Chapter 21 – Fungi

Dictionary of the Fungi Tenth EditionEdited by P.M. Kirk, P.F. Cannon, D.W. Minter and J.A. StalpersAdd to CartISBN13: 9780851998268ISBN10: 0851998267 hardback, 640 pagesNov 2008, Not Yet PublishedPrice:$140.00 (06)Shipping DetailsSee more from the seriesDescriptionThis is the one essential handbook for all who work with or are interested in fungi (including lichens, slime moulds, yeasts and fungal analogues).This new edition, with more than 21,000 entries, provides the most complete listing available of generic names of fungi, their families and orders, their attributes and descriptive terms. For each genus, the authority, the date of publication, status, systematic position, number of accepted species, distribution, and key references are given. Diagnoses of families and details of orders and higher categories are included for all groups of fungi. In addition, there are biographic notes, information on well-known metabolites and mycotoxins, and concise accounts of almost all pure and applied aspects of the subject (including citations of important literature).All information has been updated as necessary since the publication of the ninth edition in 2001. In addition, the tenth edition has the following new features:A completely new classification of the Kingdom Fungi based on recent multi-gene phylogenetics researchA major revision of the classification of the Basidiomycota and substantial modification of the"basal" groupsFurther integration of anamorphic and teleomorphic genera in the classificationEnhanced distinctions between the true fungi and unrelated groups traditionally studied by mycologistsImproved information on references to publicationsFeaturesFungal Families of the WorldReviews"The Dictionary of Fungi is surely one of the most indispensable of all mycological publications - every student of the fungi should own, or have access to, a copy of the most recent edition." -- Bryce Kendrick, Mycologist , Feb. 2003"This dictionary is an essential reference for all who work with fungi...Teachers and students of mycology, plant pathologists, ecologists, industrial biologists, and others interested in mycology will find this dictionary an interesting and useful reference." -- HortScienceProduct Details640 pages; 5-1/4 x 7-3/4; ISBN13: 978-0-85199-826-8ISBN10: 0-85199-826-7About the Author(s)Edited by P.M. Kirk, CABI, UK , P.F. Cannon, CABI, UK , D.W. Minter, CABI, UK , and J.A. Stalpers, Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, The Netherlands此片面有三本书，总计54美元/Field-Guide-Mushrooms-America-Peterson/dp/0395910900/ref=sr_1_8?i e=UTF8&s=books&qid=1231807715&sr=1-8MUSHROOM FEAST: A Celebration of all Edible Fungi, Cultivated, Wild and Dried, with Recipes by Jane Grigson (Hardcover - May 2008)$23.66Encyclopedia of Fungi: of Britain and Europe by Michael Jordan (Hardcover - Jul 8, 2006)Buy new: $70.00$51.10 5 Used & new from $43.25/s/qid=1231808625/ref=sr_pg_4?ie=UTF8&rs=1000&keywords=fungi&rh=i%3Astripbooks%2Ck%3Afungi&page=4Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms by Paul Stamets (Paperback - Dec 2000)Buy new: $45.00$29.70 47 Used & new from $27.84/s/qid=1231808861/ref=sr_pg_3?ie=UTF8&rs=1000&keywords=fungi&r h=i%3Astripbooks%2Ck%3Afungi&page=3Fungi: Folklore, Fiction, & Fact by W. P. K. Findlay (Paperback - Jan 1, 1982) 7 Used & new from $27.95值得一鉴。

