie,ETH-Zentrum,CH 8092Z¨u rich,Switzerland3Physikalisch-Meteorologisches Observatorium,CH-7260Davos,Switzerlandthe date of receipt and acceptance should be inserted laterAbstract.We present a catalogue of non-nuclear regions containing Wolf-Rayet stars in the metal-rich spiral galaxy M 83(NGC 5236).From a total of 283candidate regions identified using He ii λ4686imaging with VLT-FORS2,Multi Object Spectroscopy of 198regions was carried out,confirming 132WR sources.From this sub-sample,an exceptional content of ∼1035±300WR stars is inferred,with N(WC)/N(WN)∼1.2,continuing the trend to larger values at higher metallicity amongst Local Group galaxies,and greatly exceeding current evolutionary predictions at high te-type stars dominate the WC population of M 83,with N(WC8–9)/N(WC4–7)=9and WO subtypes absent,consistent with metallicity dependent WC winds.Equal numbers of late to early WN stars are observed,again in contrast to current evolutionary predictions.Several sources contain large numbers of WR stars.In particular,#74(alias region 35from de Vaucouleurs et al.)contains ∼230WR stars,and is identified as a Super Star Cluster from inspection of archival HST/ACS images.Omitting this starburst cluster would result in revised statistics of N(WC)/N(WN)∼1and N(WC8–9)/N(WC4–7)∼6for the ‘quiescent’disk population.Including recent results for the nucleus and accounting for incompleteness in our spectroscopic sample,we suspect the total WR population of M 83may exceed 3000stars.Key words.galaxies:individual:M 83–stars:Wolf-Rayet1.IntroductionMassive stars play a major role in the ecology of galaxies via radiative,mechanical and chemical feedback (Smith,2005).Wolf-Rayet (WR)stars in particular,albeit rare and short-lived,make a significant contribution to their environment via the mechanical return of nuclear pro-cessed material to the interstellar medium (ISM)through their exceptionally powerful stellar winds.Metallicity,Z ,is a key factor in determining the number and subtype distribution of a WR population.Although the metallicity dependence of WR wind proper-ties still remains unclear,mass-loss prior to this phase has been established to depend on metallicity,with the lat-est models predicting ˙M∝Z ∼0.8for O stars (Vink et al.,2001).Evolutionary models for single stars predict that the minimum mass cut-offrequired for WR formation should decrease as metal content increases.It is antici-pated that the minimum mass required forprogression2L.J.Hadfield et al.:WR population of M83super-Solar metallicity,but its unfavourable inclination and large spatial extent makes surveying the complete WR population very challenging.In order to increase the vari-ety of galaxies sampled,our group has begun to look be-yond the Local Group(e.g.NGC300,Schild et al.,2003).Galaxies hosting substantive WR populations are known as‘WR galaxies’(Kunth&Sargent,1981; Schaerer et al.,1999b),where the number of WR stars ranges from∼35in NGC1569-A(Gonzalez Delgado et al., 1997)to2×104in Mrk309(Schaerer et al.,2000).Within specifically metal-rich environments,previous studies of WR populations have generally been restricted to in-tegrated spectra from bright star forming knots(e.g. Schaerer et al.,1999a)or H ii regions(e.g.Pindao et al., 2002).Here we present the results of a deep imaging and spectroscopic survey of the disk WR population within the metal-rich galaxy M83,in which WR signatures have previously been identified by Rosa&Richter(1988)and Bresolin&Kennicutt(2002).M83(NGC5236)is a massive,grand-design southern spiral(SBc(s)II)with on-going star formation in its spiral arms plus an active nuclear starburst(Elmegreen et al., 1998;Harris et al.,2001).M83is the principal mem-ber of a small galaxy group(∼11members)within the Centaurus A complex(Karachentsev et al.,2002). Located at a distance of4.5±0.3Mpc(Thim et al.,2003), its favourable inclination and apparently high metal abun-dance of log(O/H)+12=9.2(Bresolin&Kennicutt,2002) makes M83an ideal candidate for studies of massive stel-lar populations at high metallicity.More recently,oxygen abundances in metal-rich galax-ies have been revised downward(Pilyugin et al.,2004; Bresolin et al.,2004),such that M83may have a metal abundance closer to log(O/H)+12=9.0(Bresolin,2004, m.),i.e.approximately twice the Solar oxy-gen abundance of log(O/H)+12=8.66recently derived by Asplund et al.(2004).We present the results of an imaging and spectro-scopic survey of the WR content of M83using the ESO Very Large Telescope(VLT).The present paper com-plements the initialfindings of this study reported in Crowther et al.(2004,hereafter Paper I).In Sect.2we briefly describe the observations and data reduction tech-niques employed.Section3discusses the method followed to obtain a global WR population of M83.Sect.4dis-cusses the properties of metal rich WR stars with those of Local Group galaxies and evolutionary models.Finally, conclusions are drawn in Sect.5.2.Observations and data reductionWe have observed M83with the ESO Very Large Telescope UT4(Yepun)and Focal Reduced/Low Dispersion Spectrograph#2(FORS2).The detector con-sists of a mosaic of two2048×1024MIT/LL CCDs which in conjunction with the standard collimator provides a field-of-view6.8′×6.8′and an image scale of0.126′′/pixel. Photometric observations of M83were made between May–June2002with follow-up spectroscopic data being acquired during April–June2003.2.1.ImagingM83subtends12.9′by11.5′on the sky,preventing it be-ing imaged by a single FORS2frame.In order to obtain complete coverage,the galaxy was divided into four over-lapping regions,covering the NE(Field A),NW(B),SE (C)and SW(D)as indicated in Fig.1.Occulting bars were positioned in Field C to prevent detector saturation by bright foreground stars.The central15′′appears sat-urated on all images obtained,and as a result the WR population of the nucleus can not be discussed further.FORS2was used on2June2002to obtain narrow-band images with central wavelengths4684˚A,4781˚A and band widths of66˚A and68˚A respectively.These were obtained consecutively for each Field in seeing condi-tions between0.6–0.8′′1with individual exposures of 1800s.Theλ4684filter is coincident with the strong WR emission features which incorporates the N iii(λ4640˚A), C iii(λ4650˚A)and He ii(λ4686˚A)emission lines,whereas the latter samples a wavelength region relatively free from emission,providing a measure of the continuum level.In addition to these,2exposures(60s and600s) were taken using narrow-band on-and off-Hαfilters (λ6563,6665˚A,FWHM=61,65˚A)on16May2002. Finally,in order to supplement the primary dataset,2ex-posures(60s and120s)were also acquired using a Bessell Bfilter on21May2002.2.2.PhotometryImages were prepared following standard procedures i.e. debiased,flatfield corrected and cosmic ray cleaned. Photometry of individual sources within M83was per-formed using the package daophot,a point-spread func-tion(PSF)fitting routine within iraf.Absolute pho-tometry in the broad-band Bfilter was achieved with the aid of photometric standardfields Ru152and PG 1528+062(containing a total of10photometric standards, 11.9≤B≤16.3).For the narrow-band images such stan-dards are not available and photometric zero-points have been obtained by observing spectrophotometric standards LTT7987(B=12.2)and G138-31(B=16.5).The majority of our sources appear point-like on the ground-based images.However,a number of bright sources are surrounded by a faint,extended halo,which was not accounted for in the PSF photometry and as a result only a lower limit to the magnitude is given,based on PSF photometry.A further subset of the bright sources are spatially extended,indicating that PSF photometry is in-appropriate,as indicated in Table A1in the appendix.Typical formal photometric errors range between 0.02mag(∼18mag),0.05mag(∼20mag)and0.08magL.J.Hadfield et al.:WR population of M833Fig.1.Four combined HαVLT FORS2frames of M83. The overall size of the image is∼12′×12′.Thefields A, B,C and D used to image M83are marked.North is up and east is to the left of the image.(∼22mag).Significantly higher errors,of up to0.15mag, are obtained for regions of the galaxy where the back-ground levels are high,or they are located in spatially crowded regions.As a consistency check we have compared results ob-tained for the two Bessell B exposures(for which the PSF model was based on different template stars)and also de-rived magnitudes for objects which appear in multiple fields.Excellent agreement was observed in both cases, with results agreeing to within the formal errors.In a mi-nority of cases this was not achieved due to severe crowd-ing.2.3.Candidate SelectionWR candidates were identified by searching for He ii/ C iii excess emission(atλ4684)relative to the contin-uum(λ4781),i.e.a negative value of∆m=mλ4684-mλ4781.The optimal method of identifying suitable candi-dates was found to be via‘blinking’individualλ4781and λ4684frames together with the difference image obtained by subtracting theλ4781image from theλ4684frame.In total,283candidateλ4684emission sources were identi-fied.For75%of our candidates we have obtained a magni-tude in at least theλ4684filter.For cases where we did not obtain photometry,the object was either too faint or was located in a spatially crowded region.In addition,for a significant fraction of the fainter sources it was not pos-sible to measure aλ4871parison between mλ4781magnitude and mλ4684excess of the WR candidates located in M83. Regions which have been spectroscopically observed and subsequently eliminated or classified as WR regions are presented in the key.Regions which still await spectro-scopic observations are also marked.Sources for which PSF photometry was unavailable are not marked.Candidates were grouped according to continuum brightness,∆m,and association with underlying H ii re-gions.To ensure we spectroscopically observed a repre-sentative sample,a selection from each group was cho-sen for spectroscopic follow up.In Fig.2we show∆m as a function of continuum magnitude for the sources in which WR signatures were either spectroscopically con-firmed,rejected or no spectroscopy was obtained,i.e.the remaining candidates.The majority of confirmed sources have aλ4684excess between–1.5≤∆m≤–0.4mag,al-though a few do exhibit rather smaller values of∆m.In contrast,all rejected regions have∆m≥–0.2mag,sug-gesting that remaining candidates which display a moder-ateλ4684excess should represent regions that genuinely host WR stars,together with a subset of those for with ∆m∼0.0mag.2.4.SpectroscopySpectroscopic data was obtained using FORS2with the Multi Object Spectroscopy(MOS)mode.MOS datasets of individual WR candidates were obtained during seeing conditions of∼0.5–1.0′′,using a slit width of0.8′′.The CCD was binned by a factor of2in the dispersion di-rection,resulting in a dispersion of3.3˚A pixel−1with the 300V grism and a spectral resolution of∼7˚A,as mea-sured from comparison arc lines.The wavelength range of individual targets depended on their position within the MOS mask but typical wavelength coverage was∼3700˚A to∼7500˚A.MOS allows the spectra of up to19candidates to be recorded simultaneously.However,due to positional limi-tations this was generally restricted to∼15,supplemented where possible by H ii regions.In total,198candidates have been spectroscopically observed using17different MOS masks.To maximise continuum S/N,sources were4L.J.Hadfield et al.:WR population of M83 Table1.FORS2Multi Object Spectroscopy(MOS)ob-serving log for M83.2003-04-06D23×9000.62003-04-13D11×24000.7D33×5000.7D53×6000.52003-05-21C23×9000.9C33×2400.92003-05-26A2,B23×9000.7,0.8A53×6000.8A43×2400.6L.J.Hadfield et al.:WR population of M 8353.1.Interstellar reddeningEstimates of the interstellar reddening for our confirmed WR sources have generally been derived using measure-ments of the nebular H α(accounting for nearby [N ii ]emission)and H βfeatures present in the extracted spec-tra.Assuming Case B recombination theory for typi-calelectron densities of 102cm −3and a temperature of 104K (Hummer &Storey,1987),we obtain 0.2≤E(B-V)=c (H β)/1.46≤0.8mag for the majority of the sources,with a few outliers,and typical formal uncertainty of ±0.02mag.Where Balmer emission was observed,typi-cal H βequivalent widths lay in the range and ∼20to ∼150˚A .Consequently,the underlying stellar absorption components (≤1˚A at H β)are neglected.In 41sources no nebular lines were observed.For those with a well defined continuum,E(B–V)was estimated by assuming an intrinsic optical flux distribution equiv-alent to a late O-type star,with typical uncertainty of ±0.05–0.1mag.In 15cases,the continuum S/N was in-sufficient for this comparison and an average reddening of E(B–V)=0.5±0.3was adopted.Correction for redden-ing adopt a standard Seaton (1979)extinction law with R=3.1=A V /E(B-V).3.2.Spectral classificationIn order to classify and quantify the WR population within each region,we have fit Gaussian line profiles to the blue and yellow WR features,revealing line fluxes,equivalent widths and FWHM.An example of the fits to the blue and yellow WR features is presented in Fig.3,where a source (#74)hosting a mixed WN and WC pop-ulation is presented.In general,it was straightforward to distinguish be-tween WN (strong He ii λ4686)and WC subtypes (strong C iii λ4650and C iii λ5696and/or C iv λ5801-12).The following classification scheme was applied for further sub-division.In a minority of cases it was not possible to sep-arate the λ4650–λ4686features into individual compo-nents,and as a result an overall blend was measured.Since WC subtypes were assigned on the basis of λ5696and λ5812features,this did not prevent accurate classifica-tion.Late and early WN subtypes were assigned if He ii λ4686emission was accompanied by N iii λ4634−41or N v λ4603−20emission,respectively.If nitrogen lines were undetected,we assigned a WNE subtype if FWHM (He ii λ4686)>20˚A ,and WNL otherwise.For WC stars,WC4–6was assigned if C iv λ5801−12was present along with either weak or absent C iii λ5696.For 0.25≤F λ(C iii λ5696/C iv λ5801-12)≤0.8sources were classified WC7,and WC8–9if C iii λ5696was present,with C iv λ5801−12weak or absent.To ensure consistency with previous studies (e.g.Schaerer et al.,1999a;Bresolin &Kennicutt,2002;Chandar et al.,2004)we have derived WR popula-Fig.4.De-reddened spectral comparison between WC members in M 83with Galactic WC stars scaled to the distance of M 83(Galactic distances from van der Hucht (2001)).To avoid confusion,WCE and WC7sources are offset by 2×10−17erg s −1cm −2˚A −1whereas WC8and WC9spectra are offset by 1×10−17erg s −1cm −2˚A −1.6L.J.Hadfield et al.:WR population of M83Fig.5.De-reddened spectral comparison between WN complexes in M83with individual Milky Way WN stars scaled to the distance of M83(Galactic dis-tances from van der Hucht(2001)).To avoid confusion, individual sources are successively offset by1×10−17 erg s−1cm−2˚A−1.tions based on individual linefluxes adapted from Schaerer&Vacca(1998).As discussed in Paper I,we adopt He iiλ4686linesfluxes of5.2×1035erg s−1and 1.6×1036erg s−1for WN2-5and WN6-10stars,respec-tively.For WC stars,we adopt C ivλ5801linefluxes of 1.6×1036erg s−1and 1.4×1036erg s−1for WC4–6 and WC7stars,respectively,and a C iiiλ5696lineflux of7.1×1035erg s−1for WC8–9stars.WR contents of individual sources then follow,with populations rounded to the nearest integer(≥1).In one source(#117),we were unable to reliably extract the spectrum since it was located at the very edge of the slit,and so a measure of the reddening/lineflux was not possible.Nevertheless, broad He iiλ4686is clearly present,with no WC signa-ture,such that we indicate a population of≥1early-type WN star.In Fig.4we compare sources containing representa-tive late,mid and early WC stars from M83with ex-tinction corrected Milky Way counterparts,scaled to the distance of rge line widths amongst M83mem-bers hosting late WC stars are apparent,particularly for #32versus HD192103(WC8)and#81versus HD164270 (WC9).In contrast,sources containing WC4–7stars in-dicate similar line widths to individual Galactic parisons between sources containing WNL and WNE stars in M83and two Galactic counterparts are shown in Fig.5,revealing similar spectral morphologies. Other examples of sources hosting WN and WC popula-tions are presented in Fig.1of Paper I.3.3.The M83WR population–individual stars,binaries,complexes or clusters?What is the nature of the132sources in M83that are known to host WR stars?In Fig.6(a)we compare the spectroscopic continuum magnitude to the spectroscopic excess,∆m spec=mλ4684–mλ4781,for all sources.This is more complete than Fig.2,since it was generally possible to estimate the spectral mλ4781magnitude for the fainter sources,where PSF-photometry was not available.The brightest confirmed WR sources in our sample (mλ4781∼20mag)exhibit–0.3≤∆m spec≤0.0mag.Such values are consistent with luminous complexes,greatly di-luting the WR emission signature.In contrast,the faintest confirmed sources(mλ4781∼25mag)possess large spec-troscopic excesses of–2≤∆m spec≤–0.5mag,consistent with isolated,single or binary WR systems.Intermediate brightness sources span the full range in excess,corre-sponding to less luminous regions hosting a few WR stars to those containing large WR populations.Fig.6(b)compares the spectroscopicλ4686excess to the C iiiλ4650/He iiλ4686equivalent width,confirming the expected tight correlation between line strength and ∆m spec,where the scatter indicates the observational ac-curacy.Typical excesses of–0.2mag equate to small line equivalent widths of∼10˚A,whilst an excess of–1.0mag corresponds to∼100˚A,and the largest excesses equate to ∼500˚A.For comparison,single Galactic and LMC WR stars possess C iiiλ4650/He iiλ4686equivalent widths of 10–500˚A(WN subtypes)or150–2000˚A(WC subtypes).3.4.The global disk WR population of M83We identify1035±300WR stars,comprising564±170WC and471±130WN stars,within our132spectroscopically observed regions,where errors quoted here were obtained from simply adding individual uncertainties for all regions.The most important discovery of our spectroscopic sur-vey is the dominant late-type WC population of M83. Over half of the spectroscopically identified WR stars in M83fall into the WC8–9subtype,with few WC4–7 stars identified.For comparison,no WC8–9stars are ob-served in the SMC,LMC or M33and the total number of such stars in the Milky Way and M31is less than50 (van der Hucht,2001;Moffat&Shara,1987).The distri-bution among late-and early-type WN stars is more even, with WNL/WNE∼1.This value is much greater than that observed in the SMC(∼0)and LMC(∼0.25),but comparable to that of∼1.3determined for the Milky Way(van der Hucht,2001).How robust is this derived WR population for M83? For each source,we have propagated uncertainties in theL.J.Hadfield et al.:WR population of M837 parison between(a)the spectroscopic mλ4781magnitude and(b)line equivalent width of the C iiiλ4650/He iiλ4686WR features to the spectroscopic mλ4684excess.Two WC objects,#96and124,are not marked,since their spectra start longward of He ii.The left panel confirms that regions without WR signatures are clustered around∆m spec∼0±0.2mag,whilst regions with confirmed WR signatures span a wide range,up to ∆m spec∼−2.0mag.distance,reddening,photometry and lineflux measure-ments.Together,these translate to a typical uncertaintyof∼20−30%,or somewhat higher for regions in which aninterstellar reddening or a slit loss correction factor havebeen adopted.One of the main limitations in estimating the con-tent of an unresolved WR population is the conversionfrom WR lineflux to WR content.Given the large lateWC population identified in M83,we have reconsideredthe lineflux of individual WC8–9stars determined bySchaerer&Vacca(1998).From unpublished data for5Galactic,and2M31WC8–9stars,each with well deriveddistances,wefind a meanλ5696flux of5.1×1035ergs−1and4.7×1035ergs−1respectively.This is∼30%lower thanSchaerer&Vacca,and suggests that,if anything,we maybe underestimating the true WC population of M83.We have also estimated the WC population using thealternative C iiiλ4650line.Based on individual WRλ4650linefluxes of3.4×1036,4.5×1036and1.0×1035ergs−1for individual WC4–6,WC7and WC8–9subtypes,respec-tively(Schaerer&Vacca,1998),populations of individualsources were found to agree to within a factor of2,rela-tive to the yellow features.The total WC population wascalculated to be594using C iiiλ4650,in excellent agree-ment with that of564obtained from C iiiλ5696and C ivλ5808.Turning to the candidates for which spectroscopy wasnot obtained,all regions in Fig.2with∆m≤–0.3magcorrespond to spectroscopically confirmed WR complexes.Therefore,we would expect that at least25out of the49candidates,for whichλ4684andλ4781photometryis available,also possess WR stars.Adopting the samefraction for regions where PSF photometry is not avail-able,we expect≥50of the remaining89candidate regionsto contain WR stars.Indeed,#159has already been ob-served by Bresolin&Kennicutt(2002).Designated M83-5in their study,WR emission is spectroscopically confirmedand a population of2WCL and6WNL stars(scaled toa distance of4.5Mpc)is inferred from its line luminos-ity.On average,our confirmed sources host∼5WR stars,such that we expect∼250WR stars await identificationin M83,bringing the total disk population to∼1300.The inferred WR population of M83is greaterthan that known in the entire Local Group,to date(Massey&Johnson,1998).As anticipated from Figs.2and6,some sources host a single WR star,whilst oth-ers contain larger WR populations(∼10).Regions whichcontain an exceptionally large WR population will be dis-cussed in more detail in the next section.plexes hosting large WR populationsIn the Milky Way,the most massive open clusters(e.g.Arches,Westerlund1)host at most10–20WR stars(Blum et al.,2001;Negueruela&Clark,2005).Similarnumbers are observed in the largest H ii regions of M33,and30Doradus in the LMC.We identify10regions inM83with large(≥20),or mixed,WR populations.MixedWN and WC populations are observed in a total of5com-plexes,#66(8±2WNL,4±1WC7),#38(7±2WNL,21±6WCL),#41(14±4WNL,13±6WC7),#86(9±4WNL,24±10WCL)and#74which will be discussed sep-arately.Are the sources that host WR stars in M83com-pact clusters(e.g.Arches)or extended,giant H ii re-gions(30Doradus)?Massive compact clusters are gener-ally rare in normal disk galaxies,although M83is knownto host many examples,from HST imaging(Larsen,2004).Of the60bright H ii regions in M83identifiedby de Vaucouleurs et al.,between28–38host WR pop-ulations.Indeed,the3complexes hosting the largest WRpopulations are all associated with H ii regions identifiedby de Vaucouleurs et al..Optical spectroscopy of these8L.J.Hadfield et al.:WR population of M83were presented in Paper I,together with an estimate of their O starpopulation.Fig.7.5′′×5′′images of the WR cluster M83#74from VLT/FORS2and HST/ACS.Top Panel:λ4684filter,mid-dle panel:continuum subtracted Hαfilter,lower panel: F475Wfilter(WFC).North is up and east is to the left. It is apparent that the brightest Hαsource lies∼2′′to the S-W from the continuum(and WR)source.3.5.1.Source#74From our sample#74is exceptional,with230±50late-type WN and WC stars inferred from the de-reddened line fluxes(recall Fig.3).This source has the highest interstel-lar reddening of our entire sample with E(B-V)=1.0±0.03, although it is closest to the nucleus.However,the Hα/Hβnebular value is supported fromfitting its stellar contin-uum to a young(∼4Myr)instantaneous burst model at Z=0.04from Starburst99(Leitherer et al.,1999).In Paper I,we estimated a Lyman continuumflux of8×1051 s−1from the de-reddened Hαflux,such that#74has an ionizingflux equivalent to the giant H ii region30 Doradus.However,it possesses a WR content which is a factor of ten times larger,i.e.N(WR)/N(O)∼0.25versus 0.02in30Doradus.We have inspected archival HST/Advanced Camera for Surveys(ACS)Wide Field Camera(WFC)F475W datasets of M83(Proposal9299,P.I.H.Ford).This re-vealed that#74is very compact,with a FWHM of∼0.2 arcsec or∼4.5pc(for a distance of4.5Mpc).For H ii re-gions with solar or super-solar metallicities,WR signa-tures are expected to be present in bursts of age3–6Myr. We have compared the absolute F475W magnitude of#74 with evolutionary synthesis models for an instantaneous burst of age3–5Myr(Leitherer et al.,1999),from which we estimate a mass of1.4–2×105M⊙.Therefore,its mass and size indicate that it is a young massive compact clus-ter,or Super Star Cluster(Whitmore,2003).In Fig.7we present5×5arcsec(∼110×110pc) images of#74obtained with FORS2and ACS.It is ap-parent that the peak Hαsource,i.e.H ii region#35from de Vaucouleurs et al.(1983),lies∼2arcsec to the S-W of the brightest continuum source(the WR cluster).The spectrum presented in Fig.2of Paper I is that of the WR cluster,whilst the Hαflux,and corresponding O7V star content of∼810represents the integrated total from both regions.The WR cluster provides approximately1/3of the total H ii luminosity,such that the WR/O ratio of this region approaches unity,comparable to the WR clus-ter NGC3125-1(Chandar et al.,2004).3.5.2.Other Clusters in M83Larsen(2004)has identified∼80young massive clusters in M83based on HST/WFPC2images.Three such regions are in common with our catalogue of sources containing WR stars,namely n5236-607(#61),-617(#73)and-277 (#79),although none host more than a few WR stars. Larsen(m.)has compared the UBVI colours of these clusters with Solar metallicity Bruzual&Charlot (1993)models,suggesting age estimates of log(τ)= 6.20±0.51,6.90±0.54and9.89±1.87,respectively.The first two are fully consistent with a young cluster which contains WR stars,while the third suggests a dominant old population.Five additional clusters from Larsen(2004)are also in common with our remaining candidates,namely n5236-L.J.Hadfield et al.:WR population of M 839169(#193),-805(#179),-818(#163),-1011(#157)and -1027(#173).Of course,such candidates have the poten-tial to also host a large WR population -indeed three of these clusters appear young (∼1.5–6Myr)from UBVI pho-tometry (Larsen,m.),i.e.#193,#179and #157.Note that #179is one of two clustersfor which dynam-ical mass estimates has been made by Larsen &Richtler (2004).Follow-up spectroscopic observations would be re-quired for the identification of additional WR rich clusters.parisons with previous studiesTo date,there have only been two previous studies re-lating to WR stars within M 83.Rosa &Richter (1988)and Bresolin &Kennicutt (2002)have both studied stel-lar populations within M 83and identify six H ii re-gions which exhibit WR characteristics.Four of these have been re-examined in this study.Rosa &Richter ob-tain optical spectra with very poor signal-to-noise pre-venting a quantitative discussion,consequently we shall restrict any comparisons solely to results obtained by Bresolin &Kennicutt (2002).Both studies followed a similar methodology in estimating the WR population,except that Bresolin &Kennicutt adopted a distance of 3.2Mpc to M 83(versus 4.5Mpc adopted here).This introduces a factor of 2between intrinsic line luminosities observed in this study and that by Bresolin &Kennicutt.–#40(M83-2)–The derived WR population for this region is estimated to be 6±2WC8–9,contrasting that of 1–2WNL obtained by Bresolin &Kennicutt.We achieve a 3σdetection for the λ5696and λ5812car-bon features,suggesting that poor signal-to-noise in the original investigation prevented positive WC iden-tification.–#41(M83-3)–We confirm the detection of 14±4WNL stars identified in region M83-3.In addi-tion we estimate the presence of 13±6WC7stars.Bresolin &Kennicutt state that C iii may be present,but not at a significant level (versus 5σhere).–#74(M83-8)–Bresolin &Kennicutt failed to detect any WR emission in this H ii region.However,we find the largest individual WR population of any source,namely 230stars.As stated in Sect.3.5the WR emis-sion is offset by several arc-secs to the N-E of the peak H αemission.Since the Bresolin &Kennicutt concen-trated on bright H ii regions,their slit was probably centred on the peak H αemission,such that the WR signature was missed.–#103(M83-9)–Both investigations infer a late WN population.The present study obtains a population of 29±9WNL stars,in agreement with that estimated by Bresolin &Kennicutt after allowing for differences in the assumed distance.Fig.8.Distribution among WCL subtypes as determined using W λ(C iv 5808)/W λ(C iii 5696)versus FWHM (C iii λ5696)in ˚A .For comparison,Galactic (unpub-lished WHT,AAT and 2.3m ANU data),M31(unpub-lished WHT /ISIS data),M33(Abbott et al.,2004)and IC10(Crowther et al.,2003)WCL stars have been in-cluded.The subtype divisions marked are those derived by Crowther et al.(1998).Fig.9.Equivalent width (W λin ˚A )vs.FWHM (˚A )of the C iii λ5696for WCL stars in M 83and Local Group galaxies (identical dataset as presented in Fig.8).4.DiscussionWe have identified up to ∼200regions in the disk of M 83that host WR stars.We now compare the properties of WR stars at the high metallicity of M 83with those of Local Group galaxies,attempt to explain the dominant late subtypes amongst WC stars,and make comparisons with current evolutionary models.4.1.Properties of WR stars at high metallicityHow do the line strengths and widths of sources con-taining WR stars in M 83compare with those of other galaxies?In Fig.8,we show the classification ratio W λ(C iv 5808)/W λ(C iii 5696)versus FWHM (C iii 5696).Data for WC7–9stars in four Local Group galaxies are included,along with subtype boundaries as derived by。

