Explain the following terms
一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出，表达alone with meaning.
It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get
2) bound form/never used as sentences.
– ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups
3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by
4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and
have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and
adverbs副词of a language.
二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian.
2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese
3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups
三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms.
2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in-
3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the
word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing
4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but
not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added.
Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数,
tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est
7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word.
re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er
8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining
two or more bases to form a compound word
9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base
10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain
word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix.
11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name,
a technical term, or a phrase.
12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of
an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they
are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters.
13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by
combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms.
14) clipping截短词/The process of clipping involves the deletion of one or more syllables
from a word (usually a noun), which is also available in its full form.
15) back-formation逆生法/Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation
by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer
form already present in the language.
四meaning /is the thing or idea that it refers to or represents and which can be explained using other words. conventionality/most words are conventional, arbitrary symbols; consequently, there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.
motivation 理据/The connection between word symbol and its sense.
grammatical meaning / Grammatical meaning consists of word-class and inflectional paradigm.
World-class: it describes the word’s lexical meaning and also gives what is traditionally known as the
part of speech of the word, which modern linguists.
lexical meaning /Lexical meaning is dominant in content words, whereas grammatical meaning is dominant in function words, but in neither is grammatical meaning absent.
denotative meaning指示意义/is sometimes called the conceptual meaning. It is the central factor in linguistic communication. One of the functions of words is to designate or describe
something, such as an object, a property, a process or a state of affairs. Users of a
language cannot talk about their knowledge of a physical object or a natural
phenomenon, unless this knowledge is express in words which have the same meaning
for all speakers of a given community.
connotative meaning内涵意义/ refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind；it is the supplementary value which is added to the purely
denotative meaning of a word.
stylistic meaning 社会意义/ What a word conveys about the social circumstances of its use affective meaning/ It is concerned with the expression of feelings and attitudes of the
speaker or writer.
五1) Polysemy一词多义/Polysemy refers to a lexical term which has a range of different meanings.
2) Homonymy同形异义/Pairs or groups of words, which, though different in meaning, are
pronounced alike, or spelled alike, or both
六restriction of meaning词义的缩小/A word of wide meaning acquires a narrower, specialized sense which is applicable合适的to only one of the objects it had previously以前denoted表示. extension of meaning词义的扩大/- the opposite of restriction
- the widening of a word’s sense until it covers much more than what it originally conveyed. degeneration of meaning词义的降格/the meaning of a word narrows toward an unfavorable meaning elevation of meaning词义的升格/- A word meaning takes a turn for the better in the course of time, and has either risen from a “snarl”word to a “purr”word, or from a slang term to
a common word.
七linguistic context 语言语境/In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.
extra-linguistic context非语言语境/In a broad sense, it includes the physical situation. This is
called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces包含the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.
the actual speech situation and the entire cultural background
八complete synonyms/ Complete synonyms are the words which are fully identical in meaning and interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in connotative, affective and stylistic meanings.
Scientific terms: delimited and neutral in affective情感的and stylistic meaning.
relative synonyms /- the same denotative外延的meanings, but different connotative内涵的, affective and stylistic meanings
contrary/gradable antonyms / They display a type of semantic contrast. They don’t represent an either/or relation but rather a more/less relation.
cheap and expensive; fast and slow; sweet and sour
complementary antonyms / They represent a type of binary semantic opposition. They are in an either/or relation of oppositeness. alive and dead; asleep and awake; shut and open converse antonyms /They are also called relational opposites. One expresses the converse meaning of the other. lend and borrow; buy and sell; husband and wife; parent and child; hyponym 下义词/Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.
semantic field/The vocabulary of a language is not an unstructured collection of words. Instead, the vocabulary can be organized into a number of semantic fields.
field of colours：pink, orange, scarlet, crimson, violet
九Allusive words /words that are closely related to cultural history.
Allusions : references参照to characters or events from history, legend, literature, religion.
十idiom 习语/Idioms are usually metaphorical比喻性的rather than literal文字的.
Structural criteria: phrase idioms; clause idioms; sentence idioms
collocation / Collocation is the way in which words are used together regularly
Collocation is often language-specific (e.g. “blue blood”）and not determined by universal semantic constrains (e.g. “green grass”).
Answer the following questions
一1) What are the fundamental features of the basic word stock of the English vocabulary?
a. National character
b. Stability
- sun, earth, rain, snow , on, of, can, will
- arrow and bow ; telephone, computer, bus, car,
radio, electricity
c. Word-forming ability
headache, headless不在意的；无头脑的；无领导者的, headline大标题；内容提要, headman首领, headmaster d. Ability to form collocations搭配
hand over fist; hand in glove互相勾结、关系密切; to come hat in hand;
2) How can we classify English vocabulary according to its origin, level of usage and notion ？
二1) How do linguists divide the history of the English language for analysis? What are the characteristics of the English vocabulary as a result of its historical development?
Three periods in the development of English language (vocabulary)
1) Old English or Anglo-Saxon period (449-1100) 1 Much of the old English vocabulary was borrowed from Latin 如bargain, cheap, inch, pound; cup, dish, wall, wine, etc2- Old English was a highly inflected language. It has a complete system of declensions of words
2) Middle English period ( 1100-1500 ) 1- French influence Norman Conquest in 1066 Law and government administration: 、Military affairs: 、Religion: 、Art。。。。
2Middle English is becoming from highly inflected language to analytic language
3) Modern English period (1500-) 1- Influence of Renaissance Latin and Greek words
2Science and abstract ideas 3literary, technical and scientific words
4)The Late Modern English (between1700-the Present). Characteristics:- almost complete loss of endings- continuing to borrow words from other languages
2) What are the main causes of borrowing? What is the influence of borrowing?