Measuring equipment42 Measuring techniques43 Pressure drop calculations44 Circular ducts44 Rectangular ducts44 Chapter 4Micro-organisms45 Some milestones ofmicrobiological history45 Classification: Protista46 Biotechnology46 Bacteria47 Morphology of bacteria47 Shape of bacteria47 Size of bacteria47 Cell structure of bacteria47 Mobility of bacteria48 Spore formation and capsule formation48 Conditions for growth of bacteria48 Nutrients48Passage of matter through thecytoplasmic membrane49Temperature49Classificationby temperature preference50Moisture50Oxygen50Light51Osmotic pressure51pH – acidity/alkalinity51 Reproduction of bacteria51Rate of reproduction51Growth curve of bacteria51 Biochemical activity52 Breakdown of carbohydrates52 Breakdown of protein53 Breakdown of fat53 Breakdown of lecithin53 Pigment and colour production53 Mucus production54 Odour production54 Reducing power54 Disease production (T oxins)54 Enumeration of bacteria54 Identification and classification of bacteria55 Bacteria in milk55 Infection at the farm55 Bacteria count in milk55 Principal bacteria in milk56 Lactic acid bacteria56 Coliform bacteria57 Butyric acid bacteria57 Propionic acid bacteria58 Putrefaction bacteria58 Fungi59 Yeasts59 Reproduction of yeast59 Conditions for the growth of yeast60Nutrients60Moisture60Acidity60Temperature60Oxygen60 Classification of yeasts60 Importance of yeast60 Moulds61 Reproduction of moulds61 Metabolism of moulds61 External factors affectingthe growth of moulds61Moisture61Water activity (aw)61 Oxygen61Temperature61Acidity61 Importance of moulds in the dairy62 Penicillium62 Milk mould62 Bacteriophages62 Structure of bacteriophages62 Reproduction of phages63 Concluding notes63Chapter 5Collection and reception of milk65 Keeping the milk cool66 Design of farm dairy premises66 Delivery to the dairy66 Churn collection66 Bulk collection67 Testing milk for quality67 Taste and smell68 Cleaning checks68 Sediment tests68 Hygiene or Resazurin tests68 Somatic cell count68 Bacteria count68 Protein content68 Fat content68 Freezing point68 Milk reception69 Churn reception69 Tanker reception69Measuring by volume69Measuring by weight70 Tanker cleaning71 Chilling the incoming milk71 Raw milk storage71 Agitation in silo tanks71 Tank temperature indication71 Level indication71 Low-level protection72 Overflow protection72 Empty tank indication72Chapter 6Building-blocks of dairy processing73 Chapter 6.1Heat exchangers75 The purposes of heat treatment75 Time/temperature combination76 Limiting factors for heat treatment76Thermisation76LTLT pasteurisation77HTST pasteurisation77Milk77Cream and cultured products77Ultra pasteurisation77UHT treatment78Sterilisation78Preheating78Heat transfer processes in the dairy78Heating78Cooling78Regenerative heating and cooling79 Heat transfer theory79 Heat transfer principles79Direct heating79Indirect heating80 The heat exchanger80Dimensioning data for a heat exchanger80Product flow rate81Physical properties of the liquids81Temperature program81Temperature change81Logarithmic mean temperaturedifference (LMTD)82Countercurrent flow82Concurrent flow82Overall heat transfer coefficient82Permitted pressure drops82Viscosity83Shape and thickness of the partition83Material of the partition83Precence of fouling matter83Cleanability requirement84Running time requirement84Regeneration85 Holding85Calculation of holding time85 Different types of heat exchangers86 Plate heat exchangers86Flow patterns87 Tubular heat exchangers87Multi/mono channel87Multi/mono tube88 Scraped-surface heat exchanger88Chapter 6.2Centrifugal separatorsand milk fat standardisation91 Centrifugal separators91 Some historical data91 Sedimentation by gravity92 Requirements for sedimentation92 How does sedimentation work?92Density92Sedimentation and flotation velocity93Flotation velocity of a fat globule93 Batch separation by gravity94 Continuous separation by gravity94 Baffles increase the capacity94 Continuous separation of a solid phaseand two liquid phases95 Separation by centrifugal force95 Sedimentation velocity95 Flotation velocity of a fat globule96 Continuous centrifugal separation of solidparticles – Clarification96 Separation channels96 The limit particle97 Continuous centrifugal separation of milk97 Clarification97 Separation97 Skimming efficiency98 Fat content of cream98 Solids ejection99 Basic design of the centrifugal separator99 Semi-open design99Paring disc99 Hermetic design100 Control of the fat content in cream101 Paring disc separator101 Cream flow meter101 Hermetic separator101 Differences in outlet performance ofhermetic and paring-disc separators102 The discharge system102Production and CIP102Discharge103 Drive units103 Standardisation of fat content in milk and cream104 Principle calculation methods for mixing ofproducts104 Principle of standardisation104 Direct in-line standardisation105 Cream fat control system106 Cascade control106 Fat control by density measurement107 Flow transmitter107 Flow control valves for creamand skimmilk108 Control circuit for remixing of cream108 The complete direct standardisation line109 Some options for fat standardisation110 The Bactofuge110 Decanter centrifuges111 The function of the decanter centrifuge111 Solids discharge112 Liquid discharge (open)112Liquid discharge (pressurised)112 Continuous process112 Principal components112 The bowl112 The conveyor113 The gearbox113 Frame and vessel113 Chapter 6.3Homogenisers115 The technology behind disruption offat globules115 Process requirements115 Flow characteristics116 Homogenisation theories116 Single-stage and two-stagehomogenisation116 Effect of homogenisation116 The homogeniser117 The high-pressure pump117 The homogenisation device118 Homogenisation efficiency118 Analytical methods119Studies of creaming rate119Size distribution analysis119 Energy consumption and influence ontemperature120 The homogeniser in a processing line121 Full stream homogenisation121 Partial homogenisation121 Health aspects of homogenisedmilk products122 Chapter 6.4Membrane filters123 Definitions123 Membrane technology123 Principles of membrane separation125 Filtration modules126Plate and frame design126Tubular design – polymers126Tubular design – ceramic126Spiral-wound design127Hollow-fibre design128 Separation limits for membranes129 Material transport through the membrane129 Pressure conditions130 Principles of plant designs130 Batch production131 Continuous production131 Processing temperature in membranefiltration applications132 Chapter 6.5Evaporators133 Removal of water133 Evaporation133 Evaporator design133Circulation evaporators134 Falling film evaporators134Tubular type evaporator135Plate type evaporator135Multiple-effect evaporation136Thermocompression137Evaporation efficiency137Mechanical vapour compression138 Chapter 6.6Deaerators139 Air and gases in milk139 Further air admixture139 Air elimination at collection140 Milk reception140 Vacuum treatment140 Deaeration in the milk treatment line141 Chapter 6.7Pumps143 Pumping demands143 Suction line144 Delivery line144 Cavitation144 Pump chart144 Head (pressure)145 NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head)145 Shaft seals145 Single mechanical seal146 Flushed shaft seal146Material for shaft seals146 Centrifugal pumps146 Pumping principle146 Centrifugal pump applications147 Flow control147Throttling147Reducing impeller diameter147Speed control148Pumps for 60 Hz148 Head and pressure148Density148Viscosity149 Liquid-ring pumps149 Applications149 Positive displacement pumps149 Pumping principle149 Flow control150Pipe dimensions and lengths150 Lobe-rotor pumps150Applications150 Eccentric-screw pumps150 Piston pumps150 Diaphragm pumps151Working principle151 Peristaltic pumps (hose pumps)151Chapter 6.8Pipes, valves and fittings153 The pipe system153 Connections153 Special pipe fittings154Sampling devices154 Valves154 Mixproof valve systems154 Shut-off and change-over valves155 Seat valves155 Butterfly valves156Manual control156Automatic control156 Mixproof valves157 Position indication and control158 Position indication only158The ultimate control158 Check valves158 Control valves158 Valve systems160 Pipe supports160 Chapter 6.9Tanks161 Storage tanks161 Silo tanks161 Intermediate storage tanks162 Mixing tanks162 Process tanks162 Balance tank162 Chapter 6.10Process control165 Automation165 What is automation?165 Logic166 Why do we need automatic process control?166 What are the control tasks?167Digital control167Analog control168Monitoring168Management Information168 What decides the level of automation?169Role of the operator169Colour graphic VDU169Printer terminal169Local operator units169 How does the control system work?170 The programmable control system170 Demands on a control system171 Extending a control system171 Simple programming language171 Efficient electronic solutions171 Examples of control systems172 The small Programmable LogicController172 Decentralised process control172 Total integrated plant control173Chapter 6.11Service systems175 Prerequisites for dairy processing175 Water supply equipment175 Water treatment176 Piping system design177 Heat production177 Steam production178 Steam boilers178 Collecting the condensate179 Other equipment179 The steam piping system179 Refrigeration180 The principle of refrigeration180 How refrigeration works180 The evaporator181 The compressor182 The condenser182 Other equipment183 Production of compressed air183 Demands on compressed air183 The compressed-air installation184 Air drying184 Pipe system185 Electric power185 High voltage switchgear185 Power transformer186 Low voltage switchgear186 Generating set187 Motor control centres, MCC187 Chapter 7Designing a process line189 Process design considerations190 Some legal requirements190 Equipment required191 Choice of equipment191 Silo tanks191 Plate heat exchanger192 Hot water heating systems192 Temperature control193 Holding193 Pasteurisation control193 Pasteuriser cooling system193 Booster pump to prevent reinfection193 The complete pasteuriser194 Balance tank194 Feed pump194 Flow controller195 Regenerative preheating195 Pasteurisation195 Flow diversion195 Cooling195 Centrifugal clarifier196 Design of piping system196 Laminar and turbulent flows196 Flow resistance196 Pressure drop197 Process control equipment198Transmitters 198Controllers199The regulating device200Automatic temperature control 200Chapter 8Pasteurised milk products201Processing of pasteurised market milk 202Standardisation 204Pasteurisation 204Homogenisation204Determining homogenisation efficiency 205Quality maintenance of pasteurised milk 205Shelf life of pasteurised milk 206“ESL” milk207Production of cream 207Whipping cream207The whipping method208The whipping-cream production line 209The Scania method 209Half and coffee cream 211Packaging213Chapter 9Long life milk215Raw material quality 216Sterilising efficiency 216Logarithmic reduction of spores 216Q 10 value 217F 0 value 218B * and C *values 218“The fastest particle”218Commercial sterility 218Chemical and bacteriological changes at high heat treatment 219Shelf life 220Nutritional aspects 220Production of long life milk 221In-container sterilisation 221Batch processing 221Continuous processing 222Hydrostatic vertical steriliser 222Horizontal steriliser 222UHT treatment 223The UHT processes 223Development of UHT 223UHT plants 224Various UHT systems 224General UHT operating phases 224Pre-sterilisation 224Production 225Aseptic intermediate cleaning 225CIP 225Direct UHT plant based on steam injection and plate heat exchanger 225Direct UHT plant based on steam injection and tubular heat exchanger 226Direct UHT plant based on steam infusion 227Indirect UHT plant based onplate heat exchangers 227Split heating228Indirect UHT plant based on tubular heat exchangers228Indirect UHT plant based on scraped surface heat exchangers 229Aseptic tank230Aseptic packaging 231UHT pilot plants231Chapter 10Cultures and starter manufacture233Stages of propagation 235Process technology 236Stages in the process236Heat treatment of the medium 237Cooling to inoculation temperature 237Inoculation 237Incubation237Cooling the culture 238Preservation of starters239Manufacture of cultures under aseptic conditions 239Bulk starter tanks240Chapter 11Cultured milk products241A legend242General requirements for cultured milk production 242Yoghurt243Flavoured yoghurt243Factors affecting the quality of yoghurt 244Choice of milk244Milk standardisation 244Fat244Dry matter (DM) content 244Milk additives245Sugar or sweetener 245Stabilisers 245Deaeration245Homogenisation 246Heat treatment 246Choice of culture 246Culture preparation 246Plant design 247Production lines 247Evaporation 247Homogenisation 248Pasteurisation 248Cooling the milk248Design of the yoghurt plant 249Stirred yoghurt249Cooling the coagulum 250Flavouring 250Packing 251Plant design 251Set yoghurt251Flavouring/Packaging251An alternative production system252 Flavouring/Packing252 Incubation and cooling253Incubation253Cooling253 Drinking yoghurt254 Long-life yoghurt254 Production under aseptic conditions254“Clean Room” production conditions255Heat treatment of yoghurt255 Frozen yoghurt255 Production of yoghurt mix256Hard-frozen yoghurt257Distribution257 Concentrated yoghurt257 Kefir257 Raw materials258 Production of starter culture258 Production of kefir258Fat standardisation259Homogenisation259Heat treatment259Inoculation259Incubation259The acidulation stage259The ripening stage259Cooling259 Alternative kefir production259 Cultured cream260 Production260Homogenisation260Heat treatment260Inoculation and packing260 Buttermilk261 Fermented buttermilk261 Recent developments in cultured milk products261 Chapter 12Butter and dairy spreads263 Definitions264 Butter265 Sweet and cultured (sour) cream butter266 Buttermaking266The raw material268Pasteurisation268Vacuum deaeration269 Bacterial souring269Culture preparation269Souring of the cream270 Temperature treatment270Butterfat crystallisation270Treatment of hard fat271Treatment of medium-hard fat272Treatment of very soft fat272 Churning272 Batch production272Butter formation272Churning recovery273Working273Vacuum working273 Continuous production273The manufacturing process273 New trends and possibilities foryellow fat products275 Bregott275 Lätt & Lagom275 The TetraBlend process275 The process line276 Packaging277 Cold storage277 Experimental buttermaking methods277 Chapter 13Anhydrous Milk Fat (AMF) (Butteroil)279 AMF characteristics280 Production of AMF281 Principles of production281 Manufacture of AMF from cream281 Manufacture of AMF from butter282 AMF refining283Polishing284Neutralisation284Fractionation284Decholesterolisation285 Packaging285 Chapter 14Cheese287 Tradition and basic knowledge287 T erminology for classification of cheese288 Definitions288 Classification of cheese288 Cheese production – general procedures forhard and semi-hard cheese289 Milk treatment prior to cheesemaking290 Milk collection291 Heat treatment andmechanical reduction of bacteria291 Thermisation291 Pasteurisation292 Mechanical reduction of bacteria293Bactofugation293Process alternatives293Microfiltration295 Standardisation296 Additives in cheesemilk296Starter296Disturbances in cultures297Calcium chloride (CaCl2)297 Carbon dioxide (CO2)297 Saltpetre (NaNO3or KNO3)298 Colouring agents298Rennet298Substitutes for animal rennet299Other enzymatic systems299 Cheesemaking modes299 Curd production299 Milk treatment299 Starter addition300 Additives and renneting300Cutting the coagulum301 Pre-stirring301 Pre-drainage of whey302 Heating/cooking/scalding302 Final stirring303 Final removal of whey andprinciples of curd handling303 Cheese with granular texture303 Round-eyed cheese303 Pre-pressing vats304 Continuous pre-pressing system304 Closed texture cheese305 Mechanised cheddaring machine306 Final treatment of curd307 Pressing307 Trolley table pressing307 Autofeed tunnel press307 Conveyor press308 The Block Former system308 Cooking and stretching ofPasta Filata types of cheese308 Moulding309 Salting309 Salting modes309Dry salting309Brine salting310Shallow or surface brining310Deep brining311Rack brining system311Some notes about the preparation of brine312Salt penetration in cheese312Brine treatment313 Ripening and storage of cheese314 Ripening (curing)314The lactose decomposition314The protein decomposition314 Storage315 Storage conditions315 Methods of air conditioning316 Storage layout and space requirements316 Processing lines for hard and semi-hard cheese317 Hard types of cheese317 Processing line for Emmenthal cheese317 Processing line for Cheddar cheese318 Semi-hard types of cheese318 Processing line for Gouda cheese318 Processing line for Tilsiter cheese319 Processing line for Mozzarella cheese320 Semi-hard, semi-soft and soft types of cheese321 Semi-hard and semi-soft cheese321 Blue veined cheese321 Semi-soft/soft cheese323 Camembert cheese323 Soft cheese323 Cottage cheese323 Quarg325 Ultrafiltration (UF) in cheese manufacture326 Cheesemaking using UF andcurdmaking machine327 New trends328 Processed cheese328 Manufacture328Chapter 15Whey processing331 Different whey processes333 Casein fines recovery and fat separation333Cooling and pasteurisation334 Concentration of total solids334Concentration334Drying334 Fractionation of total solids335Protein recovery335Protein recovery by UF335Defattening of whey proteinconcentrate (WPC)337 Recovery of denatured whey protein338Chromatographic isolation oflactoperoxidase and lactoferrin339Lactose recovery339Crystallisation340Lactose separation340Drying340Refining of lactose341Demineralisation (Desalination)341Principles of demineralisation341Partial demineralisation by NF341High degree demineralisation342Electrodialysis342Operating principle343Power supply and automation344Limiting factors in electrodialysis344lon exchange344lon exchange resin characteristics346Ion exchange processes fordemineralisation346Conventional ion exchange fordemineralisation347Process limitations348An alternative ion exchange process348Process limitations and costs349Lactose conversion350Lactose hydrolysis350Enzymatic hydrolysis350Acid hydrolysis351Chemical reaction351Lactosyl urea351Ammonium lactate351 Chapter 16Condensed milk353 Outline of condensed milk354 Raw material for condensed milk354 Bacteriological quality of the raw material355 Thermal stability of the raw material355 Pretreatment355 Standardisation355 Heat treatment355 Unsweetened condensed milk355 Evaporation355 Homogenisation356 Cooling and sample sterilisation356 Canning356 Sterilisation356UHT treatment357 Storage and inspection357 Sweetened condensed milk (SCM)357 Evaporation358 Cooling and crystallisation358 Packing and inspection359 Chapter 17Milk powder361 Drying362 Various uses of milk powder362 Skimmilk powder363 Whole milk powder363 Instant-milk powder364 Bulk density364 Definition364 Factors influencing bulk density364 Powder material density364 Occluded air content364 Interstitial air365 Production of milk powder365 Raw material365 General pre-treatment of the milk365 Roller or drum drying366 Spray drying366 Basic drying installations366 Single-stage drying366 Two-stage drying367 Three-stage drying367 Operating principle of spray drying367 Single-stage drying367 Milk atomising368 Two-stage drying368 Three-stage drying369 Production of instant powder371 Fluid-bed drying371 Heat recovery372 Packing milk powder372 Changes in milk powder during storage373 Dissolving milk powder373 Chapter 18Recombined milk products375 Definitions376 Raw material handling376 Milk powder376 Fats and oils377 Water378 Additives378 Dissolving of milk powder378 Wettability378 Ability to sink378 Dispersability378 Solubility379 Recombination temperature and hydration time379 Fat addition and emulsification379 Air content379 Powder handling380 Design of recombination plants380 Deaeration380Heat treatment380 Plant with fat supply to mixing tanks381 Small-scale production381 Large-scale production381 Plant with in-line fat mixing382 Large-scale production382 Milk handling383 Packing383 Storage383 Distribution384 Chapter 19Ice cream385 Categories of ice cream386 The ice cream process386 Reception and storage of raw materials386 Formulation387 Ingredients388 Fat388 Milk solids-non-fat (MSNF)388 Sugar388 Emulsifiers389 Stabilisers389 Flavouring389 Colouring389 Weighing, measuring and mixing389 Homogenisation and pasteurisation390 Ageing390 Continuous freezing390 Packing, extrusion and moulding390 Packing in cups, cones and containers390 Extrusion of sticks and stickless products391 Moulding of bars391 Hardening and cold storage392 Wrapping and packaging392 Examples of production plants392 Chapter 20Casein395 Types of casein396 Influence of raw material396 Rennet casein396 Batch washing396 Continuous washing397 Acid casein397 Biological acidification – lactic acid casein397 Mineral acidification – acid casein398 Co-precipitate398 Caseinate399 Sodium caseinate399 Calcium caseinate399 Other caseinates400 Extruded sodium caseinate400 Uses of caseins and caseinates400 Rennet casein400 Acid casein401 Sodium caseinate401 Calcium caseinate402 Calcium co-precipitate402Chapter 21Cleaning of dairy equipment403 Aspects of cleaning403 Trade obligations404 Moral obligation404 Legal obligation404 Cleaning objectives404 Dirt404 Heated surfaces404 Cold surfaces405 Cleaning procedures405 Recovery of product residues405 Prerinsing with water406 Cleaning with detergent406 Detergent concentration406 Detergent temperature406 Mechanical cleaning effect407 Duration of cleaning407 Rinsing with clean water407 Disinfection407 Cleaning-in-place systems408 CIP circuits408 Compatible materials and system design408 CIP programs409 Design of CIP systems409 Centralised CIP410 Decentralised CIP411 Verifying the cleaning effect412 Chapter 21Dairy effluents415 Organic pollutants416 Biological oxygen demand (BOD)416 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)416 Calcining loss416 Total organic carbon (TOC)416 Inorganic pollutants417 Dairy waste water417 Cooling water417 Sanitary waste water417 Industrial waste water417 pH of dairy effluent418 Reducing the quantity of pollutants in waste water418 General milk treatment418 Cheese production area419 Butter production area419 Milk powder production area419 Milk packaging area419 Outlet control419 Sewage treatment, a general survey420 Mechanical treatment421 Chemical treatment421 Biological treatment422 Sludge treatment422 Literature425 Index427。