中国蛤蜊[1]，俗名“黄蛤”、“飞蛤”，学名Mactra chinensis，隶属于软体动物门、瓣鳃纲、异柱目、蛤蜊科、蛤蜊属，主要分布在我国辽宁、山东的黄、渤海沿岸，朝鲜半岛和日本也有分布。

人工养殖时常年均可采捕，尤以深秋和春季采捕效果为佳。

中国蛤蜊适于生活在潮间带的细砂滩至水深60m的浅海区，是一种营养丰富、肉质鲜美的实用经济滩涂贝类[2]。

但在其养殖过程中，种苗紧缺一直是制约中国蛤蜊养殖生产可持续发展的关键因素[3]。

为此，加强亲贝的培育质量、提高海区的采苗效率、优化蛤蜊的孵化条件以及进行必要的研究以便中国蛤蜊规模化养殖和苗种资源的保护具有重大意义[4,5]。

目前国内外学者关于中国蛤蜊的相关研究成果综述如下：1中国蛤蜊的繁殖生物学特性的研究我国早在20世纪90年代时就已经开展了蛤蜊养殖，因此其繁殖生物学特性的研究也取得了很大进展。

孙振兴等[6]研究了包括中国蛤蜊在内三种帘蛤目贝类的核型。

刘相全等[7]发展土池育苗技术，对中国山东海阳市中国蛤蜊的繁殖生物学特性和胚胎发育过程进行了较为系统的研究。

其研究结果中国蛤蜊的研究进展陈添悦1，王潇潇2（1.中国农业大学动物医学院北京100193；2.中国农业大学动物科技学院北京100193）doi:10.3969/j.issn.1008-4754.2013.07.013摘要：本文主要从五个方面综述了中国蛤蜊近几年的一些研究，即中国蛤蜊的繁殖生物学特性、消化系统与代谢、中枢神经系统，以及重金属离子对中国蛤蜊的影响，中国蛤蜊早期生长发育与人工育苗等。

阐述了以上各个方面所取得的成就和拥有的前景，指出并总结了目前研究阶段中尚未解决的各项问题，以期为以后的中国蛤蜊养殖提供科学依据。

关键词：中国蛤蜊；研究进展Research Development of Mactra chinensisChen Tianyue1,Wang Xiaoxiao2(1.College of Veterinary Medicine,China Agricultural University,Beijing100193;2.College of Animal Science and Technology,China Agriculture University,Beijing100193) Abstract:This paper summarizes the five aspects of Mactra chinensis in recent years,including Mactra chinensis' reproductive biology,digestive system and metabolism,central nervous system,as well as heavy metal ions on the impact of Mactra chinensis,Mactra chinensis'early growth,artificial breeding and so on.In order to provide a sci-entific basis for the future of Mactra chinensis'farming,the author describes various aspects of the above achieve-ments and prospects has been pointed out and summarized the current research phase of the issues yet to be re-solved.Key words:Mactra chinensis;research development表明山东地区中国蛤蜊是雌雄异体的，但也存在少量雌雄同体的现象。