Causes : historical and social
Historically
- Roman invasion (55 BC-410AD)
- The succession of invaders who came into contact with the English people during the Middle Ages (395—1500)
Anglo-Saxons, Vikings, Norman Conquest
- Invasions and trade by the English themselves at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries Industrial Revolution
Socially
- modern mass media, the international cultural and informational exchange
Influence
- the richest vocabulary of all the languages in the world
- rich in synonyms 同义词
3) Enumerate列举the causes for the rapid growth of English vocabulary after World War Ⅱand give at least four examples for each cause.
三2）Use the knowledge of word-formation to analyze the new words in different fields after World War Ⅱand tell how they are formed.
五1) Why is polysemy an essential condition for language efficiency?
2) What are the two approaches to the study of polysemy?
3) What are the two processes leading to polysemy?
Two processes leading to polysemy: radiation放射and concatenation串联
- Radiation:the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like ray辐射线
- Concatenation:a semantic 语义的process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is no connection between the sense that is finally developed and the primary meaning.
4) Give examples to show the stylistic value of polysemy and homonymy？
六Why is change of word-meaning fundamental in a living language?
八1) Give examples to show the effect of using synonyms.
- avoiding repetition重复; achieving precision精确in meaning and variety in style.
Example 1
I have always liked you very much, I admire your talent, but, forgive me, I could never love you as a wife, should love her husband.
2) Give examples to show the effect of using antonyms.
- Creating contrast to impress one’s listeners or readers.
Example 1
Sweet as honey, bitter苦的as gall胆汁Art is long, life is short.
More haste, less speed. Light come, light go.
3) Give examples to show the effect of using hyponyms.
- more informative有益的and expressive有表现力的
Good
a good man kind, honest, just, generous, brave, sympathetic, warm-hearted, selfless, honorable
good food tasty, delic ious, nourishing, rich, fresh, wholesome, appetizing
十一- Study the examples in the lecture and use more examples to show the effect of using abstract words and dynamic words.
Analyze and comment on the following statements.
一、If you count the words of native and foreign origin in a dictionary, you would find 80% of the entries are loan words. But if one count the words actually used, you may find the proportion is almost reversed颠倒.
Although the loan words outnumber数目超过the native ones, the latter make up the most familiar most useful part of the English vocabulary, while the former adds to the flexibility灵活性and resourcefulness足智多谋of the language.
四1) Words are conventional, arbitrary symbols. The connection between sound and sense is purely a matter of tradition and convention.
There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in C hinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.
2) The meaning of a word is its use in the languages.
五Polysemy is the rule and monosemy is the exception.
七The contexts of an utterance determine its meaning since no two contexts are ever exactly the same. To insist dogmatically that we know what a word means in advance of its utterance is nonsense.
九The meaning of words are usually culturally determined or modified.
第一章Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary
1. 词的定义Word —— A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntacti c句法的function.
2.声音与意义的关系There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary and conventional.E.g. ―woman‖ means ’Frau’ in German，’Femme’ in French and ’Funv ’in Chinese. On the other hand，the same sound /rait/ can mean right，rite and write，though denoting different things，yet have the same sound.
3.读音与拼写不一致的原因The difference between sound and form result from 4 major factors. （At least 80% of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns）a）. The internal reason is English alphabet does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language.
b）. Pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling
c）. Influence of the work of scribes/printing freezes the spelling of words in 1500
d）. Borrowing of foreign language
4. 词汇的含义Vocabulary —— Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the sum total of all the words of a language. It can also refer to all the words of a given dialect，a given book，a given displine and all the words possessed by an individual person as well as all the words current in a particular period of time in history.
The general estimate of the present day English vocabulary is over 1 million words.
5.词汇的分类的原则Classification of Words—by use frequency，by notion概念，by origin
The English vocabularies consist of words of all kinds. They can be classified by different criteria and for different purpose. Words may fall into the word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin.
基本词汇的特点
1）. Basic word stock – the foundation of the vocabulary.
1.all national character （most important）– natural phenomena
Most common things and phenomena of the human body and relations
world around us names of plants and animals action，size，domain，state numerals，pronouns，prep. conj.
2.stability– they donate the commonest thing necessary to life，they are like to remain unchanged. Only relative，some are undergoing some changes. But the change is slow.
e.g. arrow，bow，chariot，knight – past electricity，machine，car，plane —— now
3.productivity– they are mostly root words or monosyllabic words，they can form new words with other roots and affixes.
E.g. foot – football，footage，footpath，footer
4.polysemy – often possess more than one meaning. Become polysemous.
E.g. take to move or carry from one place to another to remove
5.collocability– quite a number of set expressions，idiomatic usages，proverbial saying and others
基本词汇在英语中的地位和重要性
The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it.
E.g. heart – a change of heart， a heart of gold
Non-basic vocabulary ——(例子)
1. terminology –technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine
photoscanning，hepatitis，indigestion，penicillin，algebra，trigonometry，calculus
2. jargon– specialized vocabulary in certain professions.
Bottom line，ballpark figures，bargaining chips，hold him back，hold him in，paranoid
3. slang—— substandard words often used in informal occasions
dough and bread，grass and pot，beaver，smoky，bear，catch，holler，Roger，X-rays，Certain words are labeled slang because of their usage.
4. argot – words used by sub-cultured groups
can-opener，dip，persuader cant，jargon ，argot are associated with，or most available to，specific groups of the population.
5. dialectal words– only by speakers of the dialect
beauty，chook，cocky，station，auld，build，coo，hame，lough，bog
6. archaisms – words no longer in common use or restricted in use. In older poems，legal document and religious writing or speech.
7. neologism– newly created words with new meaning e.g. microelectronics，futurology，AIDS，internet，E-mail
old meaning acquired new meaning e.g. mouse，monitor
2）. Content word （notional word）– denote clear notions.
Functional word （empty word，form word）– do not have notions of their own，express the relation between notions，words and sentences.
a. Content words constitute the main body of the English vocabulary are numerous.
Functional words are in a small number.
b. Content words are growing.