小学下册英语第二单元期中试卷英语试题一、综合题(本题有100小题，每小题1分，共100分.每小题不选、错误，均不给分)1.What is the largest land animal?A. LionB. ElephantC. HippopotamusD. Rhino2.The ________ (植物群落) is diverse.3.I dream of becoming a ______ (医生) one day. I want to help people and make them feel ______ (健康).4.The Pleiades is a famous star ______.5.In a chemical reaction, the substances formed are called _____ (products).6. A _______ (蜥蜴) can change its color to blend in.7.What do we call a baby sheep?A. CalfB. KidC. LambD. FoalC8.I have a _____ dog. (big/small/fast)9.What do we call a place where animals are kept for public display?A. FarmB. ZooC. ParkD. GardenB10.She is a _____ (记者) who reports on local news.11.Plants absorb sunlight to perform _______. (光合作用)12.I enjoy ______ (参加) cultural events.13.In summer, I play with my ________ (玩具名) outside. It’s so much ________ (形容词) than being indoors!14. A __________ is a geological feature formed by the action of waves.15.I like to play ______ (拼图) with my family during weekends.16.The ________ is a popular pet for kids.17.Hedgehogs curl into a ________________ (球) when scared.18.What is the term for a baby chicken?A. PuppyB. KittenC. ChickD. Calf19.What do we call the process of planting and growing crops?A. FarmingB. HarvestingC. GardeningD. CultivatingA20.The chemical process that occurs in our bodies to release energy is called ______.21.I built a fort using my ________ (玩具名称).22.The ________ sits on the windowsill.23.What do you call a person who teaches students?A. DoctorB. TeacherC. EngineerD. Chef24.What color is a typical pumpkin?A. BlueB. GreenC. OrangeD. Yellow25.The kids are ___ in the snow. (playing)26.marsh) is a wetland area with grass and water. The ____27.We can hear the ___ of the birds. (song)28.The __________ is a region known for its architectural styles.29.I like to ______ my toys. (organize)30.My _____ (小鼠) runs on its wheel.31.What do you call the shape of a football?A. CubeB. SphereC. OvalD. Triangle32.My sister is a __________ (模特儿).33.What do we call a young bear?A. CubB. KidC. PupD. Calf34.What is the opposite of ‘sweet’?A. SourB. BitterC. SpicyD. Salty35. A ______ (生物圈) includes all living things and their environments.36.The ________ (frog) jumps into the pond.37.The ________ was a crucial chapter in the narrative of national unity.38.My uncle is a skilled ____ (artist).39.My friend is a talented __________ (艺术家) with a unique style.40.The bus is ________ (到达).41.My cousin, ______ (我的表姐), is a talented musician.42.The chemical formula for table sugar is ________.43.We should _____ (保护) endangered plant species.44.The __________ (气象学家) studies weather patterns.45.Empire was located in ______ (南美洲). The Inca46.Which of these is a winter sport?A. BasketballB. SnowboardingC. SoccerD. TennisB47.What is the capital of Jordan?A. AmmanB. AqabaC. IrbidD. Zarqa48.The ______ is a source of inspiration for many.49.Constellations have been used for navigation since _______ times.50.My dad is a __________ (机械工程师).51.Where do fish live?A. TreesB. WaterC. LandD. SkyB52. A mouse is a common ______ (宠物).53.The capital of Zimbabwe is ________ (哈拉雷).54.My _____ (朋友) is coming over.55.The grass is ___. (growing)56.What is the capital of Togo?A. LoméB. SokodéC. KaraD. AtakpaméA57.The ancient Egyptians utilized ________ for artistic expressions.58.The _____ (蜜蜂) is essential for pollinating flowers.59.What do we call the practice of keeping bees?A. BeekeepingB. ApiaryC. Honey farmingD. Pollination60.The _______ of an object can be changed by applying force.61.What do you call a young owl?A. OwletB. ChickC. FawnD. KitA62.We should protect our _____ (自然) environment.63.I have a _____ of crayons in my backpack. (box)64. A ______ is a creature that can regenerate its limbs.65.What do we call a scientist who studies fungi?A. MycologistB. BotanistC. ZoologistD. Microbiologist66.The __________ is known for its wildlife and national parks.67.The _____ (camera) takes great pictures.68.I want to learn how to ________ (骑自行车) without training wheels.69.What is the name of the famous ancient city in Mexico?A. Chichen ItzaB. TulumC. TeotihuacanD. All of the above70. A ________ can sometimes be very funny.71.I love _____ (planting) flowers in the spring.72.The ancient Egyptians invented _______ for writing. (象形文字)73.Which animal can fly?A. FishB. DogC. BirdD. CatC74.The nurse, ______ (护士), takes care of patients.75.The _______ (蛇) can be colorful.76.The chemical formula for lead(II) nitrate is _____.77.What is the name of the beverage made from brewed leaves?A. CoffeeB. TeaC. JuiceD. SodaB78.The ________ can change colors.79.What is the name of the famous playwright from England?A. Charles DickensB. Mark TwainC. William ShakespeareD. Ernest HemingwayC80.Gardening can offer a sense of community and ______ among participants. (园艺可以在参与者之间提供社区感和团结感。

IntroductionMicrobes are a diverse group of organisms that can be divided into the viruses, unicellular groups (Archaea, Eubacteria, protista, some fungi and some chlorophyta) and a small number of organisms with a simple multicellular structure (the large fungi and chlorophyta).Microbiology: the science (logos) of small (micro) life (bios). The study of living things so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye.The three-domain system is a biological classification introduced by Carl Woese that divides cellular life forms into archaea, bacteria, and eukaryote domains. In particular, it emphasizes the separation of prokaryotes into two groups, originally called Eubacteria(now Bacteria) and Archaebacteria (now Archaea).Microorganisms were first visualized by Antoni van Leeuwenhoek(1632–1723), a Dutch cloth merchant and an expert lens grinder.The first proof of the involvement of bacteria in disease and the definitive proof of the germ theory of disease came from the German Robert Koch.Koc h’s postulates:1, The microorganism must be present in every instance of the disease and absent from healthy individuals.2, The microorganism must be capable of being isolated and grown in pure culture.3 ,When the microorganism is inoculated into a healthy host, the same disease condition must result.4, The same microorganism must be re-isolated from the experimentally infected host. Chapter oneFungi include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms.Viruses are noncellular organisms; they are intra-cellular parasites of animals, plants, or bacteria. 1, The Prokaryotes can be divided into two kingdoms, Bacteria and Archaea. The classification was first proposed by Woese based on the differences in 16S rRNA sequence.2, Prokaryotic microorganism〔原核微生物〕: It is an single-celled organism which doesn’t have a nuclear membrane outside the cell nucleus and only has the bare DNA called as the nuclear area. 3, Many bacteria are shaped like long rods twisted into spirals or helices; they are called spirilla 〔螺旋菌〕if rigid and spirochetes (螺旋体) when flexible.4, Capsules (荚膜) and slime layers (粘液层) usually are composed of polysaccharides (多糖), but they may be constructed of other materials.5, Gram staining procedure(革兰氏染色的步调)In the first step of the Gram-staining procedure, the smear is stained with the basic dye crystal violet, the primary stain. It is followed by treatment with an iodine solution functioning as a mordant. That is, the iodine increases the interaction between the cell and the dye so that the cell is stained more strongly. The smear is next decolorized by washing with ethanol or acetone. This step generates the differential aspect of the Gram stain; gram-positive bacteria retain the crystal violet, whereas gram-negative bacteria lose their crystal violet and become colorless. Finally, the smear is counterstained with a simple, basic dye different in color from crystal violet. Safranin, the most common counterstain, colors gram-negative bacteria pink to red and leaves gram-positive bacteria dark purple.6, The Mechanism of Gram Staining 〔革兰氏染色的机制〕Although several explanations have been given for the Gramstain reaction results, it seems likelythat the difference between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria is due to the physical nature of their cell walls. If the cell wall is removed from grampositive bacteria, they become gram negative. The peptidoglycan itself is not stained; instead it seems to act as a permeability barrier preventing loss of crystal violet. During the procedure the bacteria are first stained with crystal violet and next treated with iodine to promote dye retention. When gram-positive bacteria then are decolorized with ethanol, the alcohol is thought to shrink the pores of the thick peptidoglycan. Thus the dye-iodine complex is retained during the short decolorization step and the bacteria remain purple. In contrast, gram-negative peptidoglycan is very thin, not as highly cross-linked, and has larger pores. Alcohol treatment also may extract enough lipid from the gramnegative wall to increase its porosity further. For these reasons, alcohol more readily removes the purple crystal violet-iodine complex from gram-negative bacteria.简而言之，不同细菌的染色差别〔G+或G-〕是由于细胞壁化学成分的差别而引起了物理特性〔脱色能力〕的不同。