Increasing Accuracy ofBlood-Alcohol Analysis Using Automated Headspace-Gas Chromatography AbstractAccuracy and precision are critical in blood-alcohol analysis because the toxicologist not only has to be confident in his or her results, but also must be prepared to withstand tough cross examination by defense attorneys. Inaddition, crime laboratories must comply with state regulations regarding blood-alcohol testing, including proficiencies which require the result to be within ±10%. The Phoenix Crime Laboratory uses the pressurebalanced approach to headspacegas chromatography (HS-GC) that introduces the sample into the column in the form of a slug rather than a continuous flow. By removing much of the variability of conventional HS-GC methods, this approach achieved an RSD of 1.2% over an 18-month study.Headspace time plus run time is typically in the area of 6 minutes. Headspace time plus run time was reduced to 2.5 minutes by increasing the column head pressure from 20 psi to 30 psi.The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the improved precision possible using pressure-balanced headspace-GC technology. The laboratory’s time savings will also be considered.Contributors:John MusselmanAnil SolankyWilliam Arnold Phoenix Police Department Crime Laboratory Phoenix, Arizona U.S.A.Gas Chromatography2INTRODUCTIONBlood-alcohol analysis is typically performed in driving under the influence (DUI) and driving while intoxicated (DWI) investigations and in traffic accidents where people have been critically injured or killed. Most states have “Per Se” laws where it is illegal to drive while having a concentration of 0.08% or above. Secondary Per Se levels are not uncommon, i.e., extreme DUI above 0.15%. With these defined blood-alcohol concentrations, the accuracy of a system must be assessed. Alcohol analysis is used primarily to determine the concentration of ethanol and, to a lesser extent, determine if methanol, acetone, 2-propanol or toluene is present in blood or urine of “huffers”. HS-GC has become the nearly universal method of choice for measuring blood alcohol in foren-sic laboratories because it allows a relatively large number of samples to be analyzed quickly and with a minimal amount of manual handling.Conventional HS-GC systems use a combination of pressure, temperature and agitation at up to 40 psi to drive solution components into the headspace. Then, pressure is used to stream headspace gas continuously into the column, which tends to reduce the sharpness of the ana-lytical results. Large numbers of crime laboratories that utilize this method have typically seen RSD levels upwards of 4%.According to Henry’s law, at equilibrium, in a sealed vessel,volatile compounds in the liquid state will be present in the vapor state at a concentration proportional to the concentration in liquid. By sampling this vapor (the headspace) and delivering it toa gas chromatograph, the volatile compounds may be qualitativelyFigure 1. Headspace operation.identified and quantitatively measured. A single headspaceinjection is normally split into two capillary columns, each exiting to a flame ionization detector (FID). The columns have different polarity for unique sepa-rations of the volatiles of interest.Several years ago, the Phoenix Crime Laboratory implemented a pressure-balanced, time-based HS-GC method thatpressurizes the headspace and then releases the headspace gas instantaneously as a single slug into the column.This approach is explained in Figure 1. With the injection system on standby, the carrier gas enters the vial through Valve 1 (V1) and is directed partly through the heated transfer line to the GC and partly to the heated needle, which is con-stantly flushed to avoid cross con-tamination. The needle flush gas exits through the needle vent valve.Prior to injection, each vial is pressurized to a preset pressure with carrier gas to ensure that all injections are performed under the exact same conditions, regardless of different equilibrium pressures in different samples. During injection, the carrier gas supply and the needle purge are switched off. Sample flows to the gas chromatography system from the pressurized headspace vial. The injected volume is pro-portional to the injection time. At the end of the injection, the carrier gas and needle purge are once more switched on and the injected sample volume is driven through the gas chromatograph. The needle is retracted and the system goes into standby mode.EXPERIMENTAL EquipmentA PerkinElmer AutoSystem™ XL GC equipped with a TurboMatrix™ HS 110 headspace sampler, dual FIDs and TotalChrom® software was used (PerkinElmer part no.N5150511). The GC was equipped with dual capillary columns from Restek Corp. The BAC 1-WCOT is a 30 m long fused-silica column with a 0.32 mm i.d. stationary phase and 1.8 µm film thickness and the BAC 2-WCOTis a 30 m long fused-silica column with a 0.32 mm i.d. stationary phase and 1.2 µm film thickness.MaterialsInternal standard solutions were prepared including:1. A concentration of 0.015% v/v n-propanol and 0.5 Mammonium sulfate in deionized water.2. A qualitative mixed-volatiles standard was prepared byadding 20 µL acetaldehyde, 80 µL methanol, 20 µLacetone, 80 µL ethanol and 50 µL isopropyl alcoholto 100 mL deionized water.Ethanol calibration solutions with concentrations of 0.025%, 0.050%, 0.100%, 0.200% and 0.400% were procured from an outside vendor. Positive ethanol controls from a separate vendor at 0.100% aqueous and 0.190% whole bloodwere also procured. A negative control was prepared using deionized water and the internal standard.MethodsAll calibration solutions, controls and samples were allowed to come to room temperature before starting. Whole blood samples were mixed thoroughly before pipetting. Serum samples required no preparation. Clotted samples were thoroughly homogenized before pipetting.A Hamilton Microlab® 500A Series dispenser diluter was primed with an internal standard solution for at least three cycles. The left syringe was set to a speed of 4 and used to deliver 1000 µL of internal standard. The right syringe was set to a speed of 2 and used to deliver 100 µL of sample. The dispenser diluter was then used to prepare each sample, control and calibration solution in duplicate.Each vial was then sealed and loaded onto the headspace sampler in the designated sequence. Diluter preci-sion was determined to be 0.6%.Samples and calibrators were equilibrated for 13 minutes at 60 ˚C and pressurized with helium at 36.5 psig. The sample was injected into the column in a 0.02-minute period through a 1.3 m x 0.32 mm fused-silica transfer line at 100 ˚C. The cycle time was 3.2 minutes. The needle temperature was maintained at 70 ˚C and the withdrawal time was 0.2 minutes.The GC run time was 2.5 minutes and the sampling rate was set at 12.5 points per second. Oven temperature was isothermal 45 ˚C and pressure was isobaric 30 psi. Helium was used as the carrier gas. FIDs were used on each column with a temperature of 220 ˚C. Gas flows through each detector were 450 mL/min of air and 45.0 mL/minof hydrogen.Elutions on the Restek Rtx® BAC I are as follows:• Methanol eluted as a single-peak component at 0.716 min • Acetaldehyde eluted as a single-peak component at 0.790 min • Ethanol eluted as a single-peak component at 0.877 min• Isopropanol eluted as a single-peak component at 1.050 min • Acetone eluted as a single-peak component at 1.269 min• N-propanol eluted as a single-peak component at 1.374 min • Toluene eluted as a single-peak component at 5.32 minWith the exception of toluene, all analytes elute prior to 2.5 minutes on both columns.Table 1. Precision and Accuracy at Different Concentrations. Concentration (%) 0.005 0.010 0.100 0.188 0.400 Accuracy +13.0% +8.5% -1.8% +0.6% -1.6% Precision 1.8% 0.4% 0.2% 0.5% 0.2% Within-run precision dataRESULTSIn order to evaluate the linear range of ethanol quantitation using this method, a set of 0.025, 0.050, 0.100, 0.200 and 0.400% ethanol calibration solutions were prepared and run accordingto protocol. Spiked samples below and above the cali-bration solutions were run at the following concentrations: 0.005, 0.010, 0.015, 0.020, 0.600, 0.700, 0.800, 0.900 and 1.000. The sample was determined to be in the linear range, if the quantitation fell within +10%. The method was linear from 0.010-1.0%.The precision, accuracy, limits of detection (LODs) and limits of quantitation (LOQs) were determined by the following method: ten replicates of ethanol at concentrations of 0.005, 0.01, 0.100, 0.188 (whole blood control) and 0.400% were run accordingto the method described above; accuracy was defined as the deviations from the actual concentration; precision was definedas the coefficient of variation (CV) for each of the replicate concentrations. Precision and accuracy at different concentration levels are shown in Table 1. The LOD was determined to be0.005% and the LOQ was 0.010%.3For a complete listing of our global offices, visit /ContactUsCopyright ©2013, PerkinElmer, Inc. All rights reserved. PerkinElmer ® is a registered trademark of PerkinElmer, Inc. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.007606A_01PerkinElmer, Inc. 940 Winter StreetWaltham, MA 02451 USA P: (800) 762-4000 or (+1) 203-925-4602The Phoenix Crime Laboratory analyzes approximately 1000 blood samples per year for alcohol con-centration. Figure 2 shows the run-run precision utilizing this method over a period of 18 months. For the target value of 0.1900% ethanol, the average result was 0.18911 (n=537) with a standard deviation of 0.0023. This yields an RSD of 1.23%, an upper control limit at three stan-dard deviations of 0.19697 and a lower control limit at three standard deviations of 0.18303.A study was run to evaluate the interferences of other volatile substances, which may be found in biological fluids either in the presence or absence of ethanol. Positive interferences were provided by the mixed-volatiles standard described above. The peaks were resolved with a resolution better than 1 and a peak-to-valley ratio better than 90%. This study showed that acetaldehyde, methanol, acetone, isopropanol, toluene and methyl ethyl ketone do not interfere with the identification or quantification of ethanol by HS-GC.CONCLUSIONSAn analytical method was developed to quantify ethanol in blood alcohol using HS-GC. The method appears to be extremely robust and reliable and achieved an RSD value of 1.23%, which is well below those achieved by other methods. RSD values of this level make it possible for toxicologists to testify with con-fidence that their results are accurate within ±5%. The result is that DUI and DWI defendants in the Phoenix area normally plead guilty to driving under the influence or driving while impaired, saving the toxicologists the time they would otherwise have to spend testifying and saving the local government the cost of a trial.REFERENCES1. Rasanen, Ilpo; Ojanpera, Ilkka; Kurkinen, Kaisa; Vartiovaara, Juhani; Vuori, Erkki. Presentation at 2004 SOFT/TIAFT, “Alcohol Determination by Head Space Dual Column Capillary Chromatography.”2. Christmore, David S.; Kelly, Raymond C.; Doshier, Lonnie A. Journal of Forensic Toxicology. Volume 29, No. 4, 1984. “Improved Recovery and Stability of Ethanol in Automated Forensic Analysis.”3. Jones, A. W.; Fransson M. Medicine, Science and the Law. July 2003, Volume 43, No. 3. “Blood Analysis by Headspace Gas Chromatography: Does a Deficient Sample VolumeDistort Ethanol Concentration.”Figure 2. Run-to-run precision over 1.5 years.Figure 3. Quantitation column and confirmation column chromatographs.4. Andreasson, Rune; Jones, A. Wayne. American Journal of Forensic Medicine & Pathology. Volume 17, No. 3. “The Life and Work of Erik M. P. Widmark.”5. Kancler, Julie. 2003 SOFT Poster 5, “Static Headspace Analysis of Alcohol and Common Abused Inhalants in Blood Using Dual-Column Chromatography.”6. Yazzie, Janice; Luthi, Ruth; Kerrigan, Sarah. 2004 Joint SOFT Abstract 27, “Effect of Sodium Chloride on Headspace Blood Alcohol Analysis by GC-FID.”7. Kristiansen, Jesper; Petersen, Henning Willads. 2003 SOFT Meeting, Poster 43, “An Uncer-tainty Budget for the Measurement of Ethanol in Blood by Head-Space Gas Chromatography.”。

Berry Good News Zambian blueberries granted export permit to access the lucrative Chinese marketBy Derrick SiliminaAFRICA REPORTC hina s advantages in capital andtechnology present a great opportunity for African countries to inten­sify cooperation in various eco­nomic sectors.As the world s largest consum er m ar­ket and also the largest global agricultural importer, it is projected that the total import of goods and services in China wiU top $22 trillion in the coming decade, according to sources from the Third China International Import Expo held in November last year in Shanghai.W ith C h in a^ p ro m in en ce in s p e a r­heading key cooperation projects in most African countries in areas such as energy, infrastructure, health and agriculture, and people’s livelihoods has seen a m arked improvement.However, access to the large Chinese market is a critical element in the success of most African enterprises keen to export their range of agricultural produce. Fruitful agrarian cooperation Zambia’s favorable natural conditions for agricultural developm ent, coupled with China s cooperation in this important sec­tor, have already shown signs of success. Known for its quality blueberry produc­tion, Zambia has become the latest African nation to gain access to the Chinese m ar­ket, w here the super-food produce will no doubt be a big hit with the growing numbers of health-conscious Chinese. The export deal m arks the culmination of a three-year process after Zambia applied for market access in 2017.The Zambian freshly grown blueberry export permit to China comes barely twoyears after another successful story of bilat­eral cooperation in agriculture, where theexport of Zam bian honey to China dealw as sealed. The honey export protocolw as signed by Zambia and China duringthe Forum on China-Africa CooperationBeijing Summit held in September 2018.Although the northern hemisphere stilldom inates global blueberry production,South American producers and exportershave experienced a rapid rise in exportsof this fruit, thanks largely to their accessto key markets including the U.S., Europeand China among others.The northern hemisphere accounts for84 percent of global blueberry growingarea. Of the 16 percent of blueberry hect­ares planted in the southern hemisphere,Chile and Peru account for some 80 percent,according to a recent published report of theInternational Blueberry Organization (IBO).While Zambia is still dwarfed by blue­berry producing giants such as the U.S.and Canada, which are vying for markets inChina and South Korea scaling up local pro­duction would further expand the industry.Presently, the whole of Southern Africaproduces less than 6 percent of the worldsblueberry plantations, according to IBO.T here is th erefo re m uch potential forSouthern Africa to com pete w ith SouthAmerica on the global blueberry stage.Sealed dealSince Zambia w as granted approval toexport blueberries to China, all necessaryaccess protocols have been finalized, andthe required notice of authority has beenissued by the Chinese customs authority.Having met the stipulated phytosanitaryrequirem ents perm issible for exports toChina coupled with the concerted efforts ofboth sides, the Protocol of the PhytosanitaryRequirements for Export of Zambian FreshBlueberries to China between the GeneralAdministration of Customs of the People’sRepublic of China and Zambia's Ministryof Agriculture was signed on September 7,2020. The Zambezi Berry Co. is now for­mally listed and can export to China, withits first shipments of Zambian blueberriesto leave this year.Z a m b ia n P re s id e n t E d g ar L unguexpressed joy that Zambia is the only coun­try in the Southern African DevelopmentCommunity region to have access to thelucrative market for blueberries in China.M My government is focusing on policy andlegislative reforms to educate local farmerson the emerging trends and opportunities inthe agriculture sector,” Lungu said during theflagging off ceremony of inaugural exportof blueberries to China on November 17,2020. "There is a need for the agriculturesector to be transformed [to become] exportoriented in order for the economy to grow."The Zambian head of state observed thatthe Chinese market imports a significantquantity of blueberries from countries inNorth and South Americas, hence was grat­ified that Zambia w as positioning itself tocompete for a larger share of the blueberrymarket in China.Preferential treatmentThe agricultural cooperation between Chinaand Zambia will have a very bright futureand as a country receiving preferential treat­ment, m ore than 95 percent of Zambianproducts are granted duty free access to theChinese market, according to the ChineseEmbassy in Zambia.It is fo r th is re a s o n th a t C h in e seAmbassador to Zambia Li Jie is optimisticthat many more Zambian companies willtake advantage of the good opportunitiesZambian farm workers pick blueberriesand export more high-quality agricultural products to China.Li said that exporting the Zambian fresh blueberries to China is a milestone for agri cultural cooperation betw een China and Zambia. It will contribute greatly to the promotion of the bilateral economic and trade cooperation and the development of friendly relations betw een the two coun­tries, said L i.*1 wish therefore to take this opportunity to extend to the Zambezi Berry Co. my best wishes for bright prospects. It is my firm belief that the company will provide quality products to Chinese customers and create more jobs for Zambians,” he said during the inspection of the blueberry fields and pro­cessing plant located in Chisamba, 20 km north of Lusaka, Zambia's capital.Zambezi Berry Co. is a joint venturebetween Zambezi Ranching & Cropping,agribusinesses in Zambia, and the UnitedExports Group, an innovative market leaderoperating throughout the agricultural supplychain, from breeding to distribution, focusingprimarily on its OZblu blueberries globally.Zambezi Berry Co., with an investmentof $4.5 million, plans to expand up to 500hectares and becom e the single-largeststandalone blueberry orchards in SouthernAfrica."We are extremely excited about this newopportunity to access one of the largest mar­kets in the world. We are confident that, bymaintaining our world-class quality withthese world-leading OZblu varieties whilesignificantly increasing quantity, w e cansuccessfully com pete w ith som e of thebiggest global producers," said ZambeziBerry Co. Managing Director Graham Rae.The beginning of2020 saw the end of someof the lowest prices of blueberries in years,but recently global prices have indicated astrong recovery with the average price ofconventional berries fetching around $8.31per kg, which is 94 percent higher than in2019, according to .' Zambia is extremely well placed to supply forexport into the northern hemisphere duringthe August-November window and this is amarvelous achievement for Zambia and isexpected to be the first of many celebrations,as Africa gains ground in the internationalblueberry markets emphasized Rae. CA* Reporting from Zambia* Comments**************************。

Analyzing the Mechanism ofPhotocatalysisPhotocatalysis is a process in which a catalyst is used to initiate a chemical reaction by absorbing energy from light. This process has gained popularity in recent years due to its potential role in solving environmental problems, including water and air purification, and energy conversion. Understanding the mechanism of photocatalysis is essential for designing efficient photocatalysts and optimizing the reaction conditions. In this article, we will analyze the mechanism of photocatalysis and its applications in various fields.The mechanism of photocatalysis involves several steps. First, the photon energy is absorbed by the photocatalyst, which promotes the electrons to a higher energy level, generating electron-hole pairs. The electrons and holes can migrate to the surface of the photocatalyst, where they can participate in the subsequent reactions. Second, the redox process takes place on the surface of the photocatalyst. The holes can react with water or hydroxide ions to form hydroxyl radicals, while the electrons can react with oxygen or other molecules to form superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, or other reactive species.The formed reactive species can then react with the organic or inorganic compounds adsorbed on the surface of the photocatalyst or in the solution, leading to their degradation or transformation. For example, in water purification, photocatalysis can degrade organic pollutants such as dyes and pharmaceuticals. In air purification, photocatalysis can convert harmful gases such as NOx and SOx into harmless products such as nitrogen and sulfur dioxide. In addition, photocatalysis can also be used in energy conversion, such as the reduction of CO2 to produce fuels and chemicals.The efficiency of photocatalysis depends on several factors, including the properties of the photocatalyst, light intensity, wavelength, and reaction conditions. The properties of the photocatalyst such as its bandgap, surface area, and morphology can affect the absorption and migration of electrons and holes, as well as the adsorption and reaction of pollutants. The light intensity and wavelength can affect the number of photon absorbedby the photocatalyst. The reaction conditions such as the pH, temperature, and concentration can also affect the redox process and the stability of the photocatalyst.Recently, various types of photocatalysts have been developed for different applications, such as TiO2, ZnO, CdS, and others. Among them, TiO2 is the most widely used photocatalyst due to its stable chemical and physical properties, low cost, and high photocatalytic activity. However, the mechanism of photocatalysis in TiO2 is still not fully understood, and many efforts have been made to improve its efficiency, such as doping with other elements, coupling with other materials, or modifying its surface.In addition, the application of photocatalysis still faces some challenges, including the selectivity, stability, and scalability. The selectivity of photocatalysis depends on the adsorption and reactivity of different pollutants, and controlling it can enhance the efficiency and avoid the formation of byproducts. The stability of photocatalysis depends on the degradation or deactivation of the photocatalyst during the reaction, and improving it can prolong the lifetime and reduce the cost. The scalability of photocatalysis depends on the production and application of photocatalysts, and developing it can promote the commercialization and implementation of photocatalysis in various fields.In conclusion, photocatalysis is a promising method for solving environmental problems and energy conversion. Analyzing the mechanism of photocatalysis can provide insights into the design and optimization of photocatalysts. However, the application of photocatalysis still faces some challenges, and further research and development are needed to overcome them and promote its practical use.。

