学号 1063510207
年级 2010级
外文翻译
专业国际经济与贸易
姓名卫佳冕
指导教师熊锋
评阅人
2014年5月
中国常州
Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and restriction of CHemicals (REACH) is a European Union Regulation of 18 December 2006. REACH addresses the
production and use of chemical substances, and their potential impacts on both human health and the environment. Its 849 pages took seven years to pass, and it has been described as the most complex legislation in the Union's history and the most important in 20 years. It is the strictest law to date regulating chemical substances and will impact industries throughout the world. REACH entered into force in June 2007, with a phased implementation over the next decade.OverviewWhen REACH is fully in force, it will require all companies manufacturing or importing chemical substances into the European Union in quantities of one tonne or more per year to register these substances with a new European Chemicals Agency in Helsinki, Finland. Because REACH applies to some substances that are contained in objects ('articles' in REACH terminology), any company importing goods into Europe could be affected. About 143,000 chemical substances marketed in the European Union were pre-registered by the 1 December 2008 deadline. Although pre-registering was not mandatory, it allows potential registrants much more time before they have to fully register. Supply of substances to the European market which have not been pre-registered or registered is illegal (known in REACH as "no data, no market").REACH also addresses the continued use of chemical 'substances of very high concern' (SVHC) because of their potential negative impacts on human health or the environment. From 1 June 2011, the European Chemicals Agency must be notified of the presence of SVHCs in articles if the total quantity used is more than one tonne per year and the SVHC is present at more than 0.1% of the mass of the object. Some uses of SVHCs may be subject to prior authorisation from the European Chemicals Agency, and applicants for authorisation will have to include plans to replace the use of the SVHC with a safer alternative (or, if no safer alternative exists, the applicant must work to find one) - known as 'substitution'. As of March 2009, there are fifteen SVHCs.[5]REACH applies to all chemicals imported or produced in the EU, in contrast to the US Toxic Substances Control Act which only applies to chemicals newly coming into use. The European Chemicals Agency will manage the technical, scientific and administrative aspects of the REACH system.The European Commission supports businesses affected by REACH by handing out - free of charge - a software application
(IUCLID), which simplifies capturing, managing and submitting of data on chemical properties and effects.HistoryREACH is the product of a wide-ranging overhaul of EU chemical policy. It passed the first reading in the European Parliament on 17 November 2005, and the Council of Ministers reached a political agreement for a common position on 13 December 2005. The European Parliament approved REACH on 13 December 2006 and the Council of Ministers formally adopted it on 18 December 2006. Weighing up expenditure versus profit has always been a significant issue, with the estimated cost of compliance being around 5 billion euro over 11 years, and the assumed health benefits of saved billions of euro in healthcare costs. However, there have been different studies on the estimated cost which vary considerably in the outcome.A separate regulation – the CLP Regulation (for "Classification, Labelling, Packaging") –implements the United Nations Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) and will steadily replace the previous Dangerous Substances Directive and Dangerous Preparations Directive. It came into force on 20 January 2009, and will be fully implemented by 2015. Reason behind REACH The legislation was proposed under dual reasoning: protection of human health and protection of the https://www.doczj.com/doc/e65183353.html,ing potentially toxic substances (such as phthalates or brominated flame retardants) is deemed undesirable and REACH will force the