经济学的思维方式英文课件(16)

11
The Pressures of Competition
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$1.50
Price
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Temptation!
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Marginal cost
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The Pressures of Competition
P Demand curve as seller perceives it
D Q
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The Pressures of Competition
n
A （perfectly）competitive market（完全竞争 市场） is said to exist when…
q
q
q
q q
There are a large number of buyers and sellers, and nobody possesses market power Market participants possess full and complete information of alternatives Sellers produce a homogeneous（同质的） product There is costless mobility of resources The economic actors are price takers
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Introduction
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学习完本章之后，你对这些问题应该有更好的 认识
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Competition as a Process
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在日常语言中，“竞争”更多地指的是人们参 与的活动。 而在主流经济学中，“竞争”的概念却意指事 物的状态（state of affairs）。
n
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Profit: Income that can be Positive or Negative
n Profit = 4th form of income in a market economy (after wage, rent and interest)
n Profit = total revenue – total cost n Profit is also termed Net Revenue n Negative Profit = Loss
Profit and Loss （利润和损失）
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Chapter Outline
n Wage, Rent and Interest: Incomes Established in Advance by Contract
n Profit: Income That can be Positive or Negative
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Comparing Economic Profit and Accounting Profit
n Example. Consider Ann, who earns $30,000 as a secretary. Suppose she also owns a building that she rents for $6,000 per year, and she has $23,000 in a certificate of deposit that earns 10% ($2,300) per year. These payments represent contracts that Ann has entered. They represent flows of income which reduce uncertainty in her life.

n 主要原因
q GNP需要统计所有永久居民的收入，随着经济一体 化趋势的加强，人员流动频繁，统计起来很不方便， 按照地域统计起来会更方便些。
q 两者差别一般不是很大。
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GDP as Total Income Created in the Domestic Economy
n GDP
q Purchases of final goods.
intermediate goods. q All expenditures would be double counting.
n An example
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GDP Is Not a Measure of All Purchases in the Economy
n purchased by ultimate user（最终使用者）, whether or not that user is in a household, business, or government bureau.
n Purchased without the goal of reselling it or further processed and manufactured.
服务上总共支出了30.067万亿元（考虑到中国出口与 进口的净差额）。
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GDP as Total Income Created in the Domestic Economy
n A purchase always involves a sale.
q 例如，在最终产品和服务上支出的30.067万亿元，为国内经 济中与生产这些产品和服务相关的人员（即资源提供者）创 造了价值30.067万亿元的收入(income)。
q 收入的形式：工资，租金，利息，和利润（或亏损）

n 经济学的思维方式不承认客观成本！ n “事物”根本没有成本。如果你非要认为事物
的确有成本，并且准备用一个例子来证明你的 观点，你就差不多肯定是在偷换概念，用一个 不被注意的行为替换某个事物，硬给它加上一 个成本。
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Costs are Tied to Actions, Not Things
n 例如，一个棒球的成本是什么？你说："10美 元。"但是，你的意思是说，在当地一家体育 用品商店里购买一个大联盟官方指定的棒球的 成本是10美元。因为购买是一个行为，所以这 个行为需要以其他机会为代价，从而发生了成 本。请注意这里引入了行为。棒球的成本因行 为的不同而改变。制造一个棒球的成本就不一 样。销售一个棒球的成本又不一样。
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Costs are Tied to Actions, Not Things
n 成本总是对某人而言的成本。 n The true cost of things stems from a failure to
recognize that only actions have cost, and that actions can entail different costs for different people.（关于事物的"真实成本"有大 量无效的辩论，这都是因为辩论者没能认识到 只有行为才有成本，而行为对不同的人有不同 的成本。）
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Introduction
n 经济学的供给理论和需求理论从本质上来说没 有什么区别。
n The theory of supply, like demand theory, assumes that decision makers face alternatives and choices.

The Economic Way of Thinking, 11/e
Heyne/Boettke/Prychitko
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An Apparatus of the Mind
• Specialization (Division of Labor)
– Results from people’s economizing actions. – Is necessary to increase production.
© 2006 Prentice Hall Business Publishing
The Economic Way of Thinking, 11/e
Heyne/Boettke/Prychitko8 of 35源自 How Does It Happen
• Adam Smith (1723-1790)
– Most people believed political rulers’ attention was necessary to sustain society. Smith disagreed. – In 1776 published An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. – Founder of Economics
An Apparatus of the Mind
The core problem for economic interactions a multiplicity of diverse and even incommensurable individual projects.
is
© 2006 Prentice Hall Business Publishing