More informationFundamentals of Photonic Crystal GuidingIf you’re looking to understand photonic crystals,this systematic,rigorous,and peda-gogical introduction is a must.Here you’llfind intuitive analytical and semi-analyticalmodels applied to complex and practically relevant photonic crystal structures.Y ou willalso be shown how to use various analytical methods borrowed from quantum mechanics,such as perturbation theory,asymptotic analysis,and group theory,to investigate manyof the limiting properties of photonic crystals,which are otherwise difficult to rationalizeusing only numerical simulations.An introductory review of nonlinear guiding in photonic lattices is also presented,as are the fabrication and application of photonic crystals.In addition,end-of-chapterexercise problems with detailed analytical and numerical solutions allow you to monitoryour understanding of the material presented.This accessible text is ideal for researchersand graduate students studying photonic crystals in departments of electrical engineering,physics,applied physics,and mathematics.Maksim Skorobogatiy is Professor and Canada Research Chair in Photonic Crystals atthe Department of Engineering Physics in´Ecole Polytechnique de Montr´e al,Canada.In2005he was awarded a fellowship from the Japanese Society for Promotion of Science,and he is a member of the Optical Society of America.Jianke Yang is Professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Vermont,USA.Heis a member of the Optical Society of America and the Society of Industrial and AppliedMathematics.Fundamentals of Photonic Crystal GuidingMAKSIM SKOROBOGATIY 1JIANKE YANG 2´Ecole Polytechnique de Montr ´e al,Canada 1University of Vermont,USA2More informationMore informationcambridge university pressCambridge,New Y ork,Melbourne,Madrid,Cape Town,Singapore,S˜a o Paulo,DelhiCambridge University PressThe Edinburgh Building,Cambridge CB28RU,UKPublished in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press,New Y orkInformation on this title:/9780521513289C Cambridge University Press2009This publication is in copyright.Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.First published2009Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press,CambridgeA catalog record for this publication is available from the British LibraryLibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication dataSkorobogatiy,Maksim,1974–Fundamentals of photonic crystal guiding/by Maksim Skorobogatiy and Jianke Y ang.p.cm.Includes index.ISBN978-0-521-51328-91.Photonic crystals.I.Y ang,Jianke.II.Title.QD924.S562008621.36–dc222008033576ISBN978-0-521-51328-9hardbackCambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence oraccuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred toin this publication,and does not guarantee that any content on suchwebsites is,or will remain,accurate or appropriate.More informationM.Skorobogatiy dedicates this book to his family.He thanks his parentsAlexander and Tetyana for never-ceasing support,encouragement,andparticipation in all his endeavors.He also thanks his wife Olga,his children,Alexander junior and Anastasia,andhis parents for their unconditional love.J.Yang dedicates this book to his family.More informationContentsPreface page xiAcknowledgements xii1Introduction11.1Fabrication of photonic crystals21.2Application of photonic crystals41.2.1Photonic crystals as low-loss mirrors:photonicbandgap effects41.2.2Photonic crystals for out-of-bandgap operation10References112Hamiltonian formulation of Maxwell’s equations(frequency consideration)142.1Plane-wave solution for uniform dielectrics162.2Methods of quantum mechanics in electromagnetism182.2.1Orthogonality of eigenstates192.2.2Variational principle202.2.3Equivalence between the eigenstates of twocommuting Hamiltonians222.2.4Eigenstates of the operators of continuous anddiscrete translations and rotations232.3Properties of the harmonic modes of Maxwell’s equations302.3.1Orthogonality of electromagnetic modes322.3.2Eigenvalues and the variational principle322.3.3Absence of the fundamental length scale in Maxwell’sequations342.4Symmetries of electromagnetic eigenmodes352.4.1Time-reversal symmetry352.4.2Definition of the operators of translation and rotation352.4.3Continuous translational and rotational symmetries382.4.4Band diagrams432.4.5Discrete translational and rotational symmetries44More informationviii Contents2.4.6Discrete translational symmetry and discreterotational symmetry522.4.7Inversion symmetry,mirror symmetry,and other symmetries532.5Problems553One-dimensional photonic crystals–multilayer stacks593.1Transfer matrix technique593.1.1Multilayer stack,TE polarization593.1.2Multilayer stack,TM polarization613.1.3Boundary conditions623.2Reflection from afinite multilayer(dielectric mirror)633.3Reflection from a semi-infinite multilayer(dielectricphotonic crystal mirror)643.3.1Omnidirectional reflectors I683.4Guiding in afinite multilayer(planar dielectric waveguide)693.5Guiding in the interior of an infinitely periodic multilayer703.5.1Omnidirectional reflectors II803.6Defect states in a perturbed periodic multilayer:planarphotonic crystal waveguides823.7Problems864Bandgap guidance in planar photonic crystal waveguides934.1Design considerations of waveguides with infinitelyperiodic reflectors934.2Fundamental TE mode of a waveguide with infinitelyperiodic reflector964.3Infinitely periodic reflectors,field distribution in TM modes984.3.1Case of the core dielectric constantεc<εhεl/(εh+εl)984.3.2Case of the core dielectric constantεl≥εc>εhεl/(εh+εl)1014.4Perturbation theory for Maxwell’s equations,frequencyformulation1034.4.1Accounting for the absorption losses of the waveguidematerials:calculation of the modal lifetime and decay length1044.5Perturbative calculation of the modal radiation loss in aphotonic bandgap waveguide with afinite reflector1064.5.1Physical approach1064.5.2Mathematical approach1085Hamiltonian formulation of Maxwell’s equations for waveguides(propagation-constant consideration)1105.1Eigenstates of a waveguide in Hamiltonian formulation1105.1.1Orthogonality relation between the modes of a waveguide madeof lossless dielectrics111More informationContents ix5.1.2Expressions for the modal phase velocity1145.1.3Expressions for the modal group velocity1145.1.4Orthogonality relation between the modes of a waveguide madeof lossy dielectrics1155.2Perturbation theory for uniform variations in a waveguide dielectric profile1165.2.1Perturbation theory for the nondegenerate modes:example ofmaterial absorption1185.2.2Perturbation theory for the degenerate modes coupled byperturbation:example of polarization-mode dispersion1205.2.3Perturbations that change the positions of dielectric interfaces1235.3Problems126References127 6Two-dimensional photonic crystals1296.1T wo-dimensional photonic crystals with diminishingly smallindex contrast1296.2Plane-wave expansion method1326.2.1Calculation of the modal group velocity1346.2.2Plane-wave method in2D1346.2.3Calculation of the group velocity in the case of2Dphotonic crystals1356.2.4Perturbative formulation for the photonic crystallattices with small refractive index contrast1386.2.5Photonic crystal lattices with high-refractive-index contrast1426.3Comparison between various projected band diagrams1426.4Dispersion relation at a band edge,density of states andVan Hove singularities1446.5Refraction from photonic crystals1476.6Defects in a2D photonic crystal lattice1486.6.1Line defects1486.6.2Point defects1586.7Problems167References171 7Quasi-2D photonic crystals1727.1Photonic crystalfibers1727.1.1Plane-wave expansion method1727.1.2Band diagram of modes of a photonic crystalfiber1767.2Optically induced photonic lattices1777.2.1Light propagation in low-index-contrast periodicphotonic lattices1787.2.2Defect modes in2D photonic lattices with localized defects1817.2.3Bandgap structure and diffraction relation for the modes of auniform lattice182More informationx Contents7.2.4Bifurcations of the defect modes from Bloch band edges forlocalized weak defects1857.2.5Dependence of the defect modes on the strength oflocalized defects1887.2.6Defect modes in2D photonic lattices with nonlocalized defects1927.3Photonic-crystal slabs1957.3.1Geometry of a photonic-crystal slab1957.3.2Eigenmodes of a photonic-crystal slab1977.3.3Analogy between the modes of a photonic-crystal slab and themodes of a corresponding2D photonic crystal2007.3.4Modes of a photonic-crystal slab waveguide2047.4Problems207References208 8Nonlinear effects and gap–soliton formation in periodic media2108.1Solitons bifurcated from Bloch bands in1D periodic media2118.1.1Bloch bands and bandgaps2118.1.2Envelope equations of Bloch modes2128.1.3Locations of envelope solitons2158.1.4Soliton families bifurcated from band edges2168.2Solitons bifurcated from Bloch bands in2D periodic media2188.2.1T wo-dimensional Bloch bands and bandgaps of linearperiodic systems2198.2.2Envelope equations of2D Bloch modes2208.2.3Families of solitons bifurcated from2D band edges2238.3Soliton families not bifurcated from Bloch bands2268.4Problems227References228Problem solutions230Chapter2230Chapter3236Chapter5244Chapter6246Chapter7257Chapter8260 Index263More informationPrefaceThefield of photonic crystals(aka periodic photonic structures)is experiencing anunprecedented growth due to the dramatic ways in which such structures can control,modify,and harvest theflow of light.The idea of writing this book came to M.Skorobogatiy when he was developingan introductory course on photonic crystals at the Ecole Polytechnique de Montr´e al/University of Montr´e al.Thefield of photonic crystals,being heavily dependent onnumerical simulations,is somewhat challenging to introduce without sacrificing thequalitative understanding of the underlying physics.On the other hand,exactly solvablemodels,where the relation between physics and quantitative results is most transpar-ent,only exist for photonic crystals of trivial geometries.The challenge,therefore,wasto develop a presentational approach that would maximally use intuitive analytical andsemi-analytical models,while applying them to complex and practically relevant pho-tonic crystal structures.We would like to note that the main purpose of this book is not to present the latestadvancements in thefield of photonic crystals,but rather to give a systematic,logical,andpedagogical introduction to this vibrantfield.The text is largely aimed at students andresearchers who want to acquire a rigorous,while intuitive,mathematical introductioninto the subject of guided modes in photonic crystals and photonic crystal waveguides.The text,therefore,favors analysis of analytically or semi-analytically solvable problemsover pure numerical modeling.We believe that this is a more didactical approach whentrying to introduce a novice into a newfield.To further stimulate understanding of thebook content,we suggest many exercise problems of physical relevance that can besolved analytically.In the course of the book we extensively use the analogy between the Hamiltonian for-mulation of Maxwell’s equations and the Hamiltonian formulation of quantum mechan-ics.We present both frequency and propagation-constant based Hamiltonian formula-tions of Maxwell’s equations.The latter is particularly useful for analyzing photoniccrystal-based linear and nonlinear waveguides andfibers.This approach allows us touse a well-developed machinery of quantum mechanical semi-analytical methods,suchas perturbation theory,asymptotic analysis,and group theory,to investigate many ofthe limiting properties of photonic crystals,which are otherwise difficult to investigatebased only on numerical simulations.M.Skorobogatiy has contributed Chapters2,3,4,5,and6of this book,and J.Y anghas contributed Chapter8.Chapters1and7were co-authored by both authors.More informationAcknowledgementsM.Skorobogatiy would like to thank his graduate and postgraduate program mentors,Professor J.D.Joannopoulos and Professor Y.Fink from MIT,for introducing him intothefield of photonic crystals.He is grateful to Professor M.Koshiba and ProfessorK.Saitoh for hosting him at Hokkaido University in2005and for having many excitingdiscussions in the area of photonic crystalfibers.M.Skorobogatiy acknowledges theCanada Research Chair program for making this book possible by reducing his teachingload.J.Y ang thanks the funding support of the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research,which made many results of this book possible.He also thanks the Zhou Pei-Yuan Centerfor Applied Mathematics at Tsinghua University(China)for hospitality during his visit,where portions of this book were written.Both authors are grateful to their graduate andpostgraduate students for their comments and help,while this book was in preparation.Especially,J.Y ang likes to thank Dr.Jiandong Wang,whose help was essential for hisbook writing.。

The Properties of PhotonicsPhotonics refers to the study and application of photons, or particles of light, in modern technology. This field has grown rapidly in recent years, both in terms of theoretical understanding and practical applications. In this article, we will explore some of the properties of photonics and examine how they are utilized in various fields.One property of photons is their wavelength, which determines the color of light. Visible light, the range that can be perceived by the human eye, ranges from about 400 to 700 nanometers. Longer wavelengths correspond to colors such as red and orange, while shorter wavelengths correspond to blue and purple. Light with wavelengths shorter than visible light are called ultraviolet, X-rays, or gamma rays, while those with longer wavelengths are called infrared, microwave, or radio waves.Another important property of photons is their polarization. Polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field of the photon, which affects how it interacts with other materials. Polarizers, which selectively transmit or block certain polarizations of light, are commonly used in optics and electronics.A third property of photons is their coherence, or how well their waves align with each other. Coherent light waves can interfere constructively or destructively, leading to phenomena such as diffraction and interference patterns. Laser light, which is highly coherent, is used in a wide range of applications, from cutting and welding materials to reading data on compact discs.Photonics is also important in communication technologies. Fiber-optic cables, which use light to transmit data over long distances, are widely used in telecommunications. The speed and bandwidth of fiber-optic communication make it critical for modern communication networks.Medical applications of photonics have also seen notable advancements, such as optical imaging techniques that can be used to diagnose disease. For instance, optical coherence tomography (OCT) uses low-power light to visualize tissue structures in theeye, allowing detection of early signs of eye diseases. Similarly, fluorescence imaging uses specific molecules that emit light when excited by photons to locate cancer cells or study biological processes.In conclusion, photonics is a fascinating field with a wide range of both fundamental and practical properties. The combination of its various properties and applications has made photonics an indispensable tool in various fields such as telecommunications, medical imaging, and material processing. As research and development continue, photonics will undoubtedly play an increasingly important role in shaping the technologies of the future.。

第3期樊国栋等：Ag/TiO2纳米催化剂的制备及性能·825·[11] ZOLOTA VIN P，PERMENOV A E，SARKISOV O，et al. Two-photonluminescence enhancement of silver nanoclusters photodeposited onto mesoporous TiO2 film[J]. Chemical Physics Letters，2008，457（4）：342-346.[12] 肖羽堂，李志花，许双双. 非金属元素掺杂二氧化钛纳米管的研究进展[J]. 化工进展，2010，29（7）：1235-1240.[13] WANG J，ZHU W，ZHANG Y，et al. An efficient two-step techniquefor nitrogen-doped titanium dioxide synthesizing：visible-light-induced photodecomposition of methylene blue[J]. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C，2007，111（2）：1010-1014. [14] HOFFMANN M R，MARTIN S T，CHOI W，et al. Environmentalapplications of semiconductor photocatalysis[J]. Chemical Reviews，1995，95（1）：69-96.[15] KAMAT P V. Photophysical，photochemical and photocatalyticaspects of metal nanoparticles[J]. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B，2002，106（32）：7729-7744.[16] BAE E，CHOI W. Highly enhanced photoreductive degradation ofperchlorinated compounds on dye-sensitized metal/TiO2 under visible light[J]. Environmental Science & Technology，2003，37（1）：147-152.[17] FANG J，BI X，SI D，et al. Spectroscopic studies of interfacialstructures of CeO2-TiO2 mixed oxides[J]. Applied Surface Science，2007，253（22）：8952-8961.[18] LIU Z，GUO B，HONG L，et al. Preparation and characterization ofcerium oxide doped TiO2 nanoparticles[J]. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids，2005，66（1）：161-167.[19] XU Y，ZENG Z. The preparation，characterization，and photocatalyticactivities of Ce- TiO2 /SiO2[J]. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A：Chemical，2008，279（1）：77-81.[20] Coronado J M，Maira A J，Martın ez-Arias A，et al. EPR study of theradicals formed upon UV irradiation of ceria-based photocatalysts[J].Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A：Chemistry，2002，150（1）：213-221.[21] ZHOU G，HANSON J，GORTE R J. A thermodynamic investigationof the redox properties of ceria–titania mixed oxides[J]. Applied Catalysis A：General，2008，335（2）：153-158.[22] Ismail A A，Matsunaga H. Influence of vanadia content ontoTiO2-SiO2 matrix for photocatalytic oxidation of trichloroethylene[J].Chemical Physics Letters，2007，447（1）：74-78.[23] XIE C，XU Z，Y ANG Q，et al. Enhanced photocatalytic activity oftitania–silica mixed oxide prepared via basic hydrolyzation[J].Materials Science and Engineering：B，2004，112（1）：34-41. [24] 宋巍巍，薛永强，苏黎宁，等. N 掺杂纳米TiO2的制备及其光催化性能[J]. 化工进展，2012，31（5）：1057-1060.[25] LIU H，YANG W，MA Y，et al. Extended visible light response ofbinary TiO2-Ti2O3 photocatalyst prepared by a photo-assisted sol-gelmethod[J]. Applied Catalysis A：General，2006，299：218-223. [26] 尤先锋，陈锋，张金龙，等. 银促进的TiO2光催化降解甲基橙[J].催化学报，2006，27（3）：270-274.[27] ZHANG F，GUAN N，LI Y，et al. Control of morphology of silverclusters coated on titanium dioxide during photocatalysis[J].Langmuir，2003，19（20）：8230-8234.[28] V AMATHEV AN V，AMAL R，BEYDOUN D，et al. Photocatalyticoxidation of organics in water using pure and silver-modified titaniumdioxide particles[J]. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A：Chemistry，2002，148（1）：233-245.[29] ZHANG Q，GAO L，GUO J. Effects of calcination on thephotocatalytic properties of nanosized TiO2 powders prepared by TiCl4 hydrolysis[J]. Applied Catalysis B：Environmental，2000，26（3）：207-215.[30] SHAN Z，WU J，XU F，et al. Highly effective silver/semiconductorphotocatalytic composites prepared by a silver mirror reaction[J]. TheJournal of Physical Chemistry C，2008，112（39）：15423-15428.CHEMICAL INDUSTRY AND ENGINEERING PROGRESS 2016年第35卷第3期·826·化工进展负载型杂多酸脱除焦化蜡油中碱性氮化物李红跃，王雷，张曼，刘宝玉，王立新，刘丹（辽宁石油化工大学化学化工与环境学部，辽宁抚顺 113 001）摘要：以硅胶为载体，利用等体积浸渍法负载杂多酸制备3种不同负载型杂多酸吸附剂，采用傅里叶红外光谱和氮气吸附-脱附法对吸附剂负载状态进行了表征。

doi:10.19677/j.issn.1004-7964.2023.03.003二硫化钼/石墨相氮化碳光催化降解印染废水研究卜义夫1，刘思乐1*，杜文娟2，田川1，王思祺1，万帅龙1（1.沈阳科技学院，辽宁沈阳110167；2.山东飞洋环境工程有限公司，山东济南250000）摘要：通过浸渍法和煅烧法相结合制备二硫化钼/石墨相氮化碳(MoS 2/g-C 3N 4)催化剂。