Functional words remain stable.
c. Functional words do far more work of expression than content words.
3）. Native words –are words brought to Britain in the 15 century by the German tribes. Ango-Saxon Words，50，000-60，000
What is true of the basic word stock is also true of native world. More are
1. neutral in style （not stylistical specific ）
2. 2.frequent in use （in academic fields and science French，Latin or Greek are used）（usage 70-90%）
Borrowed words （loan words，borrowing）– words taken over from foreign language. 80%
本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性
Native words form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language. Therefore, what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words.
According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing，we can bring the loan words under 4 classes.
1.Denizen s– words borrowed early and now are well assimilated into English language.
e.g. port from portus（L）shift，change，shirt，pork cup from cuppa（L）
2.Aliens– retained their original pronunciation and spelling
e.g. décor（F）blitzkreeg（G）emir，intermez，rowtow，bazaar，rajar，status quo
3.translation loans– formed from the existing material in the English language but modeled on the patterns taken from another language.
1）. Word translated according to the meaning
e.g. mother tough from lingua maternal（L）black humor from humor noir long time no see，surplus value，master piece
2）. Words translated according to the sound
e.g. kulak from kyrak（Russ）lama from lama（Tib）ketchup tea
4. Semantic loans– their meaning are borrowed from another language
e.g. stupid old dump new sassy dream old joy and peace pioneer old explorer/person doing pioneering work new a member of the young pioneer fresh old impertinent，sassy，cheeky
第二章The Development of the English
1、Indo-European language family （Europe，the Near East，India）
It can be grouped into an Eastern set :Balto –Slavic 、Indo-Iranian、Armenian and Albanian; a Western set: Celtic、Italic 、Hellenic、Germanic
In the Eastern set , Armenian and Albanian are each the only modern language respectively
,the Balto –Slavic comprises such modern language such as Prussian、Lithuanian、Polish、Czech、Bulgarian、Slovenian、Russian. In the Indo-Iranian we have Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany, the last three of which are derived from the dead language Sanskrit.
In the Western set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. In the Celtic,we find Scottish, Irish,Welsh, Breton. the five Romance language ,namely, Portuguese,Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian all belong to the Italic through an intermediate language called Latin. The Germanic family consist of the four Northern European language :Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German, Dutch, Flemish and English.
2、History （时间，历史事件，特征）
1）Old English （450-1150）totally 50，000-60，000 words
The 1st people known to inhabit England were Celts，the language was Celtic.The second language was the Latin of the Roman Legions. The Germanic tribes called angles，Saxons and Jutes and their language，Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted out the Celtic. Now people refer to Anglo-Saxon as old English. At the end of 6th century，the introduction of Christianity has a great impact on the English vocabulary. The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words. In the 9th century，many Scandinavian words came into English. At least 900 words of Scandinavian are in modern English，our daily life and speech.
特点：highly inflected language///complex endings or vowel changes （full ending）2）Middle English （1150-1500）English，Latin，French
Until 1066，although there were borrowings from Latin，the influence on English was mainly Germanic. But the Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English.
By the end of the 13th century，English gradually come back into public areas.
Between 1250 and 150 about 9000 words of French origin pouered into English. 75% of them are till in use today.
As many as 2500 words of Dutch origin come into English.特点：fewer inflections leveled ending
3）Modern English （1500-up to now）early modern English （1500-1700）
late modern English（1700-up to now）
The Renaissance(the early period)，Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western world’s great literary heritage.
From the 1500’s through the 1700’s ,many writers experimented with words. Over 10000 new words entered the English language .many of these were taken from Latin and Greek .
The Industrial Revolution was in the mid-17 century. With the growth of colonization，British tentacles began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe，thus enabling English to absorb words from all major languages of the world.
After World War II，many new words have been created to express new ideas，inventions and scientific achievements.
More words are created by means of word-formation.
thousands and thousands of new words have been entered to express new ideas inventions，and scientific achievements.
more words are created by means of word-formation.
in modern English，word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions English has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.
science and technology terms make up about 45% of new words. words associated with life-style constitute of 24% and social and economic terms amount to over 10% .
mention should be made of an opposite process of development i.e. old words falling out if use.
特点：ending are almost lost.
3. Three main sources new words
当代英语词汇发展的现状
New words sweep in at a rate much faster than at any other historical period of time .
词汇发展的主要原因
1).The rapid development of modern science and technology2).Social: economic and political changes3).The influence of other cultures and languages
4. Three modes of vocabulary development（英语发展的三个主要方式：创造新词、旧词新意、借用外来语词）
1. Creation – the formation of new words by using the existing materials，namely roots，affixes and other elements. （This is the most important way of vocabulary expansion.）
2. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need.
3. Borrowing – to take in words from other languages.（played a vital role in the development of vocabulary , particularly in earlier times）
4. （Reviving archaic or obsolete）
French 30%，Latin 8%，Japanese Italian 7%，Spanish 6%，German Greek 5%，Russian Yiddish 4%
第三章Word Formation
*1. Morpheme(词素) ——A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.）
*2.Morph—— A morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.
3.Monomorphenic words– morphemes are realized by single morphs.
4.Allomorph（词素变体）——Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs are allomorphemes. E.g. the morpheme of plurality （-s）has a number if allomorphemes in different sound context，e.g. in cats/s/，in bags/z/，in matches/iz/.
5. Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences，e.g. cat，walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.
6.Bound Morphemes——The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words，e.g. recollection （re+collect+ion）collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. （include bound root and affix）Bound morphemes are found in derived words.
7.Bound root ——A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root，it is a bound form and has to combine with other
morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example：it conveys the meaning of ―say or speak‖ as a Latin root，but not as a word. With the prefix pre-（=before）we obtain the verb predict meaning ―tell beforehand‖。Contradict ― speak against‖。Bound roots are either Latin or Greek.
Although they are limited in number，their productive power is amazing.