Brock Biology of MicroorganismsBilingual Glossary（For Internal Circulation Only）微生物学术语双语（中英文）对照北京林业大学生物科学与技术学院微生物教研室谢响明生物秀－专心做生物ｗｗｗ．ｂｂｉｏｏ．ｃｏｍ2007年6月10日Catalogue目录Chapter1 Microorganisms and MicrobiologyChapter 2 An Overview of Microbial LifeChapter 3 MacromoleculesChapter 4 Cell Structure/FunctionChapter5 Nutrition, Laboratory Culture, and Metabolism of MicroorganismsChapter 6 Microbial GrowthChapter 7 Principles of Microbial Molecular Biology Chapter 8 Regulation of Gene ExpressionChapter 9 Essentials of VirologyChapter 10 Bacterial GeneticsChapter 11 Microbial Evolution and Systematics Chapter 15 Microbial GenomicsChapter 18 Methods in Microbial EcologyChapter 19 Microbial Habitats, Nutrients Cycles Chapter 20 Microbial Growth ControlBilingual Glossary for MicrobiologyChapter 1Landmark：里程碑Ramifications：分支non-cellular life ：非细胞生命prion：朊病毒microbial diversity and evolution：微生物的多样性和进化pathogens：病原体genetic engineering：基因工程entity：实体macromolecules：大分子Reproduction：繁殖Differentiation：分化Communication：信息沟通coding devices：编码机制attributes：特征，品质coordination.：协调regulation：调节optimally attuned to最适地调和populations：种群habitat.：生境assemblages：集合体microbial communities：微生物群落biofilms：生物被膜hot springs：温泉Aquatic：水生的Terrestrial：陆生的Prokaryotic cells：原核细胞ecosystem ：生态系统biomass：生物量nitrogen：氮phosphorus：磷Bubonic Plague：鼠疫Fleas：跳蚤Mortality：死亡率Grotesque：奇异Liquefy：液化Influenza and pneumonia：流感和肺炎Tuberculosis：肺结核spontaneous generation：自然发生学说microbes：微生物Broth：肉汤Flask：烧瓶Guncotton filters：棉花滤器Dissolved：溶解的Ether：醚Particles：微粒flask with swan neck：曲颈瓶sterilization：灭菌vaccines：疫苗anthrax：炭疽热fowl cholera：禽流感rabies：狂犬病Germ theory：病菌说Koch’s postulates：科赫假设(法则) contagious diseases：传染病artificially infected animals：人工感染的动物Solid medium：固体培养基Gelatin：明胶Agar：琼脂Colony formation：菌落形成Differential staining：鉴别染色Pure culture：纯培养isolation：分离, 隔离inoculation：接种Tuberculin：结核菌素Diagnosis：诊断Subdisciplines：（学科的）分支enrichment culture：富集培养aerobic：需氧的N-fixing bacteria：固氮细菌sulfate-reducing：硫酸盐还原sulfur-oxidizing bacteria：硫氧化细菌root nodule：根瘤Lactobacillus：乳酸杆菌tobacco mosaic virus：烟草花叶病毒tenets：原则virology：病毒学nitrifying bacteria：硝化细菌nitrification：硝化作用oxidation of ammonia to nitrate：从氨氧化为硝酸盐hydrogen sulfide：硫化氰chemolithotrophy：无机化能营养型autotrophs：自养生物anaerobe ：厌氧生物Clostridium pasteurianum：巴斯德羧菌属Medical microbiology and immunology：医学微生物学和免疫学Aquatic microbiology：水生微生物学Microbial ecology：微生物生态学Microbial systematic：微生物的系统学Microbial physiology：微生物生理学Cytology ：细胞学Bacterial genetics：细菌遗传学Chapter 2Evolutionary History：进化史Elements：原理，基础Viral Structure：病毒结构The Tree of Life：生命树Physiological：生理学的Eukaryotic：真核的Cytoplasmic (cell)membrane：细胞质膜Cytoplasm：细胞质Macromolecules：大分子Ribosome：核糖体organic molecules：有机分子inorganic ions：无机离子rod-shaped prokaryote：杆状原核生物organelles：细胞器Archaea：古生菌Nucleus：细胞核（nuclear的复数）Mitochondrion（Mitochondrion复数）线粒体Chloroplast：叶绿体Metazoans：后生生物Cytoplasmic：细胞质的Membrane：膜，隔膜Endoplasmic reticulum：内质网Nucleoid：类核，拟核Nucleolus：核仁Nuclear：核的，细胞核Static：静态的metabolic abilities：代谢能力biosynthetic：生物合成genetic alterations：遗传改造Genomes：基因组Chromosome：染色体Circular：环状copy：拷贝haploid：单倍体extrachromosomal：染色体外的plasmids：质粒conferring：赋予properties：性质，特性Packaged ：包裹的Yeast：酵母Folding：折叠的Packing：包装gene expression：基因表达diploid：二倍体cell division：细胞分裂mitosis：有丝分裂mitotic division：有丝分裂a full complement of genes：一整套基因meiosis：减数分裂gametes：配子sexual reproduction：有性繁殖Fusion：融合Zygote：接合子，受精卵Sequenced：测序的Phylogeny：系统发生Phylogenetically：系统发生地deduced from 从推论出comparative sequencing：比较测序Ribosomal RNA：核糖体RNAbarometers ：气压计clinic：临床microbiology：微生物学identical copies：相同的拷贝polymerase chain reaction (PCR)：聚合酶链式反应aligned ：排列的algorithm：运算法则pair-wise comparisons：配对比较Domains：域Lineages：血统，世系Proteobacteria：蛋白细菌Cyanobacteria：蓝细菌Hyperthermophiles：极端嗜热菌Methanogens：产甲烷菌extreme halophiles：极端嗜盐菌slime molds：黏菌flagellates：鞭毛虫giardia：双滴虫（贾弟虫属）Eukarya (eukaryotes)：真核生物Morphology：形态学Motility：运动性Mechanism：机制Developmental biology：发育生物学Adaptation：适应environmental extremes：极端环境Organic chemicals：有机化合物Inorganic chemicals：无机化合物Oxidizing：氧化Conserved：保存，保留high-energy compound：高能量化合物Aerobes：需氧生物Anaerobes：厌氧生物Chemoorganotrophs：化能有机营养生物Chemolithotrophs：化能无机营养生物Phototrophic：光和营养的Pigments：色素major nutrient：主要营养Heterotrophic：异养的Autotrophic：自养的Autotrophs；自养生物primary producers：初级生产者extreme environmental habitats：极端环境生境extremophiles：极端环境微生物，嗜极菌hot spring：温泉tolerant ：忍耐的pathogenic：致病的Phylum：门Aquifex：产液菌属Thermotoga：栖热孢菌属green nonsulfur bacteria：绿色非硫细菌deinococcus：异常球菌属spirochetes：螺旋体green sulfur bacteria紫硫细菌planctomyces：浮霉状菌属phylogenetic：系统发生的depicted：描述的marine：海洋halobacterium：盐杆菌属natronobacterium：嗜盐碱杆菌属halophilic methanogens：嗜盐产烷生物methanosarcina：甲烷八叠球菌属thermoplasma：热源体属methanobacterium：甲烷杆菌属methanococcus：甲烷球菌属pyrococcus：火球菌属pyrolobus：热叶菌属methanopyrus：嗜热甲烷菌属thermoproteus：热变形菌属desulfurococcus：硫还原球菌属sulfolobus：硫化叶菌属hyperthermophiles：嗜热细菌halophiles：嗜盐菌acidophiles：嗜酸菌filamentous：丝状的Protozoans：原生动物Motile：运动的Lichens：地衣Diplomonads：双滴虫Trichomonads：毛滴虫，微孢子虫Flagellates：鞭毛虫Ciliates：纤毛虫Green algae：绿藻Red algae：红藻Fungi：真菌Diatoms：硅藻属Brown algae：褐藻Apex：顶点Chapter 4Locomotion:运动、行动Inclusions：内含物、包涵物Light Microscopy：光学显微镜Bright-field：明视野Phase contrast：相差Dark-field：暗视野Fluorescence：荧光Magnification：放大率Resolution：分辨率Staining：染色Increasing Contrast for Bright-Field Microscopy：提高明视野显微镜的对比效果positively charged (cationic)：带正电的（阳离子，正离子）negatively charged：带负电的polysaccharide：多糖cationic dyes：阳离子染料Methylene blue：亚甲蓝Crystal violet：结晶紫Safranin：番红Differential stains-Gram stain：鉴别染色—格兰氏染色Gram-positive：格兰氏阳性Gram-negative：格兰氏阴性ethanol decolorizing：乙醇脱色refractive index：折射率specimen：样品scatter：分散，散射chlorophyll (autofluorescence)：叶绿素（自身荧光）Three-Dimensional Imaging：三维成像Drawbacks：限制，缺点Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy (DIC)：相差干涉显微镜Nucleus：核Eukaryotic cells：真核细胞Spores：孢子、芽孢Vacuole：液泡Granule：颗粒internal structure：内部结构Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)：原子力显微镜Fixatives:固定剂Coatings：膜、层、覆盖物Hydrated：水合物Confocal Scanning Laser Microscopy (CSLM)：聚焦扫描激光显微镜Couples：连接，伴随Habitat：生境resolving power：分辨率vacuum：真空Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)：透射电子显微镜thin sectioning, 超薄切片EM staining：电子显微镜染色Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)：扫描电子显微镜external features：外部特征prokaryote：原核生物Coccus (cocci)：球菌Rod：杆菌Spirilla：螺菌Spirochetes：螺旋体Appendaged bacteria：附属细菌Filamentous bacteria：丝状细菌in general inversely proportional to cell size：从大体上说是于细胞大小成反比的nanobacteria：纳米细菌precipitates：沉淀物biofilms：生物膜surface-to-volume (S/V) ratio表面积与体积比Membrane Transport Systems：膜运输系统Peptidoglycan：肽聚糖outer Membrane：外膜Glycerol backbone：甘油主键fatty acids：脂肪酸phosphate-containing groups-ester linkage：含有磷酸的基团—酯键phospholipid bilayer：磷脂双分子层hydrophobic：疏水的hydrophilic：亲水的phosphate group：磷酸基团embedded：内嵌的hydrophobic external surface spanning the membrane：疏水的外表面跨膜hydrogen bonds：氢键hydrophobic interaction：疏水相互作用transverse：横切fluid mosaic：流动镶嵌Membrane Strengthening Agents: Sterols and Hopanoids：膜巩固剂：固醇和类何帕烷chemical composition：化学组分methanotrophic：嗜甲烷细菌mycoplasmas：支原体exception：例外side chains：侧链isoprene：异戊二烯Glycerol diethers：甘油二醚glycerol tetraethers：甘油四醚monolayers：单分子层hyperthermophilic：极端嗜热Permeability barrier：渗透屏障（透性障）passive leakage：被动泄漏Protein anchor：蛋白锚定Energy conservation：能量贮存Proton motive force：质子动力Aquaporins：水通道蛋白low osmotic conditions：低渗透势条件hypo-osmotic shock：低渗透压休克Simple diffusion：简单扩散Carrier-mediated process：载体介导过程Uptake：摄取、吸收Saturated：饱和的Symporter：同向运输蛋白Uniporter:单向运输蛋白Antiporters：逆向运输蛋白Lac Permease：乳糖透过酶Lactose：乳糖Group translocation：基团转位Phosphotransferase system：磷酸转移酶系统Glucose：葡萄糖Mannose：甘露糖Fructose：果糖Phosphorylation：磷酸化Dephosphorylation：去磷酸化cascading fashion：级联方式phosphoenolpyruvate：磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸Periplasmic：周质的periplasmic -binding protein：周质结合蛋白maltose：麦芽糖disaccharide sugar：双糖a family of related proteins：相关蛋白的家族High affinity for substrate：对底物的高亲和力Hydrolysis：水解drive transport across the membrane：促进跨膜运输translocase：移位酶amylase：淀粉酶cellulase：纤维素酶starch：淀粉cellulose：纤维素toxin：毒素deleterious：有害的solutes：溶质turgor pressure：膨胀压Multilayered structure and complex：多层结构和复合体Periplasm space：周质空间Teichoic acids:磷壁酸ribitol phosphate residues核糖醇磷酸盐残基Lipoteichoic acid：脂磷壁酸Murein：胞壁质Derive：衍生物N-acetylglucosamine (G)：N—乙酰葡糖胺N-acetylmuramic acid (M)：N—乙酰胞壁酸L-alanine：L—丙氨酸D-glutamic acid：D—谷氨酸L-lysine：L—赖氨酸diaminopimelic acid (DAP)：二氨基庚二酸tetrapeptide：四肽glycan：聚糖ß-1,4 linkage：ß-1,4连接interbridge：肽间桥capsular polymers：荚膜Protoplasts：原生质体Spheroplasts：原生质球Mycoplasma：支原体Osmotically：渗透地Thermoplasma：热原体属Lysozyme：溶菌酶Penicillin：青霉素ß-1,4 –glycosidic bonds：ß-1,4糖苷键saliva：唾液autolysin：自溶素transpeptidation：转肽Pseudopeptidoglycan：假肽聚糖N-acetyltalosaminuronic acids：N-乙酰塔罗糖胺糖醛酸Glycosidic bonds：糖苷键Polysaccharide：多糖Glycoprotein：糖蛋白Methanosarcina：甲烷八叠球菌glucuronic acid葡糖醛酸：galactosamine：半乳糖胺acetate：乙酸haiophilic Archaea：嗜盐古生菌Halococcus：盐球菌Paracrystalline surface layer：类结晶表面层hexagonal symmetry：六角对称lipopolysaccharide (LPS layer) ：脂多糖Core polysaccharide：核心多糖O-polysaccharide：O—特异侧链LipidA：类脂ADisaccharide：双糖Endotoxin：内毒素Pathogenic：致病的Shigella：志贺氏菌属mol-weight ：分子量Hydrolytic enzymes：水解酶Chemoreceptor：化学受体Flagella：鞭毛（复数）Flagellum：鞭毛Peritrichous：周生Polar：极生Lophotrichous：丛生Filament：鞭毛丝Flagellin：鞭毛蛋白Hook：钩motor portion：motor蛋白L-ring：L环P-ring：P环MS-ring：MS环Flexing：摆动Cheetah：猎豹Gliding：滑动Cyanobacteria：蓝细菌Myxococcus xanthus：黄色粘球菌physical or chemical gradients：物理或化学梯度Chemotaxes：趋化性Phototaxes：趋光性Other Taxes：其他趋性Temporal：时间的Spatial：空间的Tumbles：翻滚Attractant：引诱剂Scotophobotaxis (darkness escaping phototaxis)：避暗趋光性Aerotaxis：趋氧性Osmotaxis：趋渗透性Elucidated：阐述signal transduction pathway,：信号传导途径Gas Vesicle：气泡Endospore：芽孢Fimbriae：菌毛Pili：性毛Pellicles：菌膜Conjugation：接合Symmetries：对称性Capsules and Slime Layers:荚膜和黏液层The Glycocalyx：多糖包被Matrix：矩阵Deformed：变形Phagocytic：吞噬细胞的Desiccation：干燥作用Carbon Storage Polymers：碳源贮存物PHB, poly-ß-hydroxybutyric acid：聚ß羟丁酸PHA, poly-ß-hydroxyalkanoate：聚ß羟基链烷酸Magnetosomes：磁小体Intracellular crystal particles：细胞内晶体颗粒Magnetotaxis：趋磁性aquatic Bacteria：水生细菌buoyancy：浮力purple and green phototrophic bacteria：紫色和绿色光养细菌watertight：防水的ribs：脊ß-sheet：ß折叠ą-helix：ą螺旋Germination：萌发Halotolerant：耐盐的Permian：休眠Dominican amberGut：消化道Morphology：形态学Refractile：折光的Exosporium：孢子外壁Cortex：皮层Calcium-dipicolinic acid complex：钙—吡啶二羧酸Cytoplasm：细胞质Small acid-soluble spore proteins (SASPs：酸溶小芽孢蛋白Ceases：终止Sporulation：芽孢形成Bacillus subtili：枯草芽孢杆菌s Outgrowth：生长Chapter 51. Oxidation-Reduction 氧化还原反应2. Catabolic Pathways 异化途径3. Proton Motive Force 质子动势4. Macronutrients 大量营养元素5. Cytochromes 细胞色素6. cellular respiration 细胞呼吸7. Siderophores 铁传递蛋白8. hydroxamate, 异羟肟酸9．enterobactin 肠杆菌素10．Acuqchelin儿茶酚11. Micronutrients 微量营养元素12. Trace elements微量元素13. Streptococcus链球菌属14. Lactobacillus乳杆菌属15. Leuconostoc明串球菌属16. distilled water 蒸馏水17. casein 酪蛋白18. soybean 大豆19. Leuconostoc mesenteroides肠膜明串珠菌20. Fastidious 营养复杂的，挑剔的21. Aseptic Technique 无菌技术22. Exergonic 放能的23. Endergonic 吸能的24. Redox 氧化还原作用25. hydrogen atom 氢原子26. reactants 反应物27. Chemoorganotrophy 化能有机营养28. Photophosphorylation 光和磷酸化29. Pyruvate 丙酮酸盐（或酯）30. Glycolysis 糖酵解31. glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate 3-磷酸甘油醛32. Saccharomyces cerevisa e啤酒酵母33. Beverage 饮料34. Yogurt 酸奶酪，酵母乳35. Pickled vegetables 盐渍蔬菜36. anaerobically 厌氧地37. Aerobic oxidation 有氧氧化38. Anaerobic oxidation 无氧氧化39. Dehydrogenase 脱氢酶40. Flavoproteins 黄素蛋白41. Iron-sulfur proteins 铁硫蛋白42. Quinones-non-protein 辅酶Q43. Heme 亚铁血红素44. Chemiosmosis 化学渗透势45. electrochemically potential 电子势46. alkaline 碱性的47. headpiece 帽子，头盔48. cyanide 氰化物49. Dinitrophenol(DNP) 二硝基苯酚50. Dicumarol 血液凝固防止剂51. the Citric Acid Cycle 柠檬酸循环52. aerobic respiration有氧呼吸53. Nitrate 硝酸盐54. ferric iron 铁离子55. sulfate 硫酸盐56. carbonate 碳酸盐57. Chemolithotrophy 矿质（无机）化能营养58. Ammonia 氨，氨水59. Chemolithotrophs 化能自养60. chemoorganotrophs 化能异养61. Phototrophy 光合营养62. Photoautotrophs 光合自养生物63. Phtoheterotrophs 光合异养生物64. Catabolism 分解代谢65. Anabolism 合成代谢Chapter 6Binary Fission二分裂Peptidoglycan肽聚糖Viable Counts活菌计数Turbidity浊度Continuous Culture连续培养Preexisting先前存在的Duplicate复制Monomers单体Coenzymes辅酶Cofactors辅助因子Polymerization reactions聚合反应Polymers聚合体Fts（f ilamentous t emperature s ensitive ）Protein ：丝状温敏蛋白mitochondria 线粒体chloroplasts叶绿体tubulin微管蛋白Divisome：分裂体Apparatus设备，仪器Cylinder圆柱体polymerize to form an intact ring聚合形成完整环penicillin青霉素MreBhomology 相同actin肌动蛋白cytoskeleton细胞骨架structural integrity结构的完整性autolysins自溶素lysozyme溶解酵素bactoprenol:细菌萜醇N-acetyl glucosamine N-乙酰葡糖胺N-acetylemuramic acid N-乙酰胞壁酸Pentapeptide peptidoglycan precursors五肽肽聚糖前体物Transpeptidation 转肽作用muramic acid residues 胞壁酸残基adjacent glycan chains 邻近多糖链noteworthy 值得注目的periplasm 周质Unsterilized 未灭菌的Detrimental 有害的Slope 斜面Semilogarithmic 半对数的Vessel 导管，器皿Elapsed时间流逝Inoculum 接种体Cryptic 秘密的Counting chambers：计数室plate count 平板计数colony count菌落计数Serial Dilutions 系列稀释Statistically：统计学地colony-forming unit 菌落形成单位Anomaly 不规则Magnitude 数量，量级Photometer 光度计Spectrophotometer 分光光度计The Chemostat 恒化器Cardinal 主要的，最重要的Optimum 最适宜的Pschrophile 嗜冷生物Mesophile 嗜温生物Thermophile 嗜热生物Hyperthermophile 极端嗜热生物Extremophiles 极端生物Psychrotolerant 耐寒的unsaturated fatty acids 不饱和脂肪酸morphological and physiological types形态的和生理的类型a critical amino acid substitution关键的氨基酸替代物counterpart 副本，配对物hydrophobic interiors 疏水的内部saturated fatty acids 饱和脂肪酸isoprene 异戊二烯monolayer 单层melting 熔化annealing退火Acidophile 嗜酸细菌Thiobacillus硫杆菌属Sulfolobus 硫化叶菌属Thermoplasma热源体属Alkaliphile 嗜碱微生物Carotenoids：类胡萝卜素Proteases 蛋白酶Lipases 脂肪酶Detergent 清洁剂Water activity：水活度vapor pressure 蒸汽压Osmophiles 嗜渗透微生物Xerophiles 旱生生物Sucrose 蔗糖Trehalose 海藻糖Glycerol 甘油，丙三醇Glycosides 配糖类Glycine 甘氨酸，氨基乙酸Betaine 甜菜碱Praline 果仁糖Staphylococcus葡萄球菌potassium ions钾离子Aerobes 需氧生物Anaerobes 厌氧生物thioglycolate broth巯基乙酸盐肉汤Anoxic jar 厌氧罐anoxic glove bag 厌氧手套peroxidase enzymes 过氧化物酶Airborn bacteria 空气携带菌Catalase 过氧化氢酶Peroxidase 过氧化物酶Superoxide dismutase 超氧化歧化酶（SOD）Superoxide reductase 超氧化还原酶obligately anaerobic：专性厌氧的Pyrococcus furiousus：激烈热球菌Chapter 7Pneumococcus 肺炎球菌Pathogenic 致病的Pneumonia 肺炎polysaccharide capsule 多糖荚膜pathogenicity 致病性transformation 转化Versatile 通用的，万能的in vivo体内in vitro体外ultracentrifugal, 超离心的diffusive 扩散electrophoretic 电泳的Polypeptide cleaving enzymes 多肽裂解酶Ribonulclease 核糖核酸酶Deoxyribonuclease 脱氧核糖核酸酶Amino acid 氨基酸hydrogen bonds 氢键grooves 凹槽polynucleotide多（聚）核苷酸Supercoiling 超螺旋Twisted 盘旋Predominantly 主要地Nucleosome 核小体Torsion 扭转Gyrase 解旋酶Topoisomerase：拓扑异构酶Nonchromosomal 非染色体的Extracellular 细胞外的Templates 模板deoxyribonucleic acid 脱氧核糖核酸isotope同位素Density gradient equilibrium sedimentation密度梯度平衡沉降Cesium chloride 氯化铯Centrifugation 离心Detection of peaks检测高峰fidelity 忠诚度dilemma 进退两难的局面Okazaki fragment 冈崎片断Polymerase 聚合酶Exonuclease 核酸外切酶Ligase 连接酶Helicase 螺旋酶Initiation 起始Elongation 延伸Termination 终止Triphosphate 三磷酸盐Purine 嘌呤Bacillus subtilis ：枯草芽孢杆菌intrinsic terminators 内在终止子Transcription 转录Cotranscribed 共转录Polycistronic 多顺反子性的Operon 操纵子introns 内含子exons 外显子Splicing 拼接Ribonucleoprotein核蛋白（略作RNP）Capping 加帽Polyadenylation 多聚腺苷酸Deciphering 译码Polylysine多聚赖氨酸Polyproline 多聚脯氨酸Proline 脯氨酸Polyphenylalanine多聚苯基丙氨酸Phenylalanine 苯基丙氨酸Trinucleotide 三核苷酸密码子Codons 密码子codon-degeneracy：密码子的简并性Formylmethionine 甲酰甲硫氨酸Methionine 蛋氨酸Methylated 甲基化的Synthetase 合成酶Catalyzing 催化The peptide transferase reaction 转肽反应Streptomycin 链霉素Puromycin 嘌呤霉素Chloramphenicol 氯霉素Cycloheximide 放线菌酮，环己酰亚胺Tetracycline 四环素molecular chaperones 分子伴侣aggregation 聚合Signal recognition particle (SRP) 信号识别颗粒Chapter 8Scarce protein 稀有蛋白Abundant protein 丰度蛋白Posttranslationally 翻译后地Coarser 粗糙的Precursor 前体物（分子），-先导物Degrading 降解Allostery 变构Conformational change 构象变化Isozymes 同工酶Covalent modification 共价修饰Methylation 甲基化Glutamine synthetase 谷氨酸盐合成酶allosteric enzyme 变构酶adenylylation 腺嘌呤形成Global Control全局调控Regulator proteins调节蛋白Histones 组蛋白Nucleosomes 核小体Inducer诱导物Substrate 底物Corepressor 辅阻遏物Polymerase 聚合酶Maltose regulon 麦芽糖调节子consensus sequence 保守序列utilization 利用operons 操纵子Regulon调节子global regulatory system全局调控系统lac Operon 乳糖操纵子simultaneously 同时地Constitutive mutant组成型突变体lactose 乳糖Glucose 葡萄糖glucose effect葡萄糖效应diauxic growth二次生长Catabolite Repression分解代谢物阻遏catabolite activator protein (CAP)激活蛋白（活化蛋白）cAMP-receptor protein (CRP)环腺苷酸受体蛋白hydrolyze 水解galactose 半乳糖Galactosidase半乳糖苷酶Hydrolysis 水解Modulates 调节galactoside permease 半乳糖苷透性酶thiogalactoside transacetylase 硫代半乳糖苷转乙酰酶allolactose 异乳糖diffusible 可扩散的Intact copy完整拷贝positive control正调节negative control副调节Attenuation 衰减，弱化Two-component Regulatory Systems双组分调控系统Sensory proteins (transducers)感受器蛋白MCP –transducers MCP感受器m ethyl-accepting c hemotaxis proteins(MCP)接受甲基趋化性蛋白Methylase甲基化酶Chemotaxis 