采用X 射线衍射、扫描电镜、透射电镜、紫外可见漫反射光谱、稳态荧光光谱等手段对MoS 2/g-C 3N 4催化剂的晶型、形貌、光电化学性质进行了表征，并将MoS 2/g-C 3N 4催化剂应用于印染废水的处理。

结果表明：MoS 2/g-C 3N 4催化剂呈现多孔的层状结构，对可见光有着较好的响应；在MoS 2/g-C 3N 4用量2.0g/L、pH=6、反应时间120min 的光照条件下，MoS 2/g-C 3N 4催化剂对印染废水的色度去除率和化学需氧量（COD）去除率最高，分别为89.78%和65.57%，MoS 2/g-C 3N 4催化剂循环使用5次后对印染废水的色度去除率和COD 去除率仍达到了77.28%和53.26%，具有良好的稳定性。

关键词:催化剂；光催化；印染废水；层状多孔中图分类号:TS 199文献标志码:AStudy on Photocatalytic Degradation of Printing and Dyeing Wastewater by Molybdenum Disulfide/graphite Carbon Nitride(1.Shenyang Institute of Science and Technology,Shenyang 110167,China;2.Shandong Feiyang EnvironmentalEngineering Limited Company,Jinan 250000,China)Abstract:The MoS 2/g-C 3N 4catalyst was prepared by using the impregnation and calcination methods.Its crystal form,morphology and photoelectrochemical properties were characterized by using X -ray diffraction,scanning electron microscopy,transmission electron microscopy,ultraviolet -visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy,steady fluorescence spectrum,respectively.The MoS 2/g -C 3N 4catalyst was applied to the treatment of printing and dyeing wastewater.The results showed that the MoS 2/g-C 3N 4catalyst had a porous layered structure and good response to visible light.Under the illumination conditions with its dosage of 2.0g/L,pH=6and the reaction time of 120min,the MoS 2/g-C 3N 4catalyst had the highest chroma and chemical oxygen demand (COD)removal rates for printing and dyeing wastewater,which are 89.78%and 65.57%,respectively.After the MoS 2/g-C 3N 4catalyst was recycled for 5times,the chroma and COD removal rates of printing and dyeing wastewater still reached 77.28%and 53.26%,respectively,indicating its good stability.Key words:catalyst;photocatalysis;printing and dyeing wastewater;layered porous收稿日期：2022-09-16基金项目：国家级大学生创新创业训练计划项目(202213621001)；辽宁省教育厅2022年高等学校基本科研项目面上项目（LJKM20221989）；沈阳科技学院科学研究重点项目(ZD-2023-01)；沈阳科技学院化学工程与工艺一流专业建设项目第一作者简介：卜义夫（2001-），男，本科生，主要从事石墨相氮化物的制备与改性工作。

MethodsPDEAAm synthesisPDEAAm was prepared by group transfer polymerization9to ensure a narrow molecular-mass distribution.Tetrabutylammonium acetate was used as the catalyst and1-methoxyl-1-(trimethylsiloxy)-2-methyl-1-propene as the initiator.In the®nal stage of polymeri-zation,a hydroxyl group was incorporated into one end of each polymer chain by adding a capping agent,2-(trimethylsiloxy)ethyl methacrylate.The trimethylsiloxy group was subsequently removed by hydrolysis,to generate the±OH end group.The hydroxyl end group was subsequently derivatized to a vinyl sulphone group by reacting with divinyl sulphone6,7.The molecular mass and polydispersity of the polymer were determined in tetrahydrofuran,using gel permeation chromatography calibrated with polystyrene molecular-mass standards.All of the polymers have a molecular-mass polydispersity of less than1.2.ConjugationConjugation of PDEAAm to E51K/N118K streptavidin was performed at pH9.5,48C for 16h.Three thermally induced precipitations of the conjugate were conducted to remove any unconjugated E51K/N118K streptavidin,which remained in the supernatant. Iminobiotin af®nity chromatography was employed to separate the conjugate from the unreacted free polymer10.The puri®ed streptavidin±PDEAAm conjugate was then immobilized on magnetic microbeads for the biotinylated-protein binding assays.Binding assaysThe conjugates and,as a control,the unconjugated E51K/N118K streptavidin were immobilized on magnetic microbeads and suspended in100mM sodium phosphate buffer,pH8,containing0.2wt%of BSA.The suspensions were incubated in a108C water bath for1h before addition of the biotinylated protein.They were mixed and then further incubated at108C for30min to reach binding equilibrium.The magnetic beads were separated and the¯uorescence intensities(excitation wavelength,494nm;emission wavelength,520nm)of the supernatant were measured versus control solutions without magnetic microbeads.The solutions were then incubated at a higher temperature and the same operations were repeated.One nmol of either E51K/N118K±PDEAAm conjugate or E51K/N118K was used for each assay.Determination of LCSTThe LCST of the E51K/N118K±PDEAAm-12.8k conjugate was determined in100mM sodium phosphate buffer,pH8.0,containing0.2wt%of BSA,by measuring absorbance at 500nm versus temperature.The LCST is de®ned as the temperature where the light absorbance is10%of the maximum value.Synthesis of biotinylated PDEAAmA primary amino group at the end of the PDEAAm chain was reacted with sulph-NHS-LC-biotin(from Pierce).B-PDEAAm was then complexed to E51K/N118K streptavidin,which was immobilized on magnetic beads via the interaction of biotin and streptavidin.Received29December2000;accepted12February2001.1.Fong,R.B.,Ding,Z.,Long,C.J.,Hoffman,A.S.&Stayton,P.S.Thermoprecipitation of streptavidinvia oligonucleotide-mediated self-assembly with poly(N-isopropylacrylamide).Bioconj.Chem.10, 720±725(1999).2.Wilchek,M.&Bayer,E.A.Avidin±Biotin Technology(Academic,New York,1990)3.Schlosser,M.,Hahmann,J.,Ziegler,B.,Augstein,P.&Ziegler,M.Sensitive monoclonal antibody-based sandwich ELISA for determination of the diabetes-associated autoantigen glutamic acid decarboxylase GAD65.J.Immunoass.18,289±307(1997).4.Bloch,B.Biotinylated probes for in situ hybridization histochemistry:Use for mRNA detection.J.Histochem.Cytochem.41,1751±1754(1993).5.Stayton,P.S.et al.Control of protein-ligand recognition using a stimuli-responsive polymer.Nature378,472±474(1995).6.Bulmus,V.,Ding,Z.,Long,C.J.,Stayton,P.S.&Hoffman,A.S.Design,synthesis and site-speci®cconjugation of a pH-and temperature-sensitive polymer to streptavidin for pH-controlled binding and triggered release of biotin.Bioconj.Chem.11,78±83(1999).7.Ding,Z.et al.Temperature control of biotin binding and release with a streptavidin-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)site-speci®c conjugate.Bioconj.Chem.10,395±400(1999).8.Wu,C.&Wang,X.H.Globule-to-coil transition of a single homopolymer chain in solution.Phys.Rev.Lett.80,4092±4094(1998).9.Sogah,D.Y.,Hertler,W.R.,Webster,O.W.&Cohen,G.M.Group transfer polymerization.Polymerization of acrylic monomers.Macromolecules20,1473±1488(1987).10.Hofmann,K.,Wood,S.A.,Brinton,C.C.,Montibeller,J.A.&Finn,F.M.Iminobiotin af®nitycolumns and their application to retrieval of streptavidin.Proc.Natl A77,4666±4668 (1980).AcknowledgementsWe thank R.Clark for providing protein G,and N.Murthy for help with PDEAAm synthesis.This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health. Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to A.S.H. (hoffman@)or P.S.S.(stayton@).................................................................. Evolution of Asian monsoons and phasedupliftoftheHimalaya±Tibetan plateau since Late Miocene timesAn Zhisheng*,John E.Kutzbach²,Warren L.Prell³&Stephen C.Porter§*State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology,Institute of Earth Environment,Chinese Academy of Sciences,Box17,Xi'an710054,China²Center for Climatic Research,Institute for Environmental Studies,University of Wisconsin-Madison,1225W.Dayton Street,Madison,Wisconsin53706,USA ³Geological Sciences,Box1846,Brown University,Providence,Rhode Island02912-1846,USA§Quaternary Research Center,Box351310,University of Washington,Seattle, Washington98195,USA .............................................................................................................................................. The climates of Asia are affected signi®cantly by the extent and height of the Himalayan mountains and the Tibetan plateau1±4. Uplift of this region began about50Myr ago,and further sig-ni®cant increases in altitude of the Tibetan plateau are thought to have occurred about10±8Myr ago4,5,or more recently.However, the climatic consequences of this uplift remain unclear.Here we use records of aeolian sediments from China6,7and marine sedi-ments from the Indian8±10and North Paci®c oceans11to identify three stages of evolution of Asian climates:®rst,enhanced aridity in the Asian interior and onset of the Indian and east Asian monsoons,about9±8Myr ago;next,continued intensi®cation of the east Asian summer and winter monsoons,together with increased dust transport to the North Paci®c Ocean11,about 3.6±2.6Myr ago;and last,increased variability and possible weakening of the Indian and east Asian summer monsoons and continued strengthening of the east Asian winter monsoon since about2.6Myr ago.The results of a numerical climate-model experiment,using idealized stepwise increases of mountain±plateau elevation,support the argument that the stages in evolu-tion of Asian monsoons are linked to phases of Himalaya±Tibetan plateau uplift and to Northern Hemisphere glaciation. Continuous sedimentary records of Asian climate are found in China and in marine cores from the Indian and North Paci®c oceans (Fig.1).The planktonic foraminifer Globigerina bulloides and upwelling radiolaria from ODP site722(Fig.2)are indices of coastal upwelling in the Arabian Sea and thus of southwesterly wind strength during the Indian summer monsoon8,10.Although carbonate dissolution(often associated with high productivity)reduces the magnitude of the G.bulloides index at certain times(Fig.2),the composite radiolarian and G.bulloides records show strengthening of upwelling about9±8Myr ago and relatively continuous upwelling thereafter.Magnetic susceptibility¯ux from ODP site758(ref.9), representing sea-level-mediated¯uvial transport from the Ganges and other river systems draining the southern side of the Hima-layan±Tibetan orogen,increases about9Myr ago.Signi®cantly,new basal dates from the aeolian`Red Clay'sediments on the Chinese Loess plateau(Figs1,2)indicate onset of aeolian dust accumulation at about7.6Myr ago at Zhaojiachuan(358539N,1078589E), 8.0Myr ago at Chaona(358069N,1078129E),and as early as 8.3Myr ago at Jiaxian(388169N,110859E)(Fang,X.M.and Qiang,X.K.,personal communication).Records from North Paci®c ODP sites885and886,which accumulated wind-blown dust from Asia,show a major dust peak about8±7Myr ago11.The change in oxygen isotope composition of soil carbonates in Pakistan about9±8Myr ago12(Fig.2),inferred changes in vegetation from C3(forests) to C4(grasses)in Pakistan beginning about8Myr ago13,and a change from mixed needle-leaf and broad-leaf forests to grassland vegetation along the northeastern margin of the Tibetan plateau about8.5Myr ago14,all imply increasing seasonality by about8Myrago,with most precipitation in summer.These widely distributed observations can be interpreted as signalling an environmental response to a major phase of Himalaya±Tibetan plateau uplift about 9±8Myr ago.This response is broadly consistent with the climate changes produced in our climate-model experiment.Thisexperiment used highly idealized stages of elevation history for the Himalayan±Tibetan region;that is,going from relatively small areas with elevations above 1,000m and maximum elevations between 1,700and 2,700m (stages HT-1and HT-2),with a weak Asian summer monsoon circulation and relatively low summermonsoonprecipitation,to a much larger area with elevations above1,000m and maximum elevations of5,700m(stage HT-3,a stage we associate with the Late Miocene time),with a strong Asian monsoon circulation and increased summer monsoon precipitation(Fig.3). These changes in continent-scale monsoon circulation are caused primarily by large increases in sensible heating and latent heating (precipitation)that are focused over or along the slopes of the high plateau1±4.In central Asia,precipitation decreases2,3(Fig.3).The onset of aeolian deposition in China about8Myr ago resulted in long,continuous terrestrial records at Zhaojiachuan and Bajiazui(358539N,1078279E)6,7,within the largest platforms on the Loess plateau(Fig.1),and in an area that is very sensitive to variations in the east Asian summer and winter monsoons15.These sequences(Fig.4)consist of two parts:the upper part corresponds to the well-known loess±palaeosol sequence of Luochuan,aged #2.6Myr(ref.16),which has been correlated with deep-sea sedimentary records;the lower Red Clay sequence consists of inter-layered light-red to reddish-yellow silty loess and light-red to brownish-red palaeosols,and mantles a surface with variable relief and different ages.The quasi-normal grain-size distribution, the40±60%silt fraction,and other chemical and physical char-acteristics,indicate an aeolian origin for the sediment6,7,17.Overall southeastward®ning of the loessic silt is consistent with north-westerly winter winds.The degree of pedogenesis of the palaeosols, re¯ected in their colour,texture,and abundance of pedogenic calcareous nodules,increases southeastward towards regions of increasing summer-monsoon precipitation.Several indicators of summer and winter monsoon strength have been developed from these loess±palaeosol sequences.The high positive correlation between the frequency-dependent magnetic susceptibility,which can be used to identify ferromagnetic grain size,and the magnetic susceptibility of Red Clay samples indicates that the susceptibility depends mainly on ultra-®ne-grained ferro-magnetic minerals formed in situ during pedogenesis18.Therefore, susceptibility records in the lower sequenceÐwhich have ferro-magnetic minerals and magnetic properties similar to those of the overlying loess and palaeosols,and similar susceptibility records to those in the upper sequenceÐare indices of summer monsoon precipitation17(Fig.4).The overall strong correlation of the magnetic susceptibility series with an independently derived Rb/ Sr time-series emphasizes that both indices are measures of summer monsoon strength(Fig.4).During weathering,Rb is relatively stable,whereas Sr is relatively mobile;therefore,an increased Rb/Sr ratio indicates increased weathering and pedogenesis,and a strong monsoon19.The coarse-grain fraction and the Al¯ux(Fig.4)are indices of winter monsoon strength15and the degree of aridity in dust source regions11,respectively.Based upon the temporal changes of these monsoon indices (Fig.4),we subdivide the period6±2Myr ago into three intervals. The period from6to about3.6Myr ago shows considerablethe NCAR climate model CCM3.a,Areas(in grey)for which climate indices are summarized(below),and approximate boundaries of the idealized topography stages with elevations higher than1,000m outlined:HT-1,small elevated region,with maximum elevation less than1,700m;HT-2,Himalaya and Tibetan plateau of limited north±south and east±west extent with maximum elevation2,700m;HT-3,Himalaya and Tibetan plateau considerably extended to the north and west with maximum elevation5,700m; and HT-4,modern,with extension of the plateau along the eastern and northern margins and maximum elevation5,700m.The elevations used in the climate model re¯ect a smoothing of the topography consistent with the spatial resolution of the climate model, and are signi®cantly lower than the observed or estimated elevations.b,The June±July±August(JJA)precipitation for India,the Loess plateau/east Asia,and central Asia,for four simulations(HT-1to HT-4)with progressive increase in mountain±plateau elevation and one simulation(G)with glacial-age modi®cations to HT-4(lowered atmospheric CO2to the climate value for HT-4by a thin vertical line.An off-line vegetation model,forced by the seasonal cycle of temperature and precipitation,indicates a transition from forest towards grasslands in response to uplift.In southern Asia,the area of savannah/steppe is10% (HT-2),33%(HT-4)and50%(G).In the Loess plateau,the area of steppe/desert is15% (HT-2),35%(HT-4)and35%(G).In central Asia,the area of steppe/desert is30%(HT-2), 70%(HT-4)and70%(G).c,Wind and circulation indices for the four elevation stages and the one glacial stage:westerly jet-stream winds in December±January±February(DJF) for the western North Paci®c,wind direction and relative speed(length of arrow)in JJA and DJF for the Loess plateau/east Asia region(the open arrows refer to stage G), southwesterly winds in the Arabian Sea in JJA,and an index of the intensity of the large continent-scale Asian summer monsoon,JJA,given by the sea-level pressure at the centre of the monsoon circulation.variability of the monsoon indices but relatively small trends compared to the subsequent period.The period from about 3.6to 2.6Myr ago contains the most-sustained and simultaneous intensi-®cation of both summer and winter monsoons on the Loess plateau (as indicated by magnetic susceptibility,Rb/Sr,coarse grain-size fraction,and Al ¯ux indices),as well as the most-sustained increase of aeolian ¯ux to the North Paci®c.This simultaneous intensi®ca-tion of both summer and winter monsoons is dif®cult to explain,because the rapid increase in the volume of continental ice sheets during this same periodÐas inferred from the marine oxygen isotope record 20(Fig.4)Ðimplies a shift of the climate towards more glacial conditions.Based on climate-model simulations of glacial conditions,we would expect a weakening of the summer monsoon and a strengthening of the winter monsoon 21.Therefore,we attribute the simultaneous strengthening of both summer and winter monsoons on the Loess plateau to additional,incremental plateau uplift or extension (see below).Enhanced uplift along the northern and eastern margins of the plateau after 3.6Myr ago is inferred from widely distributed conglomerates and increased sediment ¯ux after 3.6Myr ago in the west Kunlun mountains 22(Fig.4),from conglomerates dating 3.6±2.6Myr ago in the Linxia basin 23,from a northeastward shift in maximum sedimentation rate in basins north of the east Kunlun mountains since Pliocene times 24,from well-developed molasse sediments as old as 3.4Myr in the Qaidam basin 24,from coarse conglomerates dating from 3.6Myr ago at Lao Junmiao on the northern ¯ank of the Qilian mountains (Fang,X.M.,personal communication),and from indications of tectonic activity (since the Pliocene)at Haiyuan,on the eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau 25(Fig.1).The magnetic susceptibility record from the Bay of Bengal also shows a rapid increase in terrigenous in¯ux about 3.9Myr ago (Fig.2a).Moreover,models of plateau formation suggest continued development of the plateau towards the north and east 26,27.Our climate-model simulations show that continued uplift and expansion of the plateau along its northern and eastern margins (going from stage HT-3to HT-4,Fig.3)enhances both summer andwinter monsoons in the region of the Loess plateau/east Asia andcontinues the drying trend in central Asia,but causes little change in the general Asian summer monsoon circulation or the Indian monsoon precipitation.Overall,the model results indicate that the relatively large high-elevation area that we insert in the model in going from stage HT-2to stage HT-3,presumably re¯ecting eleva-tion changes that occurred no later than about 8Myr ago,are suf®cient to alter signi®cantly the thermally forced circulation and establish strong continent-scale summer and winter monsoons and central Asian aridity (Fig.3).Continued elevation increases along the northern and eastern margins,in going from stage HT-3to stage HT-4,have a more local in¯uence restricted mainly to central Asia and the Loess plateau/east Asia sector.The onset of major Northern Hemisphere glaciation after 2.6Myr ago appears to have in¯uenced,and was perhaps in¯uenced by,the development of the Asian monsoons.After 2.6Myr ago,the east Asian summer monsoon,re¯ected by the magnetic susceptibility index,becomes more variable and at times weaker (Figs 2,4),and the phasing between orbital forcing and Indian monsoon strength changes 28.In contrast,the east Asian winter monsoon,re¯ected in the indices of the grain-size fraction and Al ¯ux,continues strong,and even intensi®es,as does the aeolian ¯ux to the North Paci®c (Figs 2,4),indicating sustained or intensi®ed central Asian aridity.These changes are consistent with the climate-model simulations for glacial conditions 21:weakened summer monsoons,but contin-ued aridity in central Asia and strong winter monsoon north-westerly winds across eastern Asia,and strong westerlies aloft (stage G,Fig.3).The increased atmospheric dust loading associated with central Asian aridity and strong winter winds may have helped cool global climate 11,and thereby contributed to the development or intensi®cation of glaciation.We have ignored other possible in¯uences on Late Miocene±Pliocene climates such as uplift elsewhere 29,changes in ocean gateways 30,decreases in atmospheric CO 2concentrations due to increased weathering or carbon burial 29,and changes in land/ocean con®guration 31.Nevertheless,the terrestrial records from the LoessMagnetic susceptibility (10–8 m –3 kg –1)>19 µm grain-size (%)Aeolian flux (mg cm –2 kyr –1),Site 885/886δ18O (‰),Site 846A g e (M y r )A g e (M y r )Figure 4Terrestrial and marine records dating from 6to about 2Myr ago from China and the North Paci®c,and indicating changes in Asian climate and global-scale glaciation.The shaded time interval between 3.6and 2.6Myr ago indicates the period of sustained strengthening of summer and winter monsoons on the Loess plateau.The time series are:magnetic susceptibility,Rb/Sr ratio,.19m m grain size,and Al ¯ux (Al content multiplied by sedimentation rate and the mean dust density of 2.5g cm -3)from the Bajiazui section on the Loess plateau (Fig.1);aeolian dust ¯ux from North Paci®c ODP sites 885and 886(Fig.1)11;sedimentation rate at Yecheng,north of the West Kunlun mountains 22;and d 18O from ODP core 846in the eastern equatorial Paci®c 20.The chronology of monsoon proxysequences of the Bajiazui section was obtained by interpolation with a sedimentation-rate model using .19m m grain-size fraction,based on the magnetic stratigraphy 6and calibrated with polarity boundary ages 20.The palaeomagnetic results have also been con®rmed by analysis of duplicate samples at the Geomagnetism Laboratory,University of Liverpool.Sampling resolution is 5±10kyr.Sedimentation rate of the debris sequence at Yecheng is calculated based on its original 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AcknowledgementsThe model simulations used climate models and computer resources provided by the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder,Colorado.This work was supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences,the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology,and the Chinese National Science Foundation,and by grants to the University of Wisconsin and Brown University from the US National Science Foundation. Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to J.E.K.(e-mail:jek@).................................................................. Phosphorus limitation of nitrogen®xation by Trichodesmiumin the central Atlantic OceanSergio A.SanÄudo-Wilhelmy*,Adam B.Kustka*,Christopher J.Gobler², David A.Hutchins³,Min Yang*,Kamazima Lwiza*,James Burns§, Douglas G.Capone§,John A.Raven k&Edward J.Carpenter¶*Marine Sciences Research Center,State University of New York,Stony Brook, New York11794-5000,USA²Southampton College,Natural Science Division,Long Island University, Southampton,New York11968,USA³College of Marine Studies,University of Delaware,Lewes,Delaware19958,USA §Wrigley Institute for Environmental Studies and Department of Biological Sciences,University of Southern California,Los Angeles,California90089,USA k Division of Environmental and Applied Biology,School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee,Dundee DD14HN,UK¶Romberg Tiburon Center,San Francisco State University,Tiburon, California94920,USA .............................................................................................................................................. Marine®xation of atmospheric nitrogen is believed to be an important source of biologically useful nitrogen to ocean surface waters1,stimulating productivity of phytoplankton and so in¯u-encing the global carbon cycle2.The majority of nitrogen®xation in tropical waters is carried out by the marine cyanobacterium Trichodesmium3,which supplies more than half of the new nitrogen used for primary production4.Although the factors controlling marine nitrogen®xation remain poorly understood, it has been thought that nitrogen®xation is limited by iron availability in the ocean2,5.This was inferred from the high iron requirement estimated for growth of nitrogen®xing organisms6 and the higher apparent densities of Trichodesmium where aeo-lian iron inputs are plentiful7.Here we report that nitrogen ®xation rates in the central Atlantic appear to be independent of both dissolved iron levels in sea water and iron content in Trichodesmium colonies.Nitrogen®xation was,instead,highly correlated to the phosphorus content of Trichodesmium and was enhanced at higher irradiance.Furthermore,our calculations suggest that the structural iron requirement for the growth of nitrogen-®xing organisms is much lower than previously calculated6.Although iron de®ciency could still potentially limit growth of nitrogen-®xing organisms in regions of low iron availabilityÐfor example,in the subtropical North Paci®c OceanÐour observations suggest that marine nitrogen®xation is not solely regulated by iron supply.We collected surface water samples and colonies of Trichodesmium ing trace-metal clean methods along two transects in the tropical(0±68N latitude;50±288W longitude)and subtropical (10±168N;30±558W)Atlantic Ocean in April1996,and analysed them for C,N,P and Fe content.We also measured N2®xation rates of colonies(Methods).Strong spatial gradients in the N2-®xing diazotrophic activity were observed along the tropical and subtropical transects.Cell C speci®c N2®xation in the subtropical northern transect (median was152m mol N per mol C per h)was four times higher than in the tropical transect(median was38m mol N per mol C per h)(Fig.1a).Trichodesmium biomass(Fig.1b)was also seven times higher in the northern subtropical transect(subtropical median was1.44per mg chl a per m2;tropical median was 0.20per mg chl a per m2).In contrast to N2®xation,dissolved Fe concentrations in surface waters of the sub-tropical(median was0.77nM)and tropical (median was0.95nM)Atlantic were relatively constant(Fig.1c). Similarly,levels of Fe in®eld-collected Trichodesmium colonies。