use of certain of these substances to be phased out. Using potentially toxic substances in products other than those ingested by humans (such as electronic devices) may seem to be safe, but there are several ways in which chemicals can enter the human body and the environment. Substances can leave articles during consumer use, for example into the air where they can be inhaled or ingested. Even where they might not do direct harm to humans, they can contaminate the air or water, and can enter the food chain through plants, fish or other animals. According to the European Commission, little safety information exists for 99 percent of the tens of thousands of chemicals placed on the market before 1981. There were 100,106 chemicals in use in the EU in 1981, when the last survey was performed. Of these only 3,000 have been tested and over 800 are known to be carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic to reproduction. These are listed in the Annex 1 of the Dangerous
Substances Directive (now Annex 3 of the CLP Regulation)Continued use of many toxic chemicals is sometimes justified because 'at very low levels they are not a concern to health'. However, many of these substances may bioaccumulate in the human body, thus reaching dangerous concentrations. They may also chemically react with one another producing new substances with new risks. Controversy Apart from the potential costs to industry and the complexity of the new law, REACH has also attracted concern because of the potential for a very significant increase in animal testing under the proposal. Animal tests on vertebrates are allowed only once per one substance, and where suitable alternatives can't be used. If a company pays for these tests, it must sell the rights to the results for a "reasonable" price (although this is not defined). There are additional concerns that access to the necessary information may prove very costly for potential registrants needing to purchase this.A opinion in Nature in 2009 by Thomas Hartung & Constanza Rovida estimated that 54 million vertebrate animals would be used under REACH and that the costs would amount to 9.5 billion Euros. Hartnung is the former head of European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM). ECHA responded by criticising the assumptions made in Hartnung and Rovida's calculations, causing them to overestimate the number of animals used by a factor of 6. On 8 June 2006 the REACH proposal came under criticism from a group of nations including the United States, India and Brazil claiming that the bill would hamper global trade. Fraud Non-EU consultancies offer “Only Representative” services, though according to REACH it is not poss ible to register a substance if your company is not based in the EU.The SIEFs will bring new challenges. Some …pre-registrants? may simply be consultants hoping for work (“gold diggers”) while others may be aiming to charge exorbitant rates for the data th ey have to offer (“jackals”).
注册，评估，授权和限制的化学品（REACH）是欧洲2006年12月8日起联合监管的。达到了生产和使用的化学物质，对人体健康和环境的潜在影响。849
页，花了七年时间，它已被描述为在联盟历史上最复杂和20年来最重要的的立法。这是迄今为止最严厉的法律调整的化学物质，会影响世界各地的产业。2007年6月，分阶段实施的下一段时间。回顾过去，它将要求所有公司生产或进口的化学物质进入欧盟在一吨／年以上批量注册这些物质的一种新的欧洲化学品管理局在芬兰的赫尔辛基。因为达到适用于一些物质中所包含的对象，任何公司为欧洲进口货物可能会受到影响。大约143000种化学物质在欧盟市场上销售的预注册期限2008年十二月。虽然预注册并不是强制性的，它允许潜在注册人花更多的时间在他们有充分的寄存器。物质，没有预先登记或注册的欧洲市场的供应是非法的。达到地址的高关注度化学物质（SVHC）继续使用，因其潜在的对人类健康或环境的负面影响。从2011年6月1日起，欧洲化学品管理局的通知必须在文章中的SVHC存在如果总使用量每年超过一吨的物质是目前在超过的物体的质量0.1%。一些使用的SVHC可能从欧洲化学品管理局应事先许可，申请人的授权将包括计划与一个更安全的替代品代替SVHC使用（或者，如果没有更安全的替代品存在，申请人必须努力找到一个）称为“替代”。截至2009年3月，有十五种。，到适用于所有化学品进口或在欧盟生产，与美国有毒物质控制法只适用于新进入使用化学品。欧洲化学品管理局将管理技术，达到系统的科学和行政方面。欧洲委员会支持受影响的企业达到通过派发免费的软件应用程序，从而简化了（IUCLID）捕获，管理和化学特性提交资料是欧盟化学品政策大检修产品。它通过第一次阅读在欧洲议会在2005年11月，部长理事会在2005年12月共同立场的政治协议。在2006年12月13日和部长正式采用它在18日委员会及欧洲议会批准。权衡费用与利润一直是一个重要的问题，与合规约5000000000欧元在11年的估计成本，并假设带来的健康医疗费用的节省数十亿欧元。然而，有成本的估计有很大的不同的结果，不同的研究。独立的调节–CLP法规（“分类，标签，包装”）–实现联合国全球统一分类和标签制度的化学品（GHS）和将逐渐取代以往的危险物质和危险的工作指令。到2009年1月20日，将在2015全面实施。背后的原因，达到立法提出了在双推理：人类环境的健康和保护。利用潜在的有毒物质（如苯二甲酸盐或溴化阻燃剂）被认为是不可取的，达到一定的意志力，这些物质被淘汰使用。在被人类以外的其他产品使用可能有毒的物质（如电子设备）似乎是安全的，但有几种方法中的化学物质会进入人体和环境。物质