8. Affixes——Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Almost affixes are bound morphemes. Most all affixes and bound morphemes .
9.Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes—— Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional，thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.
a. There is the regular plural suffix -s（-es）which is added to nouns such as machines，desks.
b. Simple present for the third person singular. –s（-es）
c. The possessive case of nouns. ’s
d. –er and –est to show comparative and superlative degree
e. The past tense marker –ed
f. –ing to form present participles or gerunds.
10. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes—— Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.
11. Prefixes—— Prefixes are affixes that come before the word，such as，pre+war，sub+sea
12. Suffixes —— suffixes are affixes that come after the word，for instance，blood+y.
13. Root —— A root is the basic form of a word，which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. （What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.）.e.g. ―internationalists‖ removing inter-，-al-，-ist，-s，leaves the root nation.
14. Stem ——a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. E.g. ―internationalists‖，nation is a root and a stem as well. a stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus a affix. a stem can be a root or a form bigger than a root.
第四章word formation
The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation. Not all the words that are produced by applying the rules are acceptable.Rules only provide a constant set of models from which new words are created from day to day.Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes.affixation 30%-40% compounding 28%-30% conversion 26% shortening 8%-10% （clipping and acronymy）blending and others 1%-5%
4.1. Affixation （Derivation）词缀法——the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. （derivative派生词）
According to their position，affixation falls into：prefixation and suffixation.
4.1.1. Prefixation—— the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning.
1. Negative prefixes – a- （abnormal），dis- （disobey），in- （il-，ir-，im-）（injustice），non- （non-smoker），un- （unwilling）un- are the most productive and can usually replace in- or dis- with adj.
2. Reversative prefixes – de- （decentralize），dis- （disunite），un- （unwrap）
3. Pejorative prefixes – mal- （maltreat），mis- （mistrust），pseudo- （pseudo-science）
4. Prefixes of degree or size – arch- （archbishop），extra-（extra-strong），hyper-（hyperactive），macro- （macrocosm），micro- （microcomputer），mini- （mini-election），out- （outlive），over- （overweigh），sub- （subheading），super- （superfreeze），sur- （surtax），ultra- （ultra-conservative），under-（underdeveloped）
5. Prefixes of orientation and attitude – anti- （anti-nuclear），contra- （contraflow），counter-，pro-（pro-student）
6. Locative prefixes – extra- （extraordinary），fore- （forehead），inter- （inter-city），intra- （intra-party），tele-，trans-
7. Prefixes of time and order – ex- （ex-wife），fore- （foretell），pre-，re- （reconsider）
8. Number Prefixes – bi-，multi- （poly-）（multi-purpose），semi- （hemi-），tri- （tricycle），uni-（mono-）（uniform）
9. Miscellaneous prefixes – auto-，neo- （neo-Nazi），pan- （pan-European），vice-
4.1.2 Suffixation ——Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems （the word class）. Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis.
1.Noun suffixes
+suffix ——名词）
a. Concrete —— -eer （engineer），-er （teenager），-ess （hostess），-ette （cigarette），-let （booklet）
b. Abstract —— -age （wastage），-dom （处于…状态）（officialdom），-ery （slavery），-ery （-ry），-hood （childhood），-ing （farming），- ism（…主义）（terrorism），-ship（状态）（sportsmanship）
+suffix——名词）
a. Denoting people —— -ant （assistant），-ee （trainee），-ent （respondent），-er （-or）
b. Denoting action，result，process，state，ect. ——-age （linkage），-al （dismissal），-ance （attendance），-ation（-ition，-tion，-sion，-ion），-ence （existence），-ing （savings），-ment （statement）
形容词+suffix——名词）—— -ity （popularity），-ness （happiness）
-ese （Chinese），-an （Australian），-ist （主义）（socialist）
2.Adjective suffixes
-ed （wooded），-ful （successful），-ish （foolish），-less （priceless），-like （lady-like），-ly （friendly），-y （smoky）
-al（-ial，-ical）（cultural，residential），-esque （picturesque），-ic （economic），-ous（-eous，-ious）（coutageous）-ic and –ical can be affixed to the stem in some cases，but differ in meaning. Historic （important in history）historical （of history）Classic （great，memorable）classical （of Latin or Greek）Comic （of comedy）comical （funny）Economic （in the economy）economical （money-saving）Electric （powered by electricity）electrical （of electricity）
-able （-ible）（washable），-ive（-ative，-sive）（active，decisive）
-ly （calmly），-ward（s）（homewards），-wise （clockwise）
-ate（originate），-en （darken），-（i）fy （beautify），-ize （ise）（modernize）
-nik most of them are considered slang.
https://www.doczj.com/doc/0a5762543.html,pounding （Composition）复合法——Compounding is a formation of new words by joining two or more stems.
is a ‘lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word’.
三种形式solid，hyphenated，open
4.2.1 Characteristics （differ from free phrases）
Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects: Phonetic features Compound （not absolute）Free phrase ,Stress on the first element Stress on the second element.
Semantic features : Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word. A lot of compounds are transparent and
A compound plays a single grammatical role in a sentence. In adjective-noun compounds，the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes. Compound Free phrase, fine art finer art.
4.2.2 Formation of Compounds
Most compounds consist of 2 stems，but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationship within the words is considered complex.
Noun compounds ;Adjective compounds ; Verb compounds （through conversion and back formation）p54 Back formed verb compounds are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes，-er，-ing，-ion，-etc.
4.3.Conversion （zero-derivation，functional shift）转类法——Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. The most productive is between nouns and verbs. A change of grammatical function ；The different range of meaning
Conversion to noun
Verb to noun almost all monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns.
1. State （of mind or sensation）
2. Event or activity
3. Result of the action
4. Doer of the action
5. Tool or instrument
6. Place of the action
Adjective to noun （full conversion，partial conversion）
1. Words fully converted-a noun converted from an adjective has all the characteristics of nouns. It can take an identical article or –e（s）.