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The Chemistry of Photonic CrystalsPhotonic crystals, also known as photonic bandgap materials, are a type of crystal structure that can manipulate the flow of light in a manner that resembles the way semiconductors manipulate the flow of electrons. The unique optical properties of photonic crystals make them useful in a wide range of applications, from optical communications to solar cells.In this article, we will explore the chemistry behind photonic crystals, including their composition and synthesis, their optical properties, and their potential applications.Composition and Synthesis of Photonic CrystalsPhotonic crystals are typically composed of two or more materials with different refractive indices. The most common type of photonic crystal is a periodic array of spheres or rods made from a dielectric material, such as silicon dioxide or titanium dioxide, embedded in another dielectric material, such as air or another dielectric.The key to the success of photonic crystals lies in the ability to control the size, shape, and spacing of the constituent materials in the crystal structure. This is typically achieved through a variety of synthesis techniques, including chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel synthesis, and self-assembly.Chemical vapor deposition involves the deposition of thin films onto a substrate under controlled temperature and pressure conditions. This technique can be used to fabricate photonic crystals with precise control over the size and spacing of the constituent structures.Sol-gel synthesis involves the use of a solution containing precursor molecules, such as metal alkoxides, that can be polymerized to form a solid-state material. This technique can be used to create photonic crystals with a wide range of compositions and structures.Self-assembly is a process in which the constituent structures of a material spontaneously arrange themselves into a desired pattern. This technique can be used to create photonic crystals with highly ordered, three-dimensional structures.Optical Properties of Photonic CrystalsThe key optical properties of photonic crystals arise from the periodic arrangement of the constituent materials within the crystal structure. This periodicity creates a photonic bandgap, a range of frequencies over which light cannot propagate through the crystal structure.The size and spacing of the constituent structures in the crystal have a direct impact on the width and location of the photonic bandgap. By controlling the size and spacing of the constituent structures, it is possible to tune the optical properties of the photonic crystal to a desired frequency range.Another important optical property of photonic crystals is their ability to manipulate the direction and intensity of light. This is achieved through a process known as Bragg scattering, in which incident light interacts with the periodic arrangement of the constituent structures in the crystal, leading to the constructive and destructive interference of light waves.Applications of Photonic CrystalsThe unique optical properties of photonic crystals have led to a wide range of potential applications in areas such as optical communications, biosensing, and solar energy conversion.In optical communications, photonic crystals can be used to create microcavities and other optical devices that can control the flow and direction of light in optical fibers and other waveguides.In biosensing, photonic crystals can be used to create highly sensitive and selective sensors that can detect a wide range of biological molecules and compounds. By functionalizing the surface of the photonic crystal with specific biological molecules, it ispossible to create sensors that can detect specific analytes with high sensitivity and specificity.In solar energy conversion, photonic crystals can be used to create highly efficient solar cells that can capture a broader range of light frequencies and convert them into electricity. Photonic crystals can also be used to improve the performance of existing solar cell technologies, such as silicon-based solar cells.ConclusionIn conclusion, the chemistry of photonic crystals is a fascinating and rapidly evolving field that has the potential to revolutionize a wide range of technologies and industries. Through the precise control of the size, spacing, and composition of the constituent structures in the crystal, it is possible to create materials with unique optical properties that can be tailored to a wide range of applications.。