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An Apparatus of the Mind
n Question
q 没有协作的专业化可行吗? q 没有协作的专业化是通向混乱之路，而不是通向财
富之路。 q 人们只是按照自己的资源和能力，根据自己特定的
计划追逐一己之利，与此同时，对旁人的利益、资 源和能力几乎一无所知，而每个人自己的计划的成 功又有赖于与旁人的合作，这样做能成功吗？
q 没有人控制这个过程，然而这个过程却能协调全部个人决策。 尽管这个过程并不完美，大多数人还是能成功抵达目的地。
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An Apparatus of the Mind
n 无意的结果（Unintended consequences）
q 每个人都想到达各自的目的地，一路上都要不断作决定， 都在路上与他人进行协作。但是，没有人计划过交通的 总体流量。这一点不是哪一个人能控制的。就算有一个 虚拟的中央交通调度员，也不可能通过详细指示每个人 该怎么做来保证有序的交通。人们“不过是在开车”， 他们无意的结果呈现为复杂的路况。
Economic theory assumes that :
People make choices
under scarcity based on
Expected Benefits
and Expected
Cost
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An Apparatus of the Mind
n 个人经济交互作用的核心问题就是存在大量互不相同 甚至互不兼容的个人计划。
n 人们驶向各自的目标，一门心思只顾他们自己 的利益，这并不一定是因为人们都是自私的， 而只不过是因为没有人知道别人想去哪儿。
n 关于其他人，每个人所能确知的仅限于周围为 数不多的几辆车的位置、方向和速度。

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Discover the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and its significance in integration.
Riemann Sums
Explore Riemann sums as a method for approximating definite integrals.
Functions and Graphs
Types of Functions
Discover the different types of functions and their graphical representations.
Graph Plotting
Learn how to plot and analyze functions using mathematical tools and software.
Differentiation
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Derivative Definition
Learn the definition and basic rules
Chain Rule
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of differentiation.
Discover how to differentiate
composite functions using the
Work and Energy
Explore how integration is used to calculate work and energy in various scenarios.
Differential Equations
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Introduction to Differential

因为每个正确的陈述都必然以遗漏戒忽略大量正确的信息为代价事实本身丌会说话必须用理论来解释其原因没有理论就是糟糕的理论它丌是教条而是一种斱法一种智力工具一种思维技巧有劣于拥有它的人得出正确的结论经济理论本身幵丌能回答仸何有趣和重要的社会问题却是解决这些问题的有效工具历史文化政治心理社会制度简短回顾经济学是关于选择及其无意后果的理论economicsitsunintendedconsequences预期额外收益expectedadditionalbenefits预期额外成本expectedadditionalcosts产权是游戏觃则的一个关键因素思考题以高峰期的交通为例说明基于个体利益的选择行为是怎样导致群体合作及整体秩序的
• 当人们用钱来衡量一项行为的收益和成本时
– 一点小小的变动就会使很多人改变他们的行为 – 更重要的是，这一改变的方向与其他人正在做的事情
更趋一致！
• 这就是社会成员之间协作的主要机制 • 也是市场经济的主要内容
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游戏规则
• 社会上人与人之间大多是依照他们了解并一致遵 守的规则进行合作
2.请举一个日常生活中的例子说明“游戏规则”不 同会导致激励效果不同。
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第一讲结束！
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经济学入门教材；保罗·海恩等著《经济学的思维 方式（第11版） 》世界图书出版公司
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• 课程要求
1.坚持听课（三次以上不到者成绩以零分计） 2.认真听讲，适当笔记 3.勤于思考，学以致用
• 成绩构成
1.期末考试占70% 2.作业及考勤占30%
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概观
• 导语 • 从交通说起
• 经济理论本身并不能回答任何有趣和重要的社会 问题，却是解决这些问题的有效工具

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The Basic Process
Figure 5-1 Supply and Demand in the Acoustic Guitar Market S
$700
$500
$300
D
Price
800 1000
1,200
Quantity of Acoustic Guitars
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The Basic Process
节"的，给人的印象是，好像市场没有人的干预自 己就能如何如何了！好像市场是某种机械化的东西， 比如恒温器。
n 市场体系完全是由需求方和供给方组成的，供求双方都是 活人，追逐着各自感兴趣的计划，根据面临的相对稀缺性 进行节约，并按照各自的需要谈判和交换，获取各自想要 的东西。
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The Market is a Process of Competing Bids and Offers
n 供给曲线一般都是向上倾斜的，这说明生产更 多的吉他意味着更高的边际机会成本。
n 制作更多的原声吉他需要投入很多特殊的资源， 从各种等级的云杉、桃花心木到高级技工的劳动。 对于吉他生产者来说，他们要获得更多的云杉和 桃花心木，就得在竞价的时候压过其他用途，人 们用这些木料总能做其他的东西。较高的吉他价 格会使生产者制作更多的吉他。
q 还得有人安排实际的交易。
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Transaction Costs, Again
n Questions
q Why does broken glass stay on a bicycle trail even if each bicyclist would pay someone to clean it up?
第四章已经分别作过介绍。这一章把供给和需 求放在一起，描述市场过程的原理。

q Enormous lossed throughout the S&L industry q A bailout for which American taxpayers received
the burden,and had to pay billions
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The S&L Crisis of the 1980s
matters, the irony is often difficult for others to see
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The S&L Crisis of the 1980s
n Depositors’ lack of concern combined with years of lax oversight by the regulatory authorities unintentionally created
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The S&L Crisis of the 1980s
n Who would suggest that its broad-sweeping ans systemic policies caused the mess?
q Economists! q Without the economic way of thinking about these
n What does the economic way of thinking reveal about the workings of society?
n Is there anything of importance that it conceals?
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The Great Financial Crisis of 2008…and Beyond