趋化性Tryptophan Operon 色氨酸操纵子Tandom 串联重复Insufficient 不足Termination 终止Dual Regulation of Trp Operon色氨酸的二重调节Translational attenuation翻译衰减（弱化）Bacillus subtilis 枯草芽孢杆菌trp attenuation protein色氨酸弱化蛋白Polycistronic 多顺反子性的Heat Shock Response 热激反应Global Control Networks全局调控网络Quorum Sensing：最少密度感应degraded by proteases 被蛋白酶降解Heat shock protein热激蛋白chaperones (chaperonin) 分子伴侣acylated homoserine lactone 酰化的高丝氨酸内酯bioluminescence 生物发光Sensor Kinases感受器激酶phosphorylation 磷酸化The phosphoryl group 磷酰基团Demethylated 脱甲基Flagellum 鞭毛Rotation of flagellum鞭毛旋转clockwise 顺时针counterclockwise 逆时针Antisense Nucleic Acid反义核酸Compartmentation分区Polycistronic mRNA多顺反子mRNA Splicing 接合，粘接Chapter 9Essentials本质Viral Replication病毒复制Viral Diversity病毒多样性Chromosome染色体Conferring new properties on the host赋予宿主新的特性Extracellular state-virus particles (virions)胞外状态-病毒颗粒（病毒粒子）Lysis：裂解genomic nucleic acid基因组核酸Intracellular state胞内状态the central dogma of molecular biology分子生物学中心法则Taxonomy分类学Bacteriophage嗜菌体Order目family (and subfamily)科（亚科）genus属species种morphology形态学suffix后缀Hepadnaviruses嗜肝DNA病毒Smallpox 天花病毒Polio virus 脊髄灰质炎病毒Nucleocapsid核壳体naked and enveloped裸露和包被的self-assembly自我装配molecular chaperones分子伴侣Virus Symmetry病毒对称Helical symmetry螺旋状对称Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)烟草花叶病毒Icosahedral Symmetry二十面体Complex viruses复合体病毒Complex Symmetry复合体对称lipid bilayer脂双层glycoproteins糖蛋白Lysozyme溶菌酶reverse transcriptase逆转录酶retroviruses逆转录病毒Neuraminadase 神经氨酸酶(唾液酸苷酶)Semiliquid半流体Protoplasts原生质体Monolayer单层permanent cell lines：亲本细胞系primary cell lines：原初细胞系virus infection unit病毒侵染单位Plaque嗜菌斑tumor virus肿瘤病毒Plaque assay空斑测定Titer滴度，效价Suspension悬浮液plaque-forming units噬菌斑形成单位Attachment and Penetration吸附和侵入tail fibers尾丝polysaccharide多聚糖tail pins尾针Contraction 收缩tail sheath尾鞘Restriction enzyme限制性酶Invasion入侵methylation of purine and pyrimidine bases嘌呤和嘧啶碱基的甲基化glucosylation糖基化methylation甲基化Virulent Bacteriophage裂性噬菌体Temperate Bacteriophage温和噬菌体Viriods and Prions类病毒和朊病毒Schematic representations示意表示图Linear线性的Encode编码Hydroxymethylcytosine羟甲基胞嘧啶Cytosine胞嘧啶restriction endonucleases限制性内切酶circularly permuted环状变化Terminal repeats 末端重复Concatemer多联体Lysogeny溶原性Synchrony同步Provirus前病毒nitrogen mustards氮芥cohesive粘性的lysis or lysogeny裂解或溶源bidirection双向repressor protein 阻遏蛋白irrevocably不可逆地integrase整合酶PE(promoter establishment)启动子建立Topoisomerase拓扑异构酶Bracket括号Excisionase切除酶Compartmentation分隔Polycistronic多顺反子性的Monocistronic单顺反子性的5’ methylated guanosine triphosphate cap and 3’ poly A tail：5’甲基化三磷酸鸟苷酸帽子和3’多聚腺苷酸尾巴Endocytosis 内吞作用Lytic infection裂解传染Persistent infection持久传染Latent infection潜伏传染Foci焦距benign 良性的malignant 恶性的metastasis转移oncogenes致癌基因intermediate中间的Human immunodefiency virus (HIV)人类免疫缺陷病毒acquired immunodefiency syndrome (AIDS)获得性免疫缺陷综合症internal proteins内部蛋白endonuclease核酸内切酶Protease蛋白酶5’ capped and 3’ polyadenylated: 5’帽化和3’聚腺苷酸化Encapsidation壳体化Budding出芽RNA dependent DNA polymerase（RdDp）依赖于RNA的DNA聚合酶DNA dependent DNA polymerase（DdDp）依赖于DNA的DNA聚合酶Ribonuclease H核糖核酸酶Hcoconut cadang-cadang viroid椰子可可树类病毒citrus exocortis viroid柑橘裂皮类病毒scrape刮伤BSE: bovine spongiform encephalopathy牛绵状脑病pathogenic proteins病原蛋白质insoluble不可溶解的mad cow disease 疯牛病Chapter 10In Vivo活体内Mutants突变体Carcinogenesis致癌作用The Ames Test埃姆斯试验Genotype基因型Phenotype表现型lowercase letters小写字母uppercase letters大写字母italics斜体字superscript上标progeny后代Screening筛选Selection挑选Penicillin青霉素Lysozyme水解酶Spheroplast原生质球Nutritional Mutants营养突变体Imprint印迹Prototroph原养型Auxotroph营养缺陷型histidine auxotrophs组氨酸营养缺陷型微生物Spontaneous自发的Induced诱发的Point mutations点突变Base-Pair Substitutions碱基置换Silent mutation沉默突变Missense mutation错义突变Triplet三联体Temperature-sensitive mutants 温度敏感突变体conditionally lethal mutants条件致死突变体Nonsense mutation 无义突变Back Mutations or Reversions回复突变Compensate 补偿Transposition转位，转座proof-reading校对epidemic流行病Mutagens诱变剂Base analogs碱基类似物Radiation 辐射Transposon转位子，转座子Site-Directed Mutagenesis定点突变Mutagenicity致突变性Protocol 方案salmonella enterica沙门氏肠菌Trp- auxotroph色氨酸营养缺陷型Errorprone错误倾向Plasmids质粒Homologous 同源的redundant pathways冗余的途径Homologous Recombination同源重组SSB protein单链结合蛋白RecA protein RecA蛋白Nick formation缺口形成Strand invasion链侵入Heteroduplex formation 杂合双链形成Transformation转化Transduction转导Conjugation接合Transfection 转染Artificially Induced Competence人工诱导感受态Acinetobacter不动杆菌属Azotobacter固氮菌属Bacillus杆菌属Streptococcus链球菌属Haemophilus嗜血菌属Neisseria奈瑟球菌属Thermus栖热菌属Electroporation电穿孔Generalized transduction普遍性转导Specialized transduction特异性（局限性）转导Recipient受体temperate or virulent温和的或者裂性的lysogenization溶源化作用randomly incorporate随机整合Phage Conversion溶源转变，噬菌体转变Prophage前噬菌体Polysaccharide多糖Nontoxin非毒素Corynebacterium diphtheriae白喉杆菌toxin 毒素Supercoiled configuration超螺旋构型Incompatibility 不相容性，不亲和性Episomes游离体，附加体Curing（噬菌体）治愈Conjugative可接合的Hfr (high frequency of recombination)高频重组Rhizobium根瘤菌属Pseudomonas of octane辛烷假单胞菌camphor and naphthalene樟脑和卫生球Bacteriocins细菌素Resistance Plasmids- R Plasmids抗性质粒Sulfonamides磺胺药物Streptomycin链霉素Spectinomycin壮观霉素fusidic acid梭链孢酸chloramphenicol 氯霉素tetracycline四环素mercury汞Therapies治疗物Diarrhea痢疾CFA-colonization factor antigen 入侵因子抗原hemolysin and enterotoxin溶血素和肠毒素a wider spectrum of activity广谱活性colicins大肠肝菌素subtilisin枯草杆菌蛋白酶NisinA乳酸菌肽Arolling cycle replication滚环复制pilus菌毛IS(insertion sequences)插入序列Interrupted Mating中断杂交Agitation搅拌transposable elements转座因子transposase转位酶inverted terminal repeats末端反向重复序列Conservation保存，保守Replicative重复的Bacteriophages噬菌体Cointegrate共合体cointegrate structure共合体结构Mutagenesis with Transponsable Elements用转座子诱变insertional inactivation插入失活neomycin and kanamycin resistance新霉素和卡那霉素抗性tetracycline 四环素biological mutagen生物诱变剂vector载体Integrons整合子Integrase整合酶Genetic Map基因图谱Operon操纵子Polycistronic mRNA 多顺反子mRNABidirection双向Highly expressed genes高度表达基因Horizontal gene transfer水平基因转移Haemophilus influenzae流感嗜血杆菌Hyperthermophiles极端嗜热微生物Mycoplasma genitalium生殖道支原体Chlorella 绿藻的一种Methanococcus jannaschii詹氏甲烷球菌Pseudomonas aeruginosa铜绿假单胞菌Saccharomyces cerevisiae啤酒酵母Streptomyces coelicolor天蓝色链霉菌Treponema pallidum苍白密螺旋体（梅毒密螺旋体）Thermotoga maritima海栖热孢菌Unidentified reading frame-URF未经确认的阅读框架Genomic mining基因组挖掘Paralogs侧向同源Orthologs直向同源obligate parasitic bacterium严格寄生菌Helicobacter pylori螺旋幽门菌cyanobacterium Synechocytis 蓝细菌introns内含子Plasmodium falciparum疟原虫Malaria疟疾Encephalitozoon cuniculi 家兔脑内原虫病Ustilago maydis玉米黑粉病Phytopathogenic fungus植物病原真菌smut disease黑穗病Chapter 11Stromatolites叠层石Fossiled 化石Filamentous丝状的Systematics系统学Taxonomy分类法Diversification多样化Phylogeny系统发生, 发展史Endosymbiosis内共生Prokaryotes原核生物trapped sediments捕捉的沉淀物phototrophic bacteria光养细菌anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria 厌氧光养细菌lipoprotein vesicles脂蛋白小泡cyanobacterium 蓝细菌entity实体ferrous亚铁的photosynthesis光合作用oxygenation加氧作用，氧气形成oxic有氧的ozone shield臭氧层eukaryotes cell真核细胞chemoorganotrophic化能有机营养mitochondrion线粒体cytoplasm细胞质chloroplast叶绿体endosymbiotic内共生的phototroph光养生物，光能利用菌symbionts共生体metazoan后生生物Evolutionary Chronometers进化时钟Homologous function相同功能Sequence alignment序列排列，序列对比ATPase ATP酶genetic recombination遗传重组Ribosomal核糖体的Phylogenetic系统发生的Cellular细胞的Microbial Community Analysis微生物群体分析phylogenetic tree系统发育树Evolutionary distance ED 进化距离fluorescent i n-s itu h ybridization荧光素原位杂交Horizontal (lateral) gene transfer 水平（侧向）基因转移human genome人类基因组nematode线虫yeast酵母mustard芥菜parasites寄生虫vertebrates脊椎动物Peptidoglycan肽聚糖Cellulose纤维素Chitin几丁质，壳质Archaea古生菌Lipids脂质Ester酯RNA polymerase RNA聚合酶Polypeptides多肽Framework框架Phenotype显型，表现型Phylogenetics系统发生学Classical Taxonomy Morphology传统形态分类学fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) 脂肪酸甲基酯hybridization杂交genus属Molecular fingerprinting分子指纹PCR amplification聚合酶链式反应扩增Speciation物种形成coexist 共存prime ecological niche最初生态位ecotypes生态型Nomenclature命名法Manual手册Chapter 18Biodiversity 生物多样性Quantification 定量microorganisms微生物habitats栖息地Enrichment富集培养Staining染色Radioisotopes放射性同位素Microelectrodes微电极in situ（原位）Pure Culture纯培养Counterselective反选择enrichment vehicle富集培养手段purple紫色phototrophic光养anaerobes厌氧微生物microbial ecosystem 微生物生态系统tubes试管Agar shake琼脂震荡法dilution 稀释molten agar熔化的琼脂serial dilution 系列稀释inoculum接种体most probable numbers (MPN)最大概率数The Laser Tweezers 激光镊子microscopy显微镜术infrared laser 红外线激光器micromanipulation device显微操作装置trapped捕集的laser beam 激光柱contaminating污染Stable Isotope稳定同位素Azotobacter n.固氮(细)菌。