2. Words partially converted – do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. They retain some of the adjective features. Words of this class generally refer to a group of the kind.
Miscellaneous conversion ( this covers nouns converted from conjunctions, modals, finite verbs, prepositions , etc.)
Conversion to verbs
1. Noun to verb-verbs of this kind are all transitive.
2. Adjective to verb
3. Miscellaneous conversion p62
4.4.Blending—拼缀法is the word formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.
for example :autocide / motel/ slurb / cremains / chunnel for
example : comsat / telex / Amerind / sitcom / FORTRAM for
example :medicare / Eurasia / telequiz / atuocamp for example :lunarnaut / bookmobile / workfare / tourmobile ;;The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns，very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer.
4.5.Clipping截短法– shorten a longer word by cutting a part of the original and using what remains instead. People tend to ve economical in writing and speech to keep up the tempo of new life style.
Quake （earthquake）/ Copter（helicopter）/ scope （telescope）/ phone
（telephone）Dorm（dormitory）/ momo（）/stereo（）/gent（）/fan（）
/disco（）Pub（）/pop（）/zoo（）/perm （）p65
4.6.Acronymy首字母缩略法–is the process of forming new words by joining the initial
one of the word formations of acronymy. E.g. IMF/ai em ef/=International Monetary Fund. P66
letters of word and pronounced as words. . It’s one of the word formations of acronymy. E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
4.7.Back-formation逆生法——is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.. words created through back-formation are mostly verbs. there are only a few that can be used as nouns or as both nouns and verbs .
4.8.Words from proper names modern English has a large number of words which
come from proper nouns. They include a) Words of this group are from names of scientists，investors，etc. these terms are used as measurements.////b) Some words are from characters in mythology.//// c)Some are from historical figures.///d)Some
words are from characters in literary books.Many words denoting products，objects or materials come from the names of places where they were first produced.
When proper nouns are communized，many of them have lost their original identity. They can be converted to other classes. These words can also take suffixes.
Words that are communized from proper nouns have rich culture associations and thus stylistically vivid，impressive and though-provoking.
第五章Word Meaning
（领会）5.1.1Reference 所指– the relationship between language and the world. By means of reference，a speaker indicates which things in the world （including persons）are being talked about.The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional.
Although reference is abstract，yet with the help of context，it can refer to something specific.
（领会）5.1.2Concept（概念）– which beyond language is the result of human cognition reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It isn’t affe cted by language. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. Meaning belongs to language，so is restricted to language use. A concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.
（领会）5.1.3 Sense(语义) – denotes the relationship inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense.The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.It is also abstraction.
5.2Motivation理据——accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.English does have words whose meanings can be explained to a certain extent. Most words are non-motivated. The connection of the sign and meaning dose not have a logical explanation.
5.2.1Onomatopoeic Motivation（拟声理据）–the words whose sounds suggest their meaning. （Indicate the relationship between sound and meaning）. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example，bang，ping-pang，crow by cocks，etc.Such echoic words are also conventional for the sounds we say in English may not be the same in other language.
5.2.2Morphological Motivation（形态理据）——Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. （Indicate the relationship between word meaning and each morpheme meaning）. For instance，airmail means to ―mail by air‖，miniskirt is ―a small skirt‖。There are a lot of words whose structures are opaque，their meanings are not the combinations of the separate words.
5.2.3Semantic Motivation（语义理据）——refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explained the connection between literal sense and figurative sense of a word）. E.g. When we say the mouth of a river，we associate the opening part of the river with the mouth of a human being or an animal.
5.2.4Etymological Motivation（词源理据）——The history of the word explains the meaning of the word. （Indicate the relationship between word meaning and its origin）. E.g. the word ’laconic’ meaning ’brief’ or ’short’ is derived from Laconi c，a tribe of people who were known for their ’brevity of speech’ and for their habit of never using more words than necessary.
Hence a laconic answer is a ’short answer’。All the words communized from proper nouns can be interpreted in terms of their origins.
5.3Types of meaning （领会，运用）
Word-formation is not monogamous but a composite consisting of different parts.
5.3.1Grammatical meaning（语法意义）– refer to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships，such as part of speech of words，singular and plural meanings of nouns，tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms. Grammatical meaning becomes important only used in actual context.Different Lexical meaning may have different grammatical meaning.The same word may have different grammatical meaning.(p86)Functional words，though having little lexical meaning，posses strong grammatical meaning，content words have both meanings and lexical meaning in particular.
Lexical meaning —— is constant in all the words within or without context related to the notion that the word conveys. It has two components conceptual meaning and associative meaning.Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning.
Grammatical meaning surfaces only in use.
5.3.2Conceptual meaning （denotative meaning）(概念意义)– the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.It is constant and relative stable. Conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication. e.g. The sun rises in the East. the ―sun‖
5.3.3 Associative meaning（关联意义）–the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.It is open-ended and indeterminate
——the overtones or association suggested by the conceptual meaning. It is not an essential part of the word- meaning，but associations that might occur in the mind of a particular use in the language. e.g. Mother——a female parent —— love，care，tenderness，forgiving Home —— a dwelling place —— family，friends，warmth，safety. It is unstable varying considerably according to situations.
– stylistic features make the words appropriate for different contexts.（in some dictionaries ,these stylistic are clearly marked as ‘informal，formal，literary，archaic. Slang’and soon）e.g. pregnant，expecting，knock up，in the club，The stylistic difference is true of synonyms. There are few words have both the same Conceptual meaning and Stylistic meaning.
分析： 1. they chucked a stone at the cops，and then did a bunk with the loot . 2. after costing a stone at the police，they absconded with the money.
The stylistic features of words are obvious.Sentence 1 could be said by 2 criminals，all the words used in italics are slangy，sentence 2 might be said by the chief inspector in making his official report and the words used are literary （cast，abscond）or neutral （police，money）.
the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question. Interjections are affective words as they are expression of emotions.
Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories：
Words of positive overtones are used show appreciation or the attitude of approval. Those of negative connotations imply disapproval，contempt or criticism.Affective meaning varies from individual to individual，from culture to culture … e.g. revolution，democracy，imperialism，dog loyalty，faithfulness，a close companion （western）but useful animal （Chinese）
the associations a word acquires in its collocation. It is that part of the word—meaning suggested by the word before or after the word in discussion. There is some overlaps between the collcations of the two words. e.g. pretty and handsome = goodlooking（conceptual meaning）pretty woman stress the attractiveness of facial feature. handsome woman may not be facial beautiful，yet is attractive in other respects.//// tremble/quiver = shake involuntary tremble with fear/quiver with excitement
Function：Collocative meaning overlaps with stylistic and affective meanings because in a sense both stylistic and affective meanings are revealed by means of collocations.
Form – by form we mean both its pronunciation and spelling. A word is the combination of form and meaning. Form is the carrier of meaning.
第六章Sense Relations and Semantic Field
6.1. Polysemy(多义关系)（识记）—polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages. When a words is first coined，it always monosemic，but tin the course of development ，the same word may have two or more different meanings. e.g. The word ―flight‖ may mean ―passing through the air‖，―power of flying‖，―air of journey‖，etc.
Two approaches（识记）（两种研究方法）
Diachronically，polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. This first meaning is the primary meaning. With the advance of time and the development of language，it took on more and more meanings. These latter meanings are called derived meanings. E.g. face、、The primary meaning gave birth to new meaning.The primary meaning become either absolute or disappeared altogether E.g. harvest time of cutting reaping and gathering the crops a season’s yield of grain or fruit Pain penalty or punishment pains and penalty upon/under pain of suffering
synchronically，polysemy is viewed as the coexistent of various meaning of the same word in a certain historical period of time. The basic meaning of a word is
the core of word meaning. The core of word meaning called the central meaning （the derived meanings ,no matter how many are secondary meaning in comparison）.The central meaning has gradually diminished in currency with the changes and one of the derived meanings has become dominant. E.g. gay
Two process of development（领会）
a semantic process which shows that the primary meaning stands at the center and each of the derived meanings proceed out of in every direction like rays.The meanings are independent of one another，but can all be tracked back to the central meaning.
e.g. Neck1）That part of a man or animal jointing the head to the body2）That part of the garments3）The neck of an animal used as food4）A narrow part between the head and body or base of any object5）The part of anything
Of the 5 meanings 1）is the primary and all the rest are derived but each of the other four is directly related to 1）. Therefore，we say neck has developed through the process of radiation.
meaning ―linking together‖，is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until，in many cases，there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the tern had at the beginning. e.g. candidate1）White-robed2）Office seeker in white gowns3）A person who seeks an office4）A person proposed for a place，award，etc.
Of the 4 meanings，1）is the primary meaning and the other three are derived，but each of the derived meaning is only directly related to the preceding one and there is no direct connection between 1）and 4）. Therefore，we say candidate has developed through the process of concatenation.
Radiation is concatenation is closely related，being different stages of the development leading to polysemy.Radiation，each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.Concatenation，each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be tracked to the original，there’s no direct connection in between.The two processes work together，complementing each other. Radiation precedes concatenation.
6.2.Homonyms（同音同形异义关系）——are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.
are words identical both in sound and spelling，but different in meaning. e.g. bank/bank bear/bear date/date
are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning. e.g. Bow/bow Sow/sow
1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)
全国2011年7月高等教育自学考试 英语词汇学试题 课程代码：00832 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes the statement and put the letter in the bracket. (30 %) 1. Grammarians insist that a word be a __________ form that can function in a sentence. ( ) A. small B. large C. fixed D. free 2. In the earliest stage of English, the written form of a word should ________ that of the oral form. ( ) A. agree with B. disagree with C. be the same as D. be different from 3. ____________consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine, mathematics, etc. ( ) A. Terminology B. Jargon C. Slang D. Argot 4. Social, economic and political changes bring about such new words as the followings EXCEPT_________. ( ) A. fast food B. TV dinner C. Mao jackets D. Watergate 5. Reviving archaic words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary. For instance, “loan”, which was prevalent in the thirteenth century, was replaced by “ __________ ” in American English. ( ) A. own B. let C. rent D. lend 6. If we say that Old English was a language of __________ endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings. ( ) A. full B. short C. long D. paralleled 00832# 英语词汇学试卷第1页共6页