FROM POINT CLOUD TO SURFACE:THE MODELING AND VISUALIZATION PROBLEMRemondino FabioInstitute of Geodesy and PhotogrammetrySwiss Federal Institute of TechnologyETH Zurich, Switzerlandfabio@geod.baug.ethz.chCommission V – WG 6ABSTRACTIn this paper we address all the problems and solutions of converting a measured point cloud into a realistic 3D polygonal model that can satisfy high modeling and visualization demands. Close range photogrammetry deals since many years with manual or automatic image measurements. Now 3D scanners are also becoming a standard source for input data in many application areas, providing for millions of points. As a consequence, the problem of generating high quality polygonal meshes of objects from unorganized point clouds is receiving more and more attention. After reviewing the different 3D shape techniques for surface reconstruction, we will report the full process of converting a usually unstructured point cloud into a consistent polygonal model. Some triangulation algorithms, modeling methods and visualization techniques are also described and different examples are presented.Keywords: Modeling, Reconstruction, Visualization1.INTRODUCTIONThe reconstruction of precise surfaces from unorganized point clouds derived from laser scanner data or photogrammetric image measurements is a very hard problem, not completely solved and problematic in case of incomplete, noisy and sparse data. The generation of polygonal models that can satisfy high modeling and visualization demands is required in different applications, like video-games, movies, virtual reality applications, e-commerce and other graphics applications. The goal is always to find a way to create a computer model of an object which best fit the reality. Polygons are usually the ideal way to accurately represent the results of measurements, providing an optimal surface description. While the generation of digital terrain models has a long tradition and has found efficient solutions, the correct modeling of closed surfaces or free-form objects is of recent nature, a not completely solved problem and still an important issue investigated in many research activities.The wide range of applications from which the data may emerge (e.g. manufacturing, reverse engineering, cultural heritage, architecture) implies that the data can have quite different properties that must be considered in the solution of the surface interpolation problem. Many methods have been developed [Mencl, 2001] to create a regular and continuous (triangular) mesh representation from a point cloud. Then given the polygonal surface, various techniques can be used for post-processing operations (smoothing, texturing) and for the visualization of the 3D model [Patias, 2001a].This paper comes from our experience and research in the photogrammetric field. This work wants to put together almost all the current methods and techniques for modeling and visualization of 3D scenes, in particular obtained from measured point clouds. After a short overview of common modeling and visualization terms, a review of the different techniques to recover 3D shapes is reported (section 3). In section 4 the process of converting a usually unstructured point cloud into a consistent polygonal model ("triangulation") is described. Finally visualization packages and techniques are reviewed and discussed.2.TERMINOLOGYNowadays it is very common to read and hear words like Rendering, Shading or NURBS and maybe we are not really familiar with the correct meaning. Before going into details regarding the modeling and visualization aspects, a short list of important terms, which does not cover all the aspects of the presented subjected, is reported. More information are provided in [Patias, 2001a].•Aliasing: it is the undersampling of a signal (e.g. geometry or texture) that causes artifacts; in case of raster devices, like a computer screen, lines appears jagged when a vector image is drawn. The minimization of the appearance of jagged edges of polygons or lines during the visualization is called anti-aliasing.•Breakline: feature line or polyline representing a ridge or some other feature (e.g. folds) that the user wishes to preserve in a mesh made up of polygonal elements.Therefore a breakline is a singularity on a surface, like an edge to which the polygons should conform to, i.e., not intersect.•Level of detail (LoD): it is the amount of information (detail) or complexity of any object that is displayed at any particular time. The LoD is usually a function of the distance of the object from the viewer.•Mesh: it is a collection of triangular (or quadrilateral) contiguous, non-overlapping faces joined together along their edges. A mesh therefore contains vertices, edges and faces and its easiest representation is a single face.Sometimes it is also called TIN, Triangulated Irregular Network. Finite element methods are generally used to generate a surface mesh.•Modeling: the (mathematical) construction and computer implementation of an object, by defining points in a 3 dimensional array. This array is based on the X, Y and Z axis of geometric space. Then, different sets of these points are mathematically ’joined’ by e.g. lines, to create polygons and the polygons joined to create objects. The simplest result is usually displayed as a wireframe model.•Open GL: a 3D graphics programmer interface, initially design by SGI and now developed by several companies, to improve the performances of graphical hardware supporting the Open GL standard. Direct3D (by Microsoft) is another standard implementation.•Rendering: a usually realistic drawing of 3D objects using computer technologies. In order to render an object, certain properties like transparency, colour, diffuse or specular reflection and refraction must be assigned to it and to the surrounding environment. Two common rendering techniques are called ray tracing (it renders the model object by object (or better pixel by pixel), testing if a ray intersects any object in the scene and calculating the light intensity in that particular direction) and scanline rendering (it renders the image of an object as a series of horizontal or vertical lines). Ray tracing is not suitable for real-time visualization. Scanline does not produce as realistic results as ray tracing, but it is frequently used in animation packages where the image quality of the single frames is not so important.Rendering can be geometry-based or image-based (usually called ‘Texture mapping’).•Shading: it is the assignment of surface properties to an object. They are colour, normal information, reflectance, transparency and lighting model.•Splines: A piecewise polynomial function that can have a locally very simple form but at the same time be globally flexible and smooth. Splines are very useful for modeling arbitrary functions and are used extensively in computer graphics for free-form curves and surfaces representation.A class of parametric curves and surfaces is the Non-Uniform Rational B-Spline (NURBS) curve or surface.They are the generalization of non-rational B-splines, which are basis of polynomial function based on rational Bézier curves.•Surface: a compact, connected, orientable 2 or 3D manifold, possibly with boundary. A surface without boundary will be called a closed surface. A surface can be geometrically represented in implicit form (locus of the solution of the function F(x,y,z)=0) or parametric form (a collection of parametric patches properly joined together). Surfaces, which cannot be described in an analytic form, are called free-form surfaces.3.3D SHAPE TECHNIQUES FOR 3D MODELRECONSTRUCTIONThe methods to recover 3D shapes and models can be divided into two classes:1.systems based on objects measurements;2.systems that do not use measurements.3.1Systems based on measurementsThese techniques (based on images or on active 3D sensors) can be mainly divided in 2 categories:•methods based on triangulation (Figure 1): they use image measurements [Remondino, 2003; D’Apuzzo 2002], structured light [Maas, 1992; Gartner et al, 1995;Sablatnig et al., 1997], coded light [Wahl, 1984], laser light [11, Sequeira et al., 1999].•methods that do not require correspondences: they estimate surface normals instead of 3D data. Examples are shape from shading [Horn et al., 1989], shape from texture[Kender, 1978], shape from specularity [Healey et al., 1987], shape from contour (medical applications) [Meyers et al., 1992; Minoru et al., 1993; Ulupinar et al. 1995], shape from 2D edge gradients [Winkelbach et al., 2001].Other approaches use active 3D sensors with the time-of-flight principle (in particular for large structures) [48]. Passive image-based methods (e.g. photogrammetry or computer vision) acquire 3D measurements from single images (section 6) or multi-stations; they use projective geometry [Pollefeys, 2000] or perspective camera model [Gruen et al., 2002c; Remondino, 2003]; they are very portable and the sensors are not expensive. On the other hand, 3D active sensors (mainly laser scanners) are becoming a common approach for objects or scenes recording and a standard source for geometric input data. They provide for millions of points and often also for the associated colour. But these sensors are quite expensive, designed for specific applications and depend on the reflective characteristics of the surface. A review of optical methods and active range sensors for 3D measurements is presented in [Beraldin et al.,2000; Chen et al, 2000; Blais, 2003].Figure 1: 3D model of human produced with a Cyberware Body Scanner [11] (left). A bundle adjustment solution for multi-image photogrammetric reconstruction (center; Source: Photomodeler [31]). A point cloud generated with a matching algorithm on 5 images (right) [D'Apuzzo, 2002]. 3.2Systems not based on measurementsThey are commercial computer animation software (Table 2) that allow the generation of 3D models starting from simple elements like polygonal boxes. They generally subdivide and smooth polygons using 3D splines; they do not use any measurement providing for realistic results (Figure 2). They are mainly used in the animation community for movies andvideo-games [44].Figure 2: 3D model created with computer animation software. Left: 3D Studio Max [3], right: Lightwave [23].3.3 Photogrammetric reconstruction and modeling processPhotogrammetry, by definition, obtains reliable measurements and 3D models by means of photographs. It deals since many years with the 3D reconstruction of objects from one or more images: even if it mostly requires precise calibration and orientation procedures, reliable packages are now available (e.g. Photomodeler [31], ShapeCapture [38],Australis [7]). The overall process, described in Figure 3,consists of few well-known steps:• Design (sensor and network geometry)• Measurements (point clouds, lines, etc.)• Structuring/Modeling (geometry, texture)•Visualization/Analysis of the resultsFigure 3: Photogrammetric reconstruction process as presented in [Gruen, 2002b]Nowadays, the recovery of the sensor (and network)geometry and the measurement phase are mainly separated from the modeling and visualization part. But in many applications [Gruen, et al., 2002c] this gap must be bridged in order to perform correct measurements and recover realistic 3D models.The measurement step can be performed with manual or automatic procedures. Automated photogrammetric matching algorithms can produce very dense point clouds, but mismatches, irrelevant points and missing parts could be present in the results, requiring a post-processing check of the data. These automated procedures usually do not take into consideration the geometrical conditions of the surface’s object and mainly work with smoothing constraints: therefore is often quite difficult to turn randomly generated point clouds into polygonal structures of high quality and without losing important information. Nowadays 3D laser scanners are also becoming a common source of input data, providing for big data sets. Therefore the modeling problem of these unorganized point clouds is receiving great attention.On the other hand, if the measurements are done in manual or semi-automatic mode, there is a higher reliability of the measures but a smaller number of points that describe the object; moreover it is very important for the operator to understand the functional behaviour of the following 3D modeling software to perform correct measurements. In this context an on-line modeler that project onto the stereomodel the generated mesh to control the agreement between measurements and the structure of the object would be very useful.After the measurements, modeling and visualization of the results can be performed with different techniques, as described in section 4 and section 5.4. SURFACE RECONSTRUCTION ANDMODELINGIn this section the generation of surfaces (in particular free-form and closed surfaces) from point clouds produced with laser scanner or stereo measurements is described. Other methods, e.g. based on shape from texture, shape from shadow or surface from contours are not considered here.The goal of surface reconstruction can be stated as follows:given a set of sample points P assumed to lie on or near an unknown surface S, create a surface model S’ approximating S. A surface reconstruction procedure cannot guarantee the recovering of S exactly, since we have information about S only through a finite set of sample points. Sometime additional information of the surface (e.g. breaklines) can be available and, in general, as the sampling density increases,the output result S' is more likely topologically correct and converges to the original surface S. A good sample should be dense in detailed area and sparse in featureless parts. Usually if the input data does not satisfy certain properties required by the algorithm (like good distribution and density, little noise), the reconstruction program produces incorrect or maybe impossible results. Therefore, the correct reconstruction method depends on the application and for each application, the right algorithm (program) must be used.Why is the surface reconstruction a difficult problem? Firstly the measured points are usually unorganized and often noisy;moreover the surface can be arbitrary, with unknown topological type and with sharp features. Therefore the reconstruction method must infer the correct geometry,topology and features just from a finite set of sample points.4.1 Classification of the reconstruction algorithms It is very complicated to classify all the reconstruction methods. The universe of algorithms is quite large but in this section we attempt to report them according to some categories, like 'used approach', 'type of data' or 'representation'. Some algorithms could belong to different groups, therefore we list them only once. In [Boissonat et al.,2002] the approaches for surface meshing of unorganized point clouds are organized in four categories, while an overview of the algorithms, updated to 1998, is also presented in [Mencl et al., 1998]Our first and very general classification is done according to the quality (type) of the input data :- Unorganized point clouds: algorithms working on unorganized data have no other information on the input data except their spatial position. They do not use any assumption on the object geometry and therefore, before generating a polygonal surface, they usually structure the points according to their coherence. They need a good distribution of the input data and if the points are not uniformly distributed they easily fail.- Structured point clouds: algorithms based on structured data can take into account additional information of the points (e.g. breaklines).A further distinction can be done according to their spatial subdivision :- Surface oriented algorithms do not distinguish between open and closed surfaces. Most of the available algorithms belong to this group [Hoppe et al., 1992, Mencl, 2001].- Volume oriented approaches work in particular with closed surfaces and generally are based on the Delaunay tetrahedrization of the given set of sample points [Boissonat,1984; Isselhard et al., 1997; Curless et al., 1996].Another classification is based on the type of representation of the surface:- Parametric representation: these methods represent the surface as a number of parametric surface patches, described by parametric equations. Multiple patches may then bepieced together to form a continuous surface. Examples of parametric representations include B-spline, Bezier curves, and Coons patches [Terzopulos, 1988].- Implicit representation: these methods try to find a smooth function that passes through all positions where the implicit function evaluates to some specified value (usually zero) [Gotsman et al., 1998].- Simplicial representation: in this representation the surface is a collection of simple entities including points, edges and triangles. This group includes Alpha shapes [Edelsbrunner et al., 1994] and the Crusts algorithm [Amenta et al., 1998]. Always according to the way of representation, approximated or interpolated surfaces can be generated:- Approximated surfaces do not always contain all the original points, but points as near as possible to them. They can use a distance function (shortest distance of a point in space from the generated surface) to estimate the correct mesh [Hoppe et al., 1992]. In this group we can also insert the warping–based surface reconstruction (they deform an initial surface so that it gives a good approximation of the given set of points) [Muraki, 1991] and the implicit surface fitting algorithms (they fit e.g. piecewise polynomial functions to the given set of points) [Moore et al., 1990].- Interpolated surfaces are instead used when precise models are requested: all the input data are used and a correct connection of them is necessary [Dey et al., 2001]. Finally, we can classify the reconstruction methods according to the different assumptions of the algorithm:- Algorithms assuming fixed topological type: they usually assume that the topological type of the surface is known a priori (e.g. plane, cylinder or sphere) [Brinkley, 1985; Hastie et al., 1989]- Algorithms exploiting structure or orientation information: many surface reconstruction algorithms exploit the structure of the data for the surface reconstruction. For example, in case of multiple scans, they can use the adjacency relationship of the data within each range image [Merrian, 1992]. Other reconstruction methods instead use knowledge of the orientation of the surface that is supplied with the data. For example, if the points are obtained from volumetric data, the gradient of these data can provide orientation information useful for the reconstruction [Miller et al., 1991].4.2From points to surfaceThe conversion of the measured data into a consistent polygonal surface is generally based on four steps:1.pre-processing: in this phase erroneous data are eliminatedor points are sampled to reduce the computation time (section 4.3);2.determination of the global topology of the object'ssurface: the neighbourhood relations between adjacent parts of the surface has to be derived. This operation typically needs some global sorting step and the consideration of possible 'constraints' (e.g. breaklines), mainly to preserve special features (like edges);3.generation of the polygonal surface: triangular (ortetrahedral) meshes are created satisfying certain quality requirements, e.g. limit on the meshes element size, no intersection of breaklines, etc. (section 4.4);4.post-processing: when the model is created, editingoperations are commonly applied to refine and perfect the polygonal surface (section 4.5).4.3Pre-processing operationsEditing operations on the measured points are very important before generating a triangular surface. The pre-processing operations usually are:- data sampling, based on the curvature of the points or uniformly apply. In case of scanner data, this step is mandatory in order to reduce the input redundancy (down-sampling) and to remove a certain amount of errors introduced because of to the scanning device limitations [Schreiber, 1993; Floater et al., 1998].- noise reduction and outliers rejection: statistical methods are applied taking into consideration the surface curvature and trying to preserve the measured features. In case of image matching results, wrong correspondences can be removed automatically [Fua et al., 1992; Borghese et al., 2000] or manually with visual inspection.- holes filling: gaps in the point clouds are closed adding (manually or automatically) new points and using the curvature and density of the surrounding points.4.4Triangulation or mesh generationIt is the core part of almost all reconstruction programs. See the book by [Edelsbrunner, 2001] for a good and recent introduction to the topic. A triangulation converts the given set of points into a consistent polygonal model (mesh). This operation partitions the input data into simplices and usually generates vertices, edges and faces (representing the analysed surface) that meet only at shared edges. Finite element methods are used to discretize the measured domain by dividing it into many small ‘elements’, typically triangles or quadrilaterals in two dimensions and tetrahedra in three dimensions. An optimal triangulation is defined measuring angles, edge lengths, height or area of the elements while the error of the finite element approximations is usually related to the minimum angle of the elements. The vertices of the triangulation can be exactly the input points or extra points, called Steiner points, which are inserted to create a more optimal mesh [Bern et al., 1992]. Triangulation can be performed in 2D or in 3D, according to the geometry of the input data.4.4.12D TriangulationThe input domain is a polygonal region of the plane and, as result, triangles that intersect only at shared edges and vertices are generated. A well known construction method is the Delaunay triangulation (DT) that simultaneously optimize several of the previous mentioned quality measures. [Fortune,1992].Figure 4: Voronoi diagram (left) and Delaunay triangulation (right) of the same set of points. In Voronoi, each region consists of the part of the plane nearest to that node. Connecting the nodes of the Voronoi cells that have common boundaries forms the Delaunay triangles.Delaunay criterion ensures that no vertex lies within the interior of any of the circumcircles of the triangles in the network. DT of a given set of point is the dual of the Voronoi diagram (also called the Thiessen or Dirichlet tessellation), as shown in Figure 4.4.4.1.1 2.5D TriangulationThe input data is a set of points P in a plane along with a real and unique elevation function f(x,y) at each point (x,y) ∈ P.A 2.5D triangulation creates a linear function F interpolating P and defined on the region bounded by the convex hull of P. For each point p in P, F(p) is the weighted average of the elevation of the vertices of the triangle that contains p. Usually Delaunay triangulation is used as interpolation function. According to the data structure, regularly or almost randomly distributed, the generated surface is called elevation grid or TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network) model.4.4.1.2 Surfaces for 3D modelsThe input data is always a set of point P in R3, but no more restricted on a plane; therefore the elevation function f(x,y) is no more unique. The input set is also called unorganized point cloud.4.4.23D TriangulationThe triangulation in 3D is called tetrahedralization or tetrahedrization. A tetrahedralization is a partition of the input domain into a collection of tetrahedra that meet only at shared faces (vertices, edges or triangles). Tetrahedralization results are much more complicated than a 2D triangulation. The types of input domains could be simple polyhedron (sphere), non-simple polyhedron (torus) or point clouds.4.5Post-processing operationsThe created polygons usually need some refinements to correct imperfections or errors in the surface. These operations (mainly manually) vary from single triangles editing to surface corrections:- edges correction: faces can be splitted (divided in two parts), moved to another location or contracted.- triangles insertion: holes can be filled constructing polygonal structures that respect the surrounding area; incomplete meshes can also be repaired with radial basis function [Carr et al., 2001] or with volumetric approach [Curless et al., 1996].- polygons editing: the number of polygons can be reduced, preserving the shape of the object or fixing the boundary points (other automatic operations, used in particular for compression of polygonal structures, are described in section 5.4). The polygonal model can also be improved adding new vertices and adjusting the coordinates of existing vertices. Moreover spikes can be removed with smooth functions.Figure 5: Smoothing of spikes, noise or bad polygons on a polygonal model [14].4.6Modeling softwareModeling software are packages that perform all the operations described in the precedent sections. Polygons are usually the ideal way to accurately represent the results of measurements, providing an optimal surface description. Therefore, with the improving of 3D measurement techniques (in particular 3D laser scanners), tools producing polygonal surfaces from point clouds (we called them ’reverse engineering software’) are becoming more and more necessary for accurate representations of organized or unorganized 3D data (Table 1).Paraforms3D Reshaper Geomagic Cyclone FarField Imageware Surfacer Polyworks Solid Works Rapidform Spatial Analyzer AutoCAD MicroStationTable 1: Commercial ’reverse engineering’ and CAD software for modeling applications.But at the same time, powerful 3D modeling and rendering packages (we call them ’computer animation software’), mainly spline-based, including tools for 3D object modeling (from pre-defined primitives like cubes, sphere, cones, etc.), lighting controls and texture mapping are increasing their popularity, expecially in the graphic community (Table 2). They generally do not allow importing 3D point clouds and their final goal is usually the animation of the created model. Softimage 3D Poser Extreme 3D3D ShockwaveEasymodel Amira Cinema 4D Animation Master Rhinoceros AC3D I-Sculpt Corel Dream 3D3D Studio Max Maya Lightwave Model Magic 3D Vue Bryce RenderMan World Builder Table 2: Some computer animation packages.There are also some packages and libraries, mostly developed in the universities, that are free (or shareware) on the Internet for public download and test, like Cocone (it allows importing point clouds) [9], Amapi [5], Blender [8], GLUT or GL Space [17], Imagine [20], VolPack (it imports data sampled on a 3D regular grid) [45]. They usually produce realistic results but are not suitable for very big data sets.All the computer animation software (Table 2) provides animation functions while, generally, ’reverse engineering’software cannot produce videos.More information concerning modeling software, discussion forums, books, 3D laser scanners and tutorials is available at [40, 44].5.VISUALIZATIONIn many applications like particle tracking, fog, clouds or water visualization and with large amount of points, the data can be visualized by just drawing all the samples [Reeves, 1983; Pfister et al., 2000]. However, for some objects (and not very dense point clouds) this technique does not give good results and does not provide realistic visualization. Moreover the visualization of a 3D model is often the only product of interest for the external world and remains the only possible contact with the model. Therefore a realistic and accurate visualization is often required.In the photogrammetric community, the first attempts in the visualization of 3D models were done at the beginning of the ’90. Small objects (e.g. architectural models, cars, human faces) were displayed in wireframe format [Gruen et al.,。