天然香精及其鉴定方法介绍多年来，崇尚自然、回归自然已成为世界性的不可抗拒的潮流。

食品香料与香精的发展也无法逃离这一潮流。

“天然的就是安全”或”天然的至少比人造的更安全“的观念根深蒂固。

但是，从香料化学家角度来看，这是毫无根据的，一种天然香料与一种化学结构和纯度相同的合成香料相比，在毒理学上、营养学上和感官作用上毫无区别。

一、天然香精定义1.1欧盟有机产品中要求欧盟有机标准EC834/2007＆889/2008、规定了天然调味剂（天然香精）才可以添加到有机产品中，在欧共体理事会88/388/EEC中定义了天然食用香料或天然调味剂（人工调味料等同于天然调味料，但是加工调味料和烟熏调味料是不允许的）。

不同于食品色素，包括天然的，天然调味剂在任何情况下都可以使用。

食品色素是不允许食用的，作为肉和蛋壳的印章色素除外。

1.2欧盟香精香料法规88/388/EEC中规定了天然香料的定义，如下：natural flavouring substances in the case of flavouring substances defined in Article 1 (2) (b) (i),Article 1 (2)(b) ‘flavouring substance' means a defined chemical substance with flavouring properties which is obtained:(i) by appropriate physical processes (including distillation and solvent extraction) orenzymatic or microbiological processes from material of vegetable or animal origin either in the raw state or after processing for human consumption by traditional food-preparation processes (including drying, torrefaction and fermentation),从天然原来经物理或发酵方法得到的香料称为天然食品香料。

Chapter 1 单词翻译：单词翻译：Nicotian 烟草属烟草属 combustion ：燃烧. Solanaceae 茄科茄科 combustibility 可燃性度可燃性度 nicotine 尼古丁，烟碱尼古丁，烟碱 pest resistance 抗虫害抗虫害agronomic performance 农艺性能农艺性能 Chinese －Style Cigarette ：中式卷烟：中式卷烟Chinese-style cigarette ：中式卷烟：中式卷烟 Virginian-type cigarette ：烤烟型卷烟：烤烟型卷烟blended cigarette ：混合型卷烟：混合型卷烟 tar content ：焦油含量：焦油含量：焦油含量 aromatic 芳香的芳香的 limit regulation’：限焦令. Virginia tobacco ：弗吉尼亚烟：弗吉尼亚烟Flue-cured tobacco ：烤烟：烤烟 Bright tobacco ：浅色烟：浅色烟 Burley tobacco ：白肋烟：白肋烟Oriental tobacco 东方烟东方烟 Aromatic tobacco ：香料烟：香料烟 Maryland tobacco ：马里兰烟：马里兰烟 Cigar tobacco ：雪茄烟：雪茄烟 disease resistance ：抗病性：抗病性 plant's physiology ：植物生理：植物生理thresh ：打叶：打叶 redrying ：复烤：复烤 aging ：老化，(陈化、醇化) fermentation 发酵发酵cigarette manufacture ：卷烟生产：卷烟生产 smoke chemistry ：烟气化学：烟气化学 cigar 雪茄雪茄cigarillo 小雪茄小雪茄 smokeless tobacco ：无烟烟草：无烟烟草 botanical 植物的植物的air-curing 晾制晾制 sun-curing 晒制晒制 fire-curing 熏制fiue-curing 烤制烤制the State Tobacco Monopoly Administration ：STMA officially ：国家烟草专卖局：国家烟草专卖局2. 长句子翻译长句子翻译Tobacco (Nicotiana (Nicotiana tabacum tabacum L.) L.) is is is a a a kind kind kind of of of special special special plant plant plant containing containing containing nicotine, nicotine, nicotine, belong belong belong to to Solanaceae, Nicotiana. Tobacco differs from other crops in that it is used mostly for combustion. Variables of botanical, physical and chemical characteristics of leaf tobacco determine degrees of combustibility, smoke composition, taste and aroma and, thus, product acceptability. 烟草是一种特殊的含有尼古丁的植物，属于茄科烟草属。

Chapter 1 The Main Themes of Microbiology1. Microorganisms, also called microbes, are organisms that require a microscope to be readily observed.Microorganisms(微生物)，也叫microbes，是需要通过显微镜才能容易看见的生命体。

2. In terms of numbers and range of distribution, microbes are the dominant organisms on earth. 就数量和分布范围而言，微生物是地球上的主宰生物。

3. Major groups of microorganisms include bacteria, algae, protozoa, fungi, parasitic worms, and viruses.微生物的主要类群包括：细菌、藻类、原生动物、真菌、寄生虫和病毒。

4. Microbiology involves study in numerous areas involving cell structure, function, genetics, immunology, biochemistry, epidemiology, and ecology.微生物牵涉众多领域的研究，包括细胞结构、功能、遗传学、免疫学、生化、流行病学和生态学。

5.Microorganisms have developed complex interactions with other organisms and the environment.微生物在与其他生命和环境之间发展了复杂的作用机制。

6. Microorganisms are essential to the operation of the earth’s ecosystems, as photosynthesizers, decomposers, and recyclers.作为光合作用者、分解者和循环参与者，微生物在地球的生态系统运作中必不可少。

1.6真菌Fungi是真核微生物，有明显的真正细胞核，没有叶绿素，不能进行光合作用，是腐生或寄生的。

真菌可分单细胞和多细胞两类。

单细胞真菌呈圆形或卵圆形，称酵母菌(yeast)。

多细胞真菌大多长出菌子，交织成团，称丝状菌(filamentous fungus)，又称霉菌(mold)。

Filamentous fungi Unicellular fungi主要有4个特点：①有边缘清楚的核膜包围着细胞核，而且在一个细胞内有时可以包含多个核，其它真核生物很少出现这种现象；②不含叶绿素，不能进行光合作用，营养方式为异养吸收型，即通过细胞表面自周围环境中吸收可溶性营养物质，不同于植物(光合作用)和动物(吞噬作用)；③以产生大量孢子进行繁殖；④除酵母菌为单细胞外，一般具有发达的菌丝体。

1.6.1酵母菌Yeast在自然界分布很广，主要分布于偏酸性含糖环境中。

如水果、蔬菜、蜜饯的表面和果园土壤中。

酵母菌种类很多，约56属500多种。

酵母菌是人类利用最早的微生物，与人类关系极为密切。

千百年来，酵母菌及其发酵产品大大改善和丰富了人类的生活，如各种酒类生产，面包制造，甘油发酵，饲用、药用及食用单细胞蛋白生产，从酵母菌体提取核酸、麦角甾醇、辅酶 A、细胞色素C、凝血质和维生素等生化药物。

少数酵母菌能引起人或其它动物的疾病，其中最常见者为“白色念珠菌”(白假丝酵母，Cndida albicans)和新型隐球菌(Cryptococ cus neofo rmans)。

它们能引起人体一些表层(皮肤、粘膜或深层各内脏和器官)组织疾病。

如鹅口疮、阴道炎、轻度肺炎和慢性脑膜炎等。

酵母菌的特点：①个体多以单细胞状态存在；②多数出芽生殖，也有裂殖；③能发酵糖类产能；④细胞壁常含甘露聚糖；⑤喜在含糖量较高的偏酸性环境中生长。

(1)形态、大小和结构Morphological Characteristics, Size and Structure Y easts are usually unicellular. Y east cells are larger than most bacteria. 1-5 um in width and 5-30 um or more in length. They are commonly egg-shaped. Y easts have no flagella. 是单细胞真菌（也有多个细胞相互连接成菌丝体的，是因为它在繁殖时子细胞没有脱离母体而与母细胞相连成链状，称为假菌丝，）。

医院抗菌药物管理制度一、背景二、目的三、适用范围四、定义五、抗菌药物管理委员会六、使用原则七、抗菌药物使用管理八、抗菌药物库存管理九、抗菌药物配送管理十、抗菌药物使用监测十一、培训与教育十二、评价与完善十三、违规处理十四、附则一、背景抗菌药物是治疗感染病的重要药物，但过度使用和滥用抗菌药物会导致细菌耐药，进而严重威胁人类健康。

因此，医院应建立科学的抗菌药物管理制度。

二、目的本制度旨在规范医院抗菌药物的使用和管理，减少抗菌药物的不合理使用，防止细菌耐药问题的发生，保障患者用药安全。

三、适用范围本制度适用于医院内所有使用抗菌药物的科室和人员，包括医生、护士、药师等。

四、定义1.抗菌药物：指能够杀灭或抑制细菌生长的药物。

2.不合理使用：指在不符合临床指南或药物说明书的情况下，滥用或过度使用抗菌药物。

3.细菌耐药：指细菌对抗菌药物产生耐受性，失去原有的敏感性。

五、抗菌药物管理委员会医院应设立抗菌药物管理委员会，负责制定和监督抗菌药物管理制度的实施情况。

委员会由医院领导、感染管理科医生、药剂科药师等组成。

六、使用原则1.严格执行临床指南和药物说明书，合理使用抗菌药物。

2.优先选择窄谱抗菌药物，避免滥用广谱抗菌药物。

3.避免抗菌药物的不必要使用，如感冒、发热等症状无需使用抗菌药物。

4.严格控制抗菌药物的使用量和疗程，避免过度使用。

5.对于特殊情况，应根据患者的具体情况和药敏试验结果，选择合适的抗菌药物。

七、抗菌药物使用管理1.医生开具抗菌药物处方前，需进行必要的检查、检验和评估，确诊后方可使用抗菌药物。

2.医生应在医疗记录中详细记录患者的病情、使用抗菌药物的原因、剂量、疗程等信息。

3.医生应定期对使用抗菌药物的患者进行评估，如疗效不佳或出现不良反应，应及时调整治疗方案。

八、抗菌药物库存管理1.医院应建立抗菌药物库存管理制度，确保抗菌药物的安全存放和使用。

2.抗菌药物的存放应符合药品管理法律法规的要求，避免过期药品的使用。

哈利波特与魔法石英文读书单词笔记Chapter eight: The Potions MasterDormitory: n.宿舍，学生宿舍； adj. 住宅区的Queue: n. 队列；长队；辫子 vi. 排队；排队等候 vt. 将…梳成辫子；使…排队Stand on tiptoe:足尖站立，抬起脚后跟站着Corridors: n. 廊道，走廊（Corridor复数）Rickety：adj. 摇晃的；虚弱的；患佝偻病的Halfway: adv. 到一半；在中途 adj. 中途的；不彻底的Tickled: v. 挠痒痒，感到发痒Move around: v. 走来走去；绕着…..来回转Portrait: n. 肖像；描写；半身雕塑像Armour: n. 盔甲，装甲部队，甲胄，（军舰,坦克等的）装甲Nasty shock:大吃一惊，极其震惊Rug: n. 小地毯，垫子，（盖腿的）厚毯子Pelt: v. 投物攻击，向…投掷，倾斜，下得很大，飞奔Chalk:n. 粉笔；用粉笔划的记号，白垩 v. 用粉笔写，用白垩粉擦；获得（成功），记录（得分等）；记下（欠账等）；把某事归因于；变成白垩状Bits of：少量的，小块片的Sneak up:悄悄地靠近，偷偷地走，蹑手蹑脚地靠近Screech: v. 尖叫，尖着声音地说；发出尖锐刺耳的声音；呼啸而过 n. 刺耳的尖叫，尖利刺耳的声音Conk: n. 鼻，头 vi 昏迷；睡去；坏掉 vt. 敲…..的头Caretaker: n. (建筑物的)管理员，（主人外出时房地产的）看管人，照看人，监护人Arugs Filch:阿格斯费尔奇，阿格斯费尔奇在霍格沃茨担任管理员，养了一只猫叫做洛丽丝夫人（Mrs Norris）他经常在学校走廊里巡逻，有时会带着洛丽丝夫人一起，偷偷观察学生，试图抓住那些违反校规的人。