Explain the following terms 一1) free morpheme/ A free morpheme is one that can be uttered发出，表达alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. In the traditional sense, a free morpheme is a word. 例如hand ,eat, get 2) bound form/never used as sentences. – ess in countess, lioness and duchess –ish in boyish, childish and greenish –s in hats, books and cups 3) function words/ function words are often short words, they do not have much lexical meaning and some of them have no lexical meaning of their own; They are often short words such as determiners限定词, conjunctions连词, prepositions介词, auxiliaries辅助物, and so forth. 如to, the , of , by 4) content words实词/ They are used to name objects, qualities, actions, processes or states, and have independent lexical meaning. They are the nouns, main verbs, adjectives形容词and adverbs副词of a language. 二1) syntheti c综合的language / inflectional grammatical markers, French, German and Russian. 2) analytic language/word order, prepositions or auxiliary verbs , English and Chinese 3) Indo-European family of languages/ Europe and parts of Southern Asia Eight groups 三1) morphemes /The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible可分的or analyzable into smaller forms. 2) allomorphs/variants变体of the same morphem如im-, ir-, il- : allomorphs of the morpheme in- 3) root / is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. work able, work er, work ed, and work ing 4) stem /A stem is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it. It is the part of word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 如undesirables, undesirable; desired, desire 5) base / A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Desirable, desire - base and root, not stem; undesirable, desirable-base, not root and stem 6) inflectional affixes/A inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality复数, tense, and the comparative比较的or superlative 最高的degree. 如-s, -ed, -er, -est 7) derivational affixes / When they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. re+write, mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, work+er 8) compounding 复合法/Compounding is a word-formation process consisting of combining two or more bases to form a compound word 9) derivation 派生法/Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix or a suffix or both to the base 10) conversion 转化法/Conversion is a word-formation process in which a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. 11) initialism/It is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term, or a phrase. 12) acronym首字母缩略词/Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term, etc. Acronyms differ from initialisms in that they are pronounced as words rather than as sequences of letters. 13) blending拼缀/Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by
试题三 第一部分选择题 I. Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement and put the letter in the bracket.(30%) 1.According to the degree of similarity, homonyms can be classified into ( ) A. perfect homonyms B. homonyms C. homophones D. all the above 2.Transfer as a mode of semantic change can be illustrated by the example ( ) A. ad for “advertisement” B. dish for “food" C. fond for “affectionate” D. an editorial for “an editorial article" 3.It is a general belief that the meaning does not exist in the word itself, but it rather spreads over ( ) A. the reader’s interpretation B. the neighbouring words C. the writer's intention D. the etymology of the word 4.Which of the following is a prefix of time and order? A. extra- B. pro- C. re- D. semi- 5.Which of the following dictionaries is not a specialized dictionary? A. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology B. Chamber's Encyclopedic English Dictionary C. Longmont Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs D. Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms 6.Which of the following statements is Not true? A. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. B. The relationship between a word and its referent is arbitrary. C. Concept is universal to all men alike. D. Sense denotes the relationships outside the language. 7.The words which occur before or after a word and may affect its meaning form ( ) A. physical context B. grammatical context C. lexical context D. linguistic context 8."Smith is an architect. He designed World Trade Center. "The clue provided in the context is ( ) A. definition B. explanation C. example D. hyponym 9.The term "vocabulary" is used in different ways because of all the following reasons EXCEPT that ( ) A. it can refer to the common core of a language B. it can refer to the total number of the words in a language C. it can represent all the words used in a certain historical period D. it can stand for words in given dialect or field 10.The idiom "a dark horse" is a ( ) A. simile B. metaphor
全国高等教育自学考试 英语词汇学试题 课程代码：00832 Ⅰ．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that best completes the statement and put the letter in the bracket.（30%）1．According to semanticists, a word is a unit of ______.（） A．meaning B．Sound C．combination of sounds D．Group 2．The pronunciation has changed ______ spelling over the years.（） A．more slowly than B．As quickly as C．more rapidly than D．Not so quickly as 3．Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by ______.（）A．use frequency B．notion C．origin D．sound 4．Rapid growth of science and technology breeds such new words as the following EXCEPT______.（） A．green revolution B．fast food C．moon walk D．space shuttle 5．Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new ______ to meet the new need. （）A．form B．meaning C．look D．pronunciation 6．Reviving archaic words also contribute to the growth of English vocabulary. For instance, in American English “fall” means ______ in British English.（） A．four B．fell C．for D．autumn 7．The plural morpheme “-s” is realized by /s/after the following sounds EXCEPT ______. （）A．/t/ B．/g/ C．/p/ D．/k/ 英语词汇学试卷第 1 页共9 页
考研英语词汇复习笔记 翻硕复习的一大重头戏就是词汇，而词汇量是巨大的，必须要有日常的积累和复习，并且掌握科学的记忆方法，才能最有效地积累词予匚量。下面是关于英语词汇的学习笔记，以供大家参考。(1) 1. bereave :使某人丧失(尤指亲属)bereave Sb Of Sb an accident WhiCh bereaved Him Of his Wife 使他丧失妻子的事古攵the bereaved husband 死了妻子的男人 the bereaved丧失亲人的人 bereavement(n):丧亲之痛，丧失亲人 deprive : take Sth away from sb;PreVent Sb from enjoying Or USing Sth剥夺sb/sth的sth;阻止某人 享有或使用Sth deprive sb/sth Of Sth deprive Of OneS CiVil rights剥夺某人的公民权deprivation(n):剥夺;贫困;被剥夺的事物WideSPreaCl deprivation 普遍贫困 MiSSing the HOIiday WaS a great deprivatiOrL错失假日是极大的损失。 deprived(adj):贫困的，穷苦的deprived ChildhOOd 贫苦的童年
2. abdomen : Part Of the body below the CheSt and CliaPhragm,cOntaining the stomach.腹部 abdominal(adj)腹部的an abdominal OPeratiOn 月复咅8手术belly : (口)front Of the HUman body from the WaiSt to the groin;belly 肚子，胃 With an empty belly 空着肚子 in the belly Of a ShiP 在船腹里 belly OUt(动词用法):鼓涨,凸出The Wind bellied OUt the SaiIS 3. c onSeCrate : devote sth/sb to Or reserve sth/sb for a SPeCial (esp religious) PUrPOSe 扌巴sth/sb 献给 sth/sb 做某种(尤其宗教)用途COnSeCrate sth/sb to Sth COnSeCrate OneS Iife to the SerViCe Of GOd,to the relief Of SUffering献身于为神服务(解除世人痛苦)的事业 devote : give OneS time z energy to sth/sb; dedicate 为某人付出，向某人奉献，献身于devote Oneself/sth to sb/sth devoted(adj):热爱的，非常忠实的Z全心全意的a devoted SOn