可以把文章中消费者的使用，例如在空气中可吸入或摄入。即使他们可能不会对人类做的直接伤害，他们可以污染空气或水，并能通过植物进入食物链，鱼或其他动物。根据欧洲委员会，为成千上万的化学品数万投放市场前99%存在小的安全信息。有100106种化学品在1981在欧盟使用，当最后一个进行调查。这只已经测试了3000个，超过800是已知的致癌物质，致突变或生殖毒性。这些都是在对危险物质指令附件1所列（现在的附件3 CLP法规的许多有毒的化学物质）的持续使用，有时是正当的因为在非常低的水平，他们不是一个关注健康的。然而，许多这些物质的生物蓄积在人体，从而达到危险浓度。他们也可能化学与另一个新的风险产生新的物质反应。争议除了潜在的行业的成本和复杂性的新法律，达到也吸引了关注下建议在动物试验中一个非常重要的增长潜力。在脊椎动物的动物试验允许每一种物质都只有一次，并在合适的替代品不能用。如果一个公司支付这些测试，它必须卖权的结果为“合理”的价格（尽管这不是定义）。有更多的关注，获得必要的信息可能是潜在的人需要购买非常昂贵。由托马斯哈同和康斯坦萨罗维达估计54000000脊椎动物被达成，成本将达到9500000000欧元，用于自然2009意见。hartnung是欧洲替代方法验证中心的前负责人（ECVAM）。ECHA回应批评hartnung和罗维达的计算假设，导致高估的一个因素6使用的动物数量。2006年6月8日达到建议来自一组国家包括美国的批评下，印度和巴西声称比尔会阻碍全球贸易。欺诈的非欧盟顾问提供的“唯一代表”服务，但这是不可能的，如果你的公司是不是建立在欧盟注册物质的可参与将带来新的挑战。一些预先登记，可能仅仅是顾问希望工作（“淘金者”）而其他可以为他们提供的资料收取过高的利率（“豺狼”）。
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译 Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails
Load and Ultimate Moment of Prestressed Concrete Action Under Overload-Cracking Load It has been shown that a variation in the external load acting on a prestressed beam results in a change in the location of the pressure line for beams in the elastic range.This is a fundamental principle of prestressed construction.In a normal prestressed beam,this shift in the location of the pressure line continues at a relatively uniform rate,as the external load is increased,to the point where cracks develop in the tension fiber.After the cracking load has been exceeded,the rate of movement in the pressure line decreases as additional load is applied,and a significant increase in the stress in the prestressing tendon and the resultant concrete force begins to take place.This change in the action of the internal moment continues until all movement of the pressure line ceases.The moment caused by loads that are applied thereafter is offset entirely by a corresponding and proportional change in the internal forces,just as in reinforced-concrete construction.This fact,that the load in the elastic range and the plastic range is carried by actions that are fundamentally different,is very significant and renders strength computations essential for all designs in order to ensure that adequate safety factors exist.This is true even though the stresses in the elastic range may conform to a recognized elastic design criterion. It should be noted that the load deflection curve is close to a straight line up to the cracking load and that the curve becomes progressively more curved as the load is increased above the cracking load.The curvature of the load-deflection curve for loads over the cracking load is due to the change in the basic internal resisting moment action that counteracts the applied loads,as described above,as well as to plastic strains that begin to take place in the steel and the concrete when stressed to high levels. In some structures it may be essential that the flexural members remain crack free even under significant overloads.This may be due to the structures’being exposed to exceptionally corrosive atmospheres during their useful life.In designing prestressed members to be used in special structures of this type,it may be necessary to compute the load that causes cracking of the tensile flange,in order to ensure that adequate safety against cracking is provided by the design.The computation of the moment that will cause cracking is also necessary to ensure compliance with some design criteria. Many tests have demonstrated that the load-deflection curves of prestressed beams are approximately linear up to and slightly in excess of the load that causes the first cracks in the tensile flange.(The linearity is a function of the rate at which the load is applied.)For this reason,normal elastic-design relationships can be used in computing the cracking load by simply determining the load that results in a net tensile stress in the tensile flange(prestress minus the effects of the applied loads)that is equal to the tensile strength of the concrete.It is customary to assume that the flexural tensile strength of the concrete is equal to the modulus of rupture of the
外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.doczj.com/doc/e65183353.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.