如果洛丽丝夫人独自巡逻时发现哪个学生违反了校规，跑去通知费尔奇，他能迅速到达现场。

小学上册英语第三单元测验卷(有答案)考试时间：80分钟（总分:120）A卷一、综合题(共计100题共100分)1. 填空题：The _____ (clover) is a symbol of luck.2. 选择题：What is the name of the famous bear who loves honey?A. PaddingtonB. Winnie the PoohC. Yogi BearD. Smokey Bear3. 听力题：The dog is _______ (barking) loudly.4. 填空题：My dad teaches me the importance of __________ (责任感).5. 听力题：A ____ is a fascinating creature that can change color.6. 听力题：The ancient Aztecs practiced ________ as part of their religion.7. 填空题：The __________ is a major geographical region in Africa. (撒哈拉沙漠)8. 听力题：The ______ is very creative and imaginative.9. 听力题：Elements can be metals, nonmetals, or _____.10. 选择题：What do we wear on our feet?B. HatC. ShoesD. Scarf答案: C11. 填空题：The ancient Romans celebrated festivals to honor their _____.12. 选择题：How many hours are there in a day?A. 12B. 24C. 36D. 48答案:B13. 填空题：I share my toys with my __________. (兄弟姐妹)14. 选择题：What is 20 ÷ 4?A. 4B. 5C. 6D. 715. 选择题：What do we call a scientist who studies fungi?A. MycologistB. BotanistC. ZoologistD. Microbiologist16. 填空题：The ________ (天气预报) said it would rain today.17. 听力题：The ______ teaches us about cultural awareness.18. 选择题：What is the main ingredient in guacamole?A. AvocadoB. TomatoC. Onion答案: A. Avocado19. 选择题：What do we call the main meal of the day?A. BreakfastB. LunchC. DinnerD. Snack答案：C20. 听力题：A ____ is a tiny creature that loves to explore flowers.21. 填空题：I can ______ (表达) my creativity in various ways.22. 填空题：My friend is a big __________ of dance. (爱好者)23. 听力题：The element with the symbol W is __________.24. 听力题：The capital of Tanzania is __________.25. 选择题：What is the capital of Germany?A. MunichB. FrankfurtC. BerlinD. Hamburg答案:C26. 填空题：My friend is very __________ (有天赋).27. 选择题：What is the main ingredient in pizza?A. DoughB. RiceC. PotatoD. Bread28. 填空题：The __________ (沙漠) is very hot and dry.What is the term for the amount of space an object occupies?A. MassB. VolumeC. WeightD. Density答案:B30. advocacy organization) campaigns for change. 填空题：The ____31. 填空题：A ____(tsunami) is a large ocean wave caused by underwater earthquakes.32. 填空题：I enjoy ______ (与家人共度时光).33. 听力题：The cat is _____ on the couch. (lying)34. 选择题：What do we call a place where people keep and breed animals?A. ZooB. FarmC. SanctuaryD. Park答案: B35. 选择题：What is the capital of Italy?A. RomeB. ParisC. MadridD. Berlin36. 听力题：I enjoy _____ (reading/writing) stories.37. 选择题：What do we call the main character in a story?A. ProtagonistB. AntagonistC. HeroD. VillainChemical reactions are often represented by ________ equations.39. 填空题：The __________ was a period when dinosaurs roamed the Earth. (侏罗纪)40. 填空题：The __________ (历史的精神) guides our actions.41. 正确抄写下列字母，每个写一遍。

热带作物学报2022, 43(2): 430 437 Chinese Journal of Tropical Crops收稿日期 2021-08-24；修回日期 2021-12-04基金项目 广西自然科学基金青年基金项目（No. 2018JJB130139）；广西自然科学基金面上项目（No. 2019JJA130125）；广西农业科学院科技发展基金项目（No. 2020YM05）。

作者简介 祁亮亮（1984—），男，博士，副研究员，研究方向：大型真菌分类及生态学，E-mail:*********************。

灰肉红菇与其相似类群子实体下土壤真菌多样性探究祁亮亮1，吴小建1，李俐颖1，莫长明2，郎 宁1，陈振妮11. 广西壮族自治区农业科学院微生物研究所（食用菌研究所），广西南宁 530007；2. 广西作物遗传改良生物技术重点开放实验室，广西南宁 530007摘 要：灰肉红菇是广西等地特色野生食用菌，生于锥属植物林地，但其与相似类群子实体下土壤真菌多样性研究并不系统，土壤真菌功能未见报道。

本研究在广西浦北县同一样地，以灰肉红菇（H ）及其相似类群（玫瑰红菇JH ，毒红菇FH ；白黄乳菇DZ ）子实体下土壤为研究对象，采用高通量测序技术，明确土壤真菌的多样性及群落组成、优势类群及其功能。

结果表明，H 、JH 、FH 、DZ 子实体下土壤真菌均匀度相似，但H 丰富度最高，红菇属（H 、JH 、FH ）土壤真菌的丰富度高于乳菇属（DZ ）；H 、JH 、FH 、DZ 共有OTUs 463个，H 特有121个；门水平上，H 子实体下土壤真菌中子囊菌门与担子菌门丰度较JH 、FH 、DZ 高，DZ 与H 、JH 、FH 在球囊菌门、芽枝霉门丰富度上呈极显著差异；属水平上，H 子实体下土壤真菌红菇属、丝盖伞属丰度较JH 、FH 、DZ 高，DZ 中青霉属、Saitozyma 、黄丝曲霉属较其他组别丰度高，大团囊菌属、喇叭菌属、小球腔菌属、Paraphaeosphaeria 、丝盖伞属等与H 关联度高，与JH 、FH 、DZ 关联度较低，但H 、JH 、FH 、DZ 土壤真菌属的丰度无显著性差异；特定物种丰度方面，H 中Gliocephalotrichum humicola 、Talaromyces ruber 、玫瑰红菇较其余组别丰度高，排名前十的物种无显著性差异，但H 子实体下土壤真菌Aspergillus citocrescens 在同属间（H ，FH ，JH ）两两比较丰度差异达到显著水平。

把动物分成几类英语作文下载温馨提示:该文档是我店铺精心编制而成，希望大家下载以后，能够帮助大家解决实际的问题。

文档下载后可定制随意修改，请根据实际需要进行相应的调整和使用，谢谢!并且，本店铺为大家提供各种各样类型的实用资料，如教育随笔、日记赏析、句子摘抄、古诗大全、经典美文、话题作文、工作总结、词语解析、文案摘录、其他资料等等，如想了解不同资料格式和写法，敬请关注!Download tips: This document is carefully compiled by theeditor. I hope that after you download them,they can help yousolve practical problems. The document can be customized andmodified after downloading,please adjust and use it according toactual needs, thank you!In addition, our shop provides you with various types ofpractical materials,such as educational essays, diaryappreciation,sentence excerpts,ancient poems,classic articles,topic composition,work summary,word parsing,copyexcerpts,other materials and so on,want to know different data formats andwriting methods,please pay attention!1. Animals in the Wild: Unleashing the Wild Kingdom。

第一周绘本中文翻译第一本：My Very First Mother Goose鹅妈妈儿歌01 Jerry HallHe is so smallA cat could eat him Hat and all.何杰瑞个真小老鼠吞下他从帽子到脚02 Mabel, Mabel, Strong and able, Take your elbows off the table.美宝美宝强健有能干不要把手肘放在桌子上Chapter One03 Jack and Jillwent up the hill,To fetch a pail of water;Jack fell down and broke his crown, And Jill came tumbling after.杰克和吉儿上山打一桶水杰克摔了一跤，跌破他的牙床吉儿随着咕噜咕噜滚下来04 Shoo fly, don't bother me , Shoo fly, don't bother me, Shoo fly, don't bother me, I belong to somebody.咻，苍蝇，别烦我咻，苍蝇，别烦我咻，苍蝇，别烦我我可没时间理你05 Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall, Humpty Dumpty had a great fall.All the king's horse and all the king's men Couldn't put Humpty together again.蛋头先生墙上坐蛋头先生跌下墙全部国王的马儿和士兵都没有方法把他拼回来06 I'm Dusty Bill From Vinegar Hill, Never had a bath And I never will.我是灰头比尔来自醋溜山丘我素来不沐浴也素来不沐浴07 Down at the station , early in the morning, See the little puffer-bellies all in a row; See the engine-driver pull his little lever-Puff puff, peep peep, off we go!大清晨，到车站瞧，小火车们排排站看，司机拉开他的小把手咻咻嘟嘟出发了08 Cackle, cackle, Mother Goose, Have you any feathers loose咯咯，咯咯，鹅妈妈你可有要掉下羽毛？Truly have I, pretty fellow, Quite enough to fill a pillow.确实有，我可爱的朋友够拿来做个枕头呦09 Rain on the green grass, And rain on the tree;Rain on the house top,But not on me.雨下在青青草地雨下在树上雨下在屋顶上但不在我身上10 Warm hands, warm,The men are gone to plough, If you want to warm your hands, warm your hands now.暖暖手，暖暖手男人出外去种田假如你要暖暖手此刻就来暖暖手11 I'm a little teapot, short and stout, Here's my handle,Here's my spout.When the tea is ready, hear me shout, Pick me up andpour me out!我是一个小茶壶又短又胖这是我的手把这是我的嘴当茶泡好，听我叫把我拿起而后倒12 Ride a cock horseTo Banbury Cross,To see what Tommy can buy;A penny white loaf,A penny white cake,And a two-penny apple pie.骑上一匹公鸡马到班伯利十字路口看看汤米能够买什么一分钱的白面包一分钱的白蛋糕还有一个两分钱的苹果派13 To market, to market, to buy a fat pig, Home again, home again, jiggety-jig. To market, to market, to buy a fat hog, Home again, home again, jiggety-jog.去市场，去市场，去买一头胖胖猪再回家，再回家，跳着吉格舞去市场，去市场，去买一头胖胖猪再回家，再回家，跳着吉格舞14 Jelly on a plate,Jelly on a plate,Wibble, wobble, wibble, wobble, Jelly on a plate.果冻在碟上果冻在碟上摇呀，晃呀，摇呀，晃呀果冻在碟上Sausage in a pan, Sausage in a pan,Frizzle frazzle, frizzle, frazzle, Sausage in a pan.腊肠在锅里，腊肠在锅里滋滋，嘶嘶，滋滋，嘶嘶腊肠在锅里Baby on the floor, Baby on the floor,小娃儿坐在地上小娃儿坐在地上Pick him up, pick him up,抱起来，抱起来Baby on the floor.小娃儿坐在地上15 Wash the dishes,洗洗碗盘Wipe the dishes,擦擦碗盘Ring the bell for tea;摇铃来杯茶Three good wishes,三个望Three good kisses,三个甜蜜吻I will give to thee.我要送给你16 Christopher Columbus克里斯多夫哥伦布was a very great man,是个伟大的人He sailed to America他乘着旧铁罐in an old tin can.航行到美国The can was greasy,铁罐油腻腻And it wasn't very easy,而那海浪越长越高And the waves grew higher,越长越高and higher and higher.越长越高17 12, Buckle my shoe;一，二，扣好鞋34 , Knock at the door;三，四，敲叩门56, Pick up sticks;五，六，捡棍子78, Lay them straight;七，八，摆摆叮910, A big fat hen.九，十，一只胖母鸡18 Donkey, donkey, old and grey,驴儿，驴儿，老又灰Open your mouth and gently bray.张开你的嘴，轻声叫Lift your ears and blow your horn竖起你的耳，吹军号To walk the world this sleepy morn.叫醒熟睡的清晨吧19 Wee Willie Winkie小威力文奇runs through the town,在城里跑来跑去Upstairs and downstairs衣着睡袍上楼来，下楼去in his night-gown,Rapping at the window,使劲敲窗户crying through the lock,对着锁吼叫Are the children all in bed,小朋友都上床了吗for now it's eight o'clock此刻已经8点钟啦第二本： Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What do you see 棕熊，棕熊，你看到了什么下边按每一页每一页对应的翻译。