2012词汇学复习资料 The development of the English Vocabulary 1.Indo-European Language Family The Indo-European Language Family is considered as one of the most important language families. It includes most languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. Those languages, which are believed to have originated from this language family and developed alone different lines, show various degrees of similarity to one another. They fall into eight principal groups, which can be grouped into an Eastern Set东部诸语族: Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语, Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语族, Armenian 亚美尼亚语族and Albanian阿尔巴尼亚语族; a Western Set: 西部诸语族Celtic凯尔特语族, Italic 意大利语族, Hellenic希腊语族, Germanic日尔曼语族. All the languages in both sets shed some influence on English to a greater or lesser extent because each has lent words into the English vocabulary. Prussian普鲁士语 Lithuanian立陶宛语 Polish波兰语 Balto-Slavic波罗的-斯拉夫语Czech捷克斯洛伐克语 Bulgarian保加利亚语 Slovenian斯洛文尼亚语 Russian Albanian阿尔巴尼亚 Persian波斯语 Hindi北印度语 Indo-Iranian印度伊朗语系Bengali孟加拉语 Romany，吉卜赛语 Armenian亚美尼亚语 Portuguese Spanish Italic意大利语族Italian Roumanian罗马尼亚语 French Indo-European Language Family Irish Celtic凯尔特语Breton Scottish Norwegian挪威语 Icelandic，冰岛语 Danish丹麦语 Germanic Swedish瑞典语 日尔曼语言English Dutch Flemish German Hellenic，古希腊语- Greek
英语词汇学试题 Introduction and Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabula ry（练习1） I．Each of the statements below is followed by four alternative answers. Choose the one that would best complete the statement. 1.Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of _________construct. A. word B. form C. morpheme D. root 2.________ is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words. A. Semantics B. Linguistics C. Etymology D. Stylistics 3.Modern English is derived from the language of early ______ tribes. A. Greek B. Roman C. Italian D. Germanic 4. Semantics is the study of meaning of different _________ levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc. A. linguistic B. grammatical C. arbitrary D. semantic 5.Stylistics is the study of style . It is concerned with the user’s choices of linguistic elements in a particular________ for special effects A. situation B. context C. time D. place 6.Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form , meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a _______ difference. A . spelling B. semantic C. pronunciation D. pragmatic 7. Terminology consists of _______ terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas. A. technical B. artistic C. different D. academic 8. __________refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades, and professions communicate among themselves. A. Slang B. Jargon C. Dialectal words D. Argot 9 ._________ belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words. A. Jargon B. Argot C. Dialectal words D. Slang 10. Argot generally refers to the jargon of _______.Its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups and outsiders can hardly understand it. A. workers B. criminals C. any person D. policeman 11.________ are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. A. Argot B. Slang C. Jargon D. Dialectal words 12. Archaisms are words or forms that were once in _________use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. A. common B. little C. slight D. great 13. Neologisms are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on ______meanings. A. new B. old C. bad D. good 14. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as_________ words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. A. functional B. notional C. empty D. formal 15. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called _______words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. A. content B. notional C. empty D. new
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇” 2010.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words. 3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root)--- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk. 4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes--- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand". 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion. 7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes. There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks. 8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word. Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base) Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective) 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12.Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).
英语词汇学怎么考英语词汇学必背知识 点 英语词汇学考试难吗？那么该课程怎么考？要知道英语考试并不是一蹴而就的，所以考前应该日记月累的学习，在最后考试的时候才能更好的通过考试，我们来看看英语词汇学必背知识点吧。 英语词汇学怎么考 英语词汇学是一门理论知识课，每个知识点应该说都重要，所以重点和一般本来就难以界定。从掌握知识来说，不要去分重点和一般，对每章每节都要以搞懂弄通为原则。 1、考前重点词汇复习方法 要知道语法填空重点考查的词：动词、形容词、副词和派生词。其中重点是动词，要把考点的设置与拼写的可能形式结合起来(如从谓语动词的角度来看，就要 考虑动词的时态、语态和主谓一致所带来的动词变化。其中过去式是考查重点，所以对动词的过去式，尤其是不规则动词的过去式和过去分词的拼写，自然就成为后期复习的重点。至于另外三大词类也完全可以如此类推。
2、词汇积累学习
加强短文背诵，增强“词不离句”意识。背诵是非常原始的英语学习方法，但也是非常积极、有效的学习方法。优选一些名家名篇，做为背诵的素材;或从课文中精选一些精悍之作，作为研习的精典，不但能够迅速提高语感，而且容易激发兴趣，形成活生生的词库，为单词的准确使用打下良好的基础。 3、英语主观题拿分技巧 首先是单词拼写，这是所有题目中考生得分最低的一个部分，通常平均分不超过3分，所以大家不要太在意，20个单词，对4个，能有2分就很不错了，如果想要提高这部分，大家还要有准备的背单词，因为这里面的单词，并不全是课本课后单词表的单词，其中很多都是以前在中学学过的，所以要准备这一部分，需要的是买一本自考英语的词汇大纲，按里面的词汇背记才有意义。 如果大家对英语词汇学课程学习有难度，那么可以通过在线视频学习的，以上三点就是学赛小编对英语词汇学必背知识点学习方法，希望大家能更好的学习。 点击进入>>>
1、选择题（2 ×15=30） 2、填空题（2×5=10 ） 3、搭配题(1×10=10) 4、名词解释题(4×5=20) 5、问题回答(5×3=15) 6、论述题(第39题7分，第40题8分) 选择题： 1. Which of the following is an initialism ? D. UN 2. The following are all nominal suffixes EXCEPT A. –ful . 3．Both English and B. Danish belong to the Germantic branch of the Indo-European language family. 4.Affixes added to the end of words to indicate grammatik relationships are known as C. inflectional morphemes. 5.Motiation accounts for the connection between word-form and C.its meaning. 6.Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and C.homonymy. 7.Affixes attached to other morphemes to create new words are known as B .derivational affixes. 8.The semantic unity of idioms is reflected in the A.illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each word and the meaning of the idiom as in rain cats and dogs. https://www.doczj.com/doc/0a5762543.html,ually a small number of languages have been designated official languages for an organization’s activities ,for example, the UN was established with five official languages English, French, A.Spanish Russian, and Chinese.中英俄法西