E---MARKETING (From:E--Marketing by Judy Strauss,Adel El--Ansary,Raymond Frost---3rd ed.1999 by Pearson Education pp .G4-G25.) As the growth of https://www.doczj.com/doc/e65183353.html, shows, some marketing principles never change.Markets always welcome an innovative new product, even in a crowded field of competitors ,as long as it provides customer value.Also,Google`s success shows that customers trust good brands and that well-crafted marketing mix strategies can be effective in helping newcomers enter crowded markets. Nevertheless, organizations are scrambling to determine how they can use information technology profitably and to understand what technology means for their business strategies. Marketers want to know which of their time-ested concepts will be enhanced by the Internet, databases,wireless mobile devices, and other technologies. The rapid growth of the Internet and subsequent bursting of the dot-com bubble has marketers wondering,"What next?" This article attempts to answer these questions through careful and systematic examination of successful e-mar-keting strategies in light of proven traditional marketing practices. （Sales Promotion;E--Marketing；Internet；Strategic Planning ） 1.What is E--Marketing E--Marketing is the application of a broad range of information technologies for: Transforming marketing strategies to create more customer value through more effective segmentation ,and positioning strategies；More efficiently planning and executing the conception, distribution promotion,and pricing of goods,services,and ideas;andCreating exchanges that satisfy individual consumer and organizational customers` objectives. This definition sounds a lot like the definition of traditional marketing. Another way to view it is that e-marketing is the result of information technology applied to traditional marketing. E-marketing affects traditional marketing in two ways. First,it increases efficiency in traditional marketing strategies.The transformation results in new business models that add customer value and/or increase company profitability.
Journal of Industrial Textiles https://www.doczj.com/doc/e65183353.html,/ Optimization of Parameters for the Production of Needlepunched Nonwoven Geotextiles Amit Rawal, Subhash Anand and Tahir Shah 2008 37: 341Journal of Industrial Textiles DOI: 10.1177/1528083707081594 The online version of this article can be found at: https://www.doczj.com/doc/e65183353.html,/content/37/4/341 Published by: https://www.doczj.com/doc/e65183353.html, can be found at:Journal of Industrial TextilesAdditional services and information for https://www.doczj.com/doc/e65183353.html,/cgi/alertsEmail Alerts: https://www.doczj.com/doc/e65183353.html,/subscriptionsSubscriptions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/e65183353.html,/journalsReprints.navReprints: https://www.doczj.com/doc/e65183353.html,/journalsPermissions.navPermissions: https://www.doczj.com/doc/e65183353.html,/content/37/4/341.refs.htmlCitations: - Mar 28, 2008Version of Record >>
Strategic transformations in Danish and Swedish big business in an era of globalisation, 1973-2008 The Danish and Swedish context In the difficult inter-war period, a state-supported, protected home market orientation had helped stabilise both Denmark’s and Sweden’s economies, but after WorldWar II priorities changed. Gradually and in accordance with the international economic development, restrictions on foreign trade were removed, and Danish and Swedish industry was exposed to international competition. As a consequence, several home market oriented industries –such as the textile and the shoe industry –were more or less outperformed, while in Sweden the engineering industry soon became the dominant leader of Swedish industry, with companies such as V olvo, Ericsson, Electrolux, ASEA and SKF. In the Danish case, the SMEs continued to be dominant but in combination with expanding export oriented industrial manufacturers such as Lego, Danfoss, Carlsberg and the shipping conglomerates ok and A.P. moller-Marsk. In Sweden and Denmark stable economic growth continued into the 1970s, but due to the problems during the oil crises, the economies came into fundamental structural troubles for the first time since World War