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Acknowledgement and admissionＳ色彩 color色彩的统一 unity of colour商业上获得成功 commercial success上位概念 generic term设备或方法的分类 classification of apparatus or processes设计构思相同 same designing concept设计人 creator设计要素 design element涉案专利 patent concerned涉及计算机程序的发明 inventions relating to computer programs涉及计算机程序的发明专利申请的审查 examination of invention applications relating to computer programs涉及生物材料的申请 application relating to biological material社会公德 social morality申请的驳回 rejection of application申请费 filing fee申请附加费 additional fee for filing application申请权转移 transfer of right to apply for patent申请人 applicant申请人的译名 translation of applicant’s name申请人国籍变更 change of applicant’s nationality申请人姓名或者名称变更 change of name or title of applicant申请人主动修改 amendment made by applicant on his own initiative申请日的更正 correction of date of filing申请手续 application formalities申请文件 application documents申请文件的补正 rectification of application documents申请文件的审查 examination of application documents申请文件的形式审查 formal examination of application documents审查的文本 text of examination审查基础声明 statement concerning basis for examination审查决定 examination decision审查决定被法院生效判决撤销后的审查程序 examination procedures after examination decision being overturned by effective court judgement审查决定的更正 correction of examination decision审查员依职权修改 amendment by examiner ex officio生物材料 biological material生物材料的保藏 deposit of biological material生物技术领域发明专利申请 patent application for invention in the field of biotechnology 实际解决的技术问题technical problems actually solved by invention实施例 embodiments实用新型 utility model实用新型创造性 inventive step of utility model实用新型内容 content of utility model实用新型新颖性 novelty of utility model实用新型专利的专利权评价报告 evaluation report of utility model patent实用新型专利公报 utility model patent gazette实用新型专利单行本 separate copy of utility model实用新型专利申请的初步审查 preliminary examination of patent application for utility model 实用性 practical applicability实质审查 substantive examination实质审查程序 procedure for substantive examination实质审查程序的终止、中止和恢复 termination, suspension and resumption of procedure for substantive examination 实质审查费 substantive examination fee实质审查请求 request for substantive examination使用公开 disclosure by use使用外观设计的产品名称 name of product incorporating design使用中文完成国际公布的国际申请 international application of which the international publication is in Chinese 使用状态参考图 reference view showing state in use适用文字 applicable language适于工业应用的新设计 new design fit for industrial application适于实用的新的技术方案 new technical solution fit for practical use视为撤回 deemed to be withdrawn视为撤回的更正 rectification to decisions of deemed withdrawl视为撤回在先申请的程序 procedure of earlier application deemed to be withdrawn 视为放弃取得专利权的权利 entitlement to patent deemed to have been abandoned 视为未提出 deemed not to have been submitted授予专利权的程序 procedure of grant of patent right授予专利权通知 notification to grant patent right收件人 addressee受理 acceptance受理的更正 correction of decisions on acceptance受理地点 location of acceptance受理条件 requirement for acceptance受理与不受理程序 procedures of acceptance and nonacceptance书面审查原则 principle of written examination书面形式 written form书写规则 rules of writing书证的真实性 authenticity of documentary evidence数值和数值范围 numerical value and numerical range说明书 description说明书的撰写 drafting of description说明书附图 drawings of description说明书和权利要求书 description and claims说明书和权利要求书的译文 translation of description and claims说明书清楚 clarity of description说明书完整 completeness of description说明书应当满足的要求 requirements to be complied with by description说明书摘要 abstract of description送达 delivery送达日 date of delivery所属技术领域的技术人员 persion skilled in the artＴ他人未经申请人同意而泄露其内容 disclosure made by any person without consent of applicant 特定技术特征 specific technical features提前公开声明 declaration requesting earlier publication天然物质 natural substance听证原则 principle of hearing通知和决定 notification and decision通知和决定的送达 delivery of notification and decision通知和决定的撰写 drafting of notification and decision通知书的答复 response to notification通知书的更正 rectification of notification同时出售 sold at the same time同时使用 used at the same time同样的发明创造 identical inventions-creations同样的发明或者实用新型 identical inventions or utility models同类独立权利要求的单一性 unity of independent claims in the same category同一类别的产品 product of the same class突出的实质性特点 prominent substantive features图案的统一 unity of pattern图片或者照片 drawings or photographs通知 notification退款 refund退件的处理 handling of returned documentsＷ外观设计 design外观设计不相近似 dissimilarity of designs外观设计分类 classification for design外观设计图片或者照片 drawings or photographs of design外观设计实质相同 substantially identical designs外观设计相同 identity of designs外观设计相同主题的认定 determination of same subject matters for designs外观设计优先权的核实 verification of priority of design外观设计专利单行本 separate copy of design patent外观设计专利公报 design patent gazette外观设计专利的专利权评价报告 evaluation report of design patent外观设计专利申请的初步审查 preliminary examination of patent application for design外国优先权 foreign priority外科手术方法 methods of surgery外文的翻译 translation of foreign language外文证据 evidence in foreign language完整 completeness微生物发明 inventin concerning microorganism微生物发明的审查 examination of invention concerning microorganism违背自然规律 violation of the laws of nature违反法律 contrary to the laws违反社会公德 contrary to social morality委托 appointment委托书 power of attorney文档 dossier文件份数 number of copies of document文字 language无积极效果 no positive effect无确定形状的产品 product without fixed shape无效宣告程序 invalidation procedure无效宣告程序的终止 termination of invalidaton procedure无效宣告程序中实用新型专利审查的若干规定 provisions concerning examination of utility models in invalidation procedure无效宣告程序中外观设计专利的审查 examination of design patent in the invalidation procedure 无效宣告程序中有关证据问题的规定 provisions concerning issues of evidence in invalidation procedure 无效宣告理由的增加 addition of causes for invalidation无效宣告请求案件审查状态通知书 notification of examination status of request for invalidation 无效宣告请求不予受理通知书 notification of nonacceptance of request for invalidation无效宣告请求客体 object of request for invalidation无效宣告请求的审查 examination of request for invalidation无效宣告请求范围以及理由和证据 scope, causes and evidence of request for invalidation无效宣告请求费 fee for request of invalidation无效宣告请求人 petitioner for invalidation无效宣告请求审查决定 examination decisions on request for invalidation无效宣告请求审查通知书 notification of examination on request for invalidation 无效宣告请求视为未提出通知书notification that request for invalidation deemed not to have been submitted无效宣告请求受理通知书 notification of acceptance of request for invalidation 无效宣告请求书 request for invalidation五人合议组 five-member panel物品的分类 classification of article物证的提交 presenting of physical evidence物质的医药用途 medical-use of substanceＸ显而易见 obvious显著的进步 notable progress现场调查 on-spot investigation现有技术 prior art现有设计 prior design现有设计的转用 transformation of the prior design现有设计的组合 combination of the prior designs相似外观设计 similar designs，similarity of designs相同内容的发明或者实用新型 invention or utility model with identical contents 相同主题的发明创造 invention-creation for the same subject matter相同主题的发明或者实用新型 invention or utility model for the same subject matter 相同主题的外观设计 design of same subject matter下位概念 specific term向外申请 application filed abroad销毁 destruction新颖性 novelty形式审查 formal examination形状 shape形状的统一 unity of shape性能、参数特征 feature of performance or parameters修改 amendment修改的方式 manner of amendment修改的要求 requirement of amendment修改文件译文的审查 examination of translation of amended documents选择发明 selection inventionsＹ延长期限请求 request for extension of time limit延长期限请求费 fee for requesting extension of time limit要解决的技术问题 technical problems to be solved要求优先权声明 declaration of claiming priority要素变更的发明 invention by changing elements要素关系改变的发明 invention by changing relations between elements要素省略的发明 invention by omitting elements要素替代的发明 invention by replacing elements页码 page number医生处方 medical prescription一般消费者 normal consumers一事不再理原则 principle of res judicata依职权审查原则 principle of conducting examinations ex officio遗传工程 genetic engineering遗传资源 genetic resource译文错误 mistakes in translation译文改正费Ⅲ.Ⅰ－7.3以说明书为依据 support in description以其他方式公开 disclosure by other means已有的技术 existing technology已知产品的新用途发明 invention of new use of known product引证文件 cited documents应用分类 classification according to application用结构和／或组成不能清楚表征的化学产品权利要求 claim of chemical product which cannot be clearly characterized by features of structure and/or composition用途发明 use invention用途权利要求 use claim用途特征 feature of use用途限定的产品权利要求 product claim defined by use用物理化学参数表征的化学产品chemical product characterized by physical/chemical parameters 用原子核变换方法获得的物质 substance obtained by means of nuclear transformation 用制备方法表征的化学产品 chemical product characterized by method of preparation 优先权 priority优先权的核实 verification of priority优先权要求的撤回 withdrawal of claim to priority优先权要求的恢复 restoration of claim to priority优先权要求费 fee for claiming priority邮寄 mailing有益效果 advantageous effects原始申请的译文、附图 translation and drawings of original application原始提交的国际申请文件的法律效力 legal effect of inter. appl. documents as originally filed 援引加入 incorporation by reference原子核变换方法 methods of nuclear transformation允许的修改 allowability of amendments预料不到的技术效果 unexpected technical effect域外证据 evidence formed abroadＺ暂存 temporary deposit在产业上能够制造或者使用的技术方案technical solution which can be made or used in industry 在后申请 subsequent application在后申请的申请人 applicant of subsequent application在先商标权 earlier trademark right在先申请 earlier application在先申请视为撤回 earlier application deemed to be withdrawn在先申请文件副本 copy of earlier application documents在先著作权 earlier copyright在中国完成的发明 invention completed in China再次审查意见通知书 further office action再现性 reproducibility摘要文字部分 text of abstract摘要附图 figure accompanying the abstract摘要译文 translation of abstract展览会 exhibition诊断方法 diagnostic methods整体分类 classification as whole整体观察、综合判断 whole observation and comprehensive judgement证据的调查收集 investigation and collection of evidence证据的审核认定 examination and verification of evidence证据的提交 presentation of evidence证明文件 certifying documents证人出庭作证 witness in testimony证人证言 testimony of witness证书 certificate纸件与电子申请的转换transformation between electronic application and written application 直接观察 direct observation直接送交 delivery by hand植物 plant植物品种 plant varieties指定期限 specified time limit制备方法特征 features of manufacturing process治疗方法 methods of treatment治疗目的的外科手术方法 methods of surgery for treatment purpose智力活动的规则和方法 rules and methods for mental activities滞纳金 surcharge质证Ⅳ.Ⅷ－4.1中国政府承认的国际展览会international exhibition recognized by the Chinese government中国政府主办的国际展览会international exhibition sponsored by the Chinese government中止 suspension中止程序请求费 fee for requesting suspension of procedure中止检索 termination终止 termination主动修改 Amendment made by applicant on his own initiative主要是生物学的方法 essentially biological process著录项目 bibliographic data著录项目变更 change in bibliographic data著录项目变更手续费 fee for change in bibliographic data著录项目变更证明文件 certifying documents for change in bibliographic data专利登记簿 patent registration brochure专利登记费 registration fee for grant of patent right专利分类 patent classification专利公报 patent gazette专利权的授予 grant of patent right专利权的终止 termination of patent right专利权评价报告 evaluation report of patent专利权评价报告请求费 fee for request of patent assessment report专利权评价报告请求书 request for evaluation report of patent专利权人国籍变更 change of nationality of patentee专利权人姓名或者名称变更 change of name or title of patentee专利权转移 transfer of patent right专利申请及专利单行本 separate copy of patent application and patent专利申请手续 patent application formalities专利申请文档 dossier of patent application专利申请文件 patent application documents专利性国际初步报告的使用 use of international preliminary report on patentability 专利证书 patent certificate转基因动物或植物 transgenic animal or plant转用发明 invention by diversion字体及规格 typeface and specification字体颜色 color of typeface总的发明构思 general inventive concept总委托书 general power of attorney组合发明 invention by combination组合库的分类 classification of combinational libraries组合物的分类 classification of compositions组合物权利要求 claim of composition组合物的新颖性 novelty of composition组件产品 combination product组装关系不唯一的组件产品 assembled product with more than one options of assembly 组装关系唯一的组件产品 assembled product with only one option of assembly最接近的现有技术 closest prior artForm of amendment II.VIII-5.2.4Formality fee for correction of mistakes in translationIII.I-8.3。

新视野大学英语第三版读写教程第四册:Unit4A 可持续性发展的环保主义Unit 4 Text A Achieving sustainable environmentalism 翻译, 原文Achieving sustainable environmentalism1 Environmental sensitivity is now as required an attitude in polite society as is sa y belief in democracy or disapproval of plastic surgery. But now that everyone from Ted Turner to George H. W. Bush has claimed love for Mother Earth how are we to choose among the dozens of conflicting proposals regulations and laws advanc ed by congressmen and constituents alike in the name of the environment? Clearly not everything with an environmental claim is worth doing. How do we segregate t he best options and consolidate our varying interests into a single sound policy?2 There is a simple way. First differentiate between environmental luxuries and env ironmental necessities. Luxuries are those things that would be nice to have if costl ess. Necessities are those things we must have regardless. Call this distinction the definitive rule of sane environmentalism which stipulates that combating ecological change that directly threatens the health and safety of people is an environmental necessity. All else is luxury.3 For example preserving the atmosphere stopping ozone depletion and the green house effect is an environmental necessity. Recently scientists reported that ozone damage is far worse than previously thought. Ozone depletion has a correlation n ot only with skin cancer and eye problems it also destroys the ocean's ecology the beginning of the food chain atop which we humans sit.4 The possible thermal consequences of the greenhouse effect are far deadlier: me lting ice caps flooded coastlines disrupted climate dry plains and ultimately empty b readbaskets. The American Midwest feeds people at all corners of the atlas. With t he planetary climate changes are we prepared to see Iowa take on New Mexico's desert climate or Siberia take on Iowa's moderate climate?5 Ozone depletion and the greenhouse effect are human disasters and they are ur gent because they directly threaten humanity and are not easily reversible. A sane environmentalism the only kind of environmentalism that will strike a chord with the general public begins by openly declaring that nature is here to serve human bein gs. A sane environmentalism is entirely a human focused regime: It calls upon hu manity to preserve nature but merely within the parameters of self-survival.6 Of course this human focus runs against the grain of a contemporary environme ntalism that indulges in overt earth worship. Some people even allege that the eart h is a living organism. This kind of environmentalism likes to consider itself spiritual. It is nothing more than sentimental. It takes for example a highly selective view of the kindness of nature one that is incompatible with the reality of natural disasters.My nature worship stops with the twister that came through Kansas or the dreadf ul rains in Bangladesh that eradicated whole villages and left millions homeless.7 A non-sentimental environmentalism is one founded on Protagoras's idea that "M an is the measure of all things." In establishing the sovereignty of man such a prin ciple helps us through the dense forest of environmental arguments. Take the curre nt debate raging over oil drilling in a corner of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). Environmentalist coalitions mobilizing against a legislative action working it s way through the US Congress for the legalization of such exploration propagate t hat Americans should be preserving and economizing energy instead of drilling for i t. This is a false either-or proposition. The US does need a sizable energy tax to r educe consumption. But it needs more production too. Government estimates indica te a nearly fifty-fifty chance that under the ANWR rests one of the five largest oil f ields ever discovered in America. It seems illogical that we are not finding safe wa ys to drill for oil in the ANWR.8 The US has just come through a war fought in part over oil. Energy dependence costs Americans not just dollars but lives. It is a bizarre sentimentalism that would deny oil that is peacefully attainable because it risks disrupting the birthing ground s of Arctic caribou.9 I like the caribou as much as the next person. And I would be rather sorry if th eir mating patterns were disturbed. But you can't have your cake and eat it too. A nd in the standoff of the welfare of caribou versus reducing an oil reliance that get s people killed in wars I choose people over caribou every time.10 I feel similarly about the spotted owl in Oregon. I am no enemy of the owl. If it could be preserved at a negligible cost I would agree that it should be biodiversi ty is after all necessary to the ecosystem. But we must remember that not every s pecies is needed to keep that diversity. Sometimes aesthetic aspects of life have t o be sacrificed to more fundamental ones. If the cost of preserving the spotted owl is the loss of livelihood for 30000 logging families I choose the families (with their saws and chopped timber) over the owl.11 The important distinction is between those environmental goods that are fundam ental and those that are not. Nature is our ward not our master. It is to be respec ted and even cultivated. But when humans have to choose between their own well-being and that of nature nature will have to accommodate.12 Humanity should accommodate only when its fate and that of nature are insepa rably bound up. The most urgent maneuver must be undertaken when the very int egrity of humanity's habitat e.g. the atmosphere or the essential geology that sustai ns the core of the earth is threatened. When the threat to humanity is lower in the hierarchy of necessity a more modest accommodation that balances economic against health concerns is in order. But in either case the principle is the same: prote ct the environment because it is humanity's environment.13 The sentimental environmentalists will call this saving nature with a totally wrong frame of mind. Exactly. A sane and intelligible environmentalism does it not for n ature's sake but for our own.实现可持续性发展的环保主义,1，在上流社会，对环境的敏感就如同信仰民主、反对整容一样，是一种不可或缺的态度。