II. In the beginning this was counteracted by traditional Keynesian policy measures. However, because of large budget deficits, inflation and increasing wages, both the Danish economy from 1974 and the Swedish economy from 1976 encountered severe problems. Towards the late 1970s Denmark’s and Sweden’s economic policies were thus increasingly questioned. It was clear that Keynesian policy could not solve all economic problems. Expansive fiscal policies in terms of continued deficits on the state budget could not compensate for the loss of both national and international markets and step by step the Keynesian economic policy was abandoned. The increased budget deficit also made it difficult for the state to support employment and regional development. These kinds of heavy governmental activities were also hardly acceptable under the more market oriented policy that developed first in Great Britain and the USA, but in the 1980s also in Denmark and Sweden (Iversen & Andersen, 2008, pp. 313–315; Sjo¨ gren, 2008, pp. 46–54). These changes in political priorities were especially noticeable in the financial market. After being the most state regulated and coordinated sector of the economy since the 1950s, then between 1980 and 1985 the Danish and Swedish financial markets underwent an extensive deregulation resulting in increased competition. Lending from banks and other credit institutes was no longer regulated, and neither were interest rates. The bond market was also opened as the issuance of new bond loans was deregulated in Sweden in 1983. When the control of foreign capital flows was liberalised in the late 1980s the last extraordinary restriction was now gone. Together with the establishment of the new money market with options and derivates, this opened up to a much larger credit market and the possibility for companies to finance investments and increase business domestically as well as abroad (Larsson, 1998, pp. 205–207). Another important part of the regulatory changes in the early 1980s were new rules for the Copenhagen and Stockholm stock exchanges. Introduction on the stock exchange was made much
原文来源：李海宏《Marketing Customer Satisfaction》[A].2012中国旅游分销高峰论坛.[C].上海 Marketing Customer Satisfaction 顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 Since the 20th century, since the late eighties, the customer satisfaction strategy is increasingly becoming business has more customers share the overall business competitive advantage means. 自20世纪八十年代末以来,顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额,获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 First, customer satisfaction strategy is to get a modern enterprise customers, "money votes" magic weapon 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝 With the changing times, the great abundance of material wealth of society, customers in the main --- consumer demand across the material has a lack of time, the number of times the pursuit, the pursuit of quality time to the eighties of the 20th century entered the era of the end consumer sentiment. In China, with rapid economic development, we have rapidly beyond the physical absence of the times, the pursuit of the number of times and even the pursuit of quality and age of emotions today gradually into the consumer era. Spending time in the emotion, the company's similar products have already reached the same time, homogeneous, with the energy, the same price, consumers are no longer pursue the quality, functionality and price, but the comfort, convenience, safety, comfort, speed, jump action, environmental protection, clean, happy,
毕业论文外文文献翻译 毕业设计（论文）题目关于企业内部环境绩效审计的研究翻译题目最高审计机关的环境审计活动 学院会计学院 专业会计学 姓名张军芳 班级09020615 学号09027927 指导教师何瑞雄
最高审计机关的环境审计活动 1最高审计机关越来越多的活跃在环境审计领域。特别是1993-1996年期间，工作组已检测到环境审计活动坚定的数量增长。首先，越来越多的最高审计机关已经活跃在这个领域。其次是积极的最高审计机关，甚至变得更加活跃：他们分配较大部分的审计资源给这类工作，同时出版更多环保审计报告。表1显示了平均数字。然而，这里是机构间差异较大。例如，环境报告的数量变化，每个审计机关从1到36份报告不等。 1996-1999年期间，结果是不那么容易诠释。第一，活跃在环境审计领域的最高审计机关数量并没有太大变化。“活性基团”的组成没有保持相同的：一些最高审计机关进入，而其他最高审计机关离开了团队。环境审计花费的时间量略有增加。二，但是，审计报告数量略有下降，1996年和1999年之间。这些数字可能反映了从量到质的转变。这个信号解释了在过去三年从规律性审计到绩效审计的转变（1994-1996年，20％的规律性审计和44％绩效审计;1997-1999：16％规律性审计和绩效审计54％）。在一般情况下，绩效审计需要更多的资源。我们必须认识到审计的范围可能急剧变化。在将来，再将来开发一些其他方式去测算人们工作量而不是计算通过花费的时间和发表的报告会是很有趣的。 在2000年，有62个响应了最高审计机关并向工作组提供了更详细的关于他们自1997年以来公布的工作信息。在1997-1999年，这62个最高审计机关公布的560个环境审计报告。当然，这些报告反映了一个庞大的身躯，可用于其他机构的经验。环境审计报告的参考书目可在网站上的最高审计机关国际组织的工作组看到。这里这个信息是用来给最高审计机关的审计工作的内容更多一些洞察。 自1997年以来，少数环境审计是规律性审计（560篇报告中有87篇，占16％）。大多数审计绩效审计（560篇报告中有304篇，占54％），或组合的规律性和绩效审计（560篇报告中有169篇，占30％）。如前文所述，绩效审计是一个广泛的概念。在实践中，绩效审计往往集中于环保计划的实施（560篇报告中有264篇，占47％），符合国家环保法律，法规的，由政府部门，部委和/或其他机构的任务给访问（560篇报告中有212篇，占38％）。此外，审计经常被列入政府的环境管理系统（560篇报告中有156篇，占28％）。下面的元素得到了关注审计报告：影响或影响现有的国家环境计划非环保项目对环境的影响;环境政策;由政府遵守国际义务和承诺的10％至20％。许多绩效审计包括以上提到的要素之一。 1本文译自：S. Van Leeuwen.(2004).’’Developments in Environmental Auditing by Supreme Audit Institutions’’ Environmental Management Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 163–1721
外文翻译 原文 Foreign T rade o f China Material Source:W anfang Database Author:Hitomi Iizaka 1.Introduction On December11,2001,China officially joined the World T rade Organization(WTO)and be c a me its143rd member.China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen.The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development.At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial t o all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and mor e varieties of imported consumer goods,raw materials and intermediate products.China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment,the o u t c o me is fundamentally a win-win situation.In this p aper we would like t o provide a survey of the various institutions,laws and characteristics of China’s trade.Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing: ?In2001,total trade to gross domestic pr oduct(GDP)ratio in China is44% ?In2001,47%of Chinese trade is processed trade1 ?In2001,51%of Chinese trade is conduct ed by foreign firms in China2 ?In2001,36%of Chinese exports originate from Gu an gdon g province ?In2001,39%of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere 2.Evolution of China’s Trade Regime Equally remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports.Table2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time.In1980,primary goods accounted for 50.3%of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for49.7%.Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of1980’s,it remains at50.6%in1985.Since then,exports of manufactured goods have grown at a much
外文翻译 原文 Marketing Material Source：Marketing Management Author：Philip Kotler Marketing Channels To reach a target market, the marketer uses three kinds of marketing channels. Communication channels deliver messages to and receive messages from target buyers. They include newspapers, magazines, radio, television, mail, telephone, billboards, posters, fliers, CDs, audiotapes, and the Internet. Beyond these, communications are conveyed by facial expressions and clothing, the look of retail stores, and many other media. Marketers are increasingly adding dialogue channels (e-mail and toll-free numbers) to counterbalance the more normal monologue channels (such as ads). The marketer uses distribution channels to display or deliver the physical product or service to the buyer or user. There are physical distribution channels and service distribution channels, which include warehouses, transportation vehicles, and various trade channels such as distributors, wholesalers, and retailers. The marketer also uses selling channels to effect transactions with potential buyers. Selling channels include not only the distributors and retailers but also the banks and insurance companies that facilitate transactions. Marketers clearly face a design problem in choosing the best mix of communication, distribution, and selling channels for their offerings. Supply Chain Whereas marketing channels connect the marketer to the target buyers, the supply chain describes a longer channel stretching from raw materials to components to final products that are carried to final buyers. For example, the supply chain for women’s purses starts with hides, tanning operations, cutting operations, manufacturing, and the marketing channels that bring products to customers. This supply chain represents a value delivery system. Each company captures only a certain percentage of the total value generated by the supply chain. When a company acquires competitors or moves upstream or downstream, its aim is