英语语言学常见名词解释
1. What is language?
“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Chinese. It is symbolic, because word s are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.
2. What are design features of language?
“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability
3. What is arbitrariness?
By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So w e can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.
4. What is duality?
Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.
A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality.
5. What is productivity?
Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes out side the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).
6.What is displacement?
“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be l ost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.
7.What is cultural transmission?
This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.
8. What is interchangeability?
Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are) “speaking” and which listening.
9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?
First of all, human la nguage has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
1.1.01适应(adaptation) 1.1.02损伤(injury) 1.1.03萎缩(atrophy) 1.1.04肥大(hypertrophy) 1.1.05假性肥大(pseudohypertrophy) 1.1.06增生(hyperplasia) 1.1.07化生(metaplasia) 1.1.08鳞状上皮化生(squamous metaplasia) 1.1.09肠上皮化生(intestinal metaplasia) 1.1.10心身疾病(psychosomatic disease) 1.1.11医源性疾病(iatrogenic disease) 1.1.12变性(degeneration) 1.1.13细胞水肿(cellular swelling) 1.1.14脂肪变性(fatty degeneration or fatty change) 1.1.15虎斑心(tigroid heart) 1.1.16心肌脂肪浸润 (myocardial fatty infiltration) 1.1.17透明变性 (hyaline degeneration) 1.1.18淀粉样变性 (amyloid degeneration) 1.1.19黏液变性 (mucoid degeneration) 1.1.20含铁血黄素 (hemosiderin) 1.1.21心衰细胞(heart failure cell) 1.1.22脂褐素 (lipofuscin) 1.1.23病理性钙化 (pathologic calcification) 1.1.24营养不良性钙 化(dystrophic calcification) 1.1.25迁徙性钙化 (metastatic calcification) 1.1.26细胞死亡(cell death) 1.1.27坏死(necrosis) 1.1.28凝固性坏死 (coagulative necrosis) 1.1.29干酪样坏死 (caseous necrosis) 1.1.30坏疽(gangrene) 1.1.31液化性坏死 (liquefactive necrosis) 1.1.32纤维蛋白样坏 死(fibrinoid necrosis) 1.1.33糜烂(erosion) 1.1.34溃疡(ulcer) 1.1.35窦(sinus) 1.1.36瘘(fistula) 1.1.37空洞(cavity) 1.1.38机化 (organization) 1.1.39包裹 (encapsulation) 1.1.40凋亡(apoptosis) 1.1.41凋亡小体 (apoptotic body) 一、名词解释（此处仅列出答案要点） 1.1.01①细胞、组织或器官；②耐受刺激作用；③存活的过程；④形态：萎缩、肥大、增生、化生。 1.1.02①细胞和组织；②不能耐受有害因子刺激；③结构改变；④形态：变性或细胞死亡。 1.1.03①发育正常；②细胞、组织或器官体积缩小；③实质细胞体积缩小和或数量减少；④间质增生。 1.1.04①实质细胞的细胞器增多；②实质细胞、组织器官体积增大。 1.1.05①实质细胞体积缩小和或数量减少；②纤维或脂肪组织大量增生；③组织或器官体积增大。 1.1.06①实质细胞增多；②组织、器官体积增大。 1.1.07①一种分化成熟的细胞；②刺激因素作用；③转化为另一种分化成熟细胞的过程；④发生于同源性细胞；⑤未分化细胞向另一种分化。 1.1.08①非鳞状上皮；②转化为鳞状上皮；③常见于气管、支气管、子宫颈等处。 1.1.09①炎症或其他因素刺激；②胃黏膜或胃腺上皮；③转化为肠上皮；④常见于慢性萎缩性胃炎。 1.1.10①思想、情感障碍；②细胞损伤；③器质性疾病。
教育学综合名词解释汇总 名词解释： 1、教育先行：教育先行就是要求教育要面向未来，使教育在适应现存生产力和政治经济发展水平的基础上，适当超前于社会生产力和政治经济的发展，其中一是教育投资增长速度应当超过经济增长速度；二是在人才培养上要兼顾社会主义现代化建设近期与远期的需要，目标、内容等方面适应超前。 2、教育目的的社会本位论：社会本位的教育目的论的基本主张是以社会的稳定和发展为教育的最高宗旨，教育目的应当依据社会的要求来确定。代表人物：涂尔干、孔德等。 3、终身教育：它在20世纪60年代中期星期，70年代产生广泛影响，主要代表人物是法国的朗格郎。终生教育强调教育史贯穿人的整个一生及人的发展各个阶段的持续不断的过程；终生教育的主要任务是养成学习的习惯和继续学习所需的各种能力。 4、教师专业性发展：教师专业化是指教师的专业知识、专业能力和职业道德品质的成长发展的过程，也是教师职业具有自己独特的职业要求和职业条件，成为专业人员并在教学中逐步成熟的发展过程。这个过程包括两个方面的内容：教师职业专业化和教师教育专业化。其中教师职业专业化只能是通过教师教育专业化来实现。 5、先行组织者：奥苏贝尔提出的。是先于学习任务呈现的一种引导性材料，它的抽象、概括和综合水平高于学习任务，并且与认知结构中原有的观念和心的学习任务相关联。其目的是为新的学习任务提供观念上的固着点，增加新旧知识之间的可辨别性，以促进学习的迁移。 6、五育并举的教育方针：在全国第一次教育讨论会上,蔡元培明确提出新的教育方针,提出“五育并举”的思想。包括军国民教育（军国民教育即军事体育）、公民道德教育即德育、实利主义教育（实利主义教育即智育）世界观教育、美感教育（美感教育亦称美育）。。“五育”并举的教育就是德智体美和谐发展的教育，是符合当时历史发展要求的，是对封建教育及半殖民到半封建教育宗旨的否定，在教育思想史上也是一个巨大的进步。从人才培养看，也符合人的全面发展的教育规律。 7、苏格拉底法：苏格拉底在教学中形成了具有自己特色的方法，一般称为“苏格拉底法”，苏格拉底将它称为“产婆术”。苏格拉底法可以分为四个部分：讥讽、助产术、归纳和下定义。所谓“讥讽”，就是在谈话中让对方谈出自己对某一问题的看法，然后揭露出对方谈话中的自相矛盾，使对方承认自己对这一问题实际上一无所知。所谓“助产术”，就是用谈话法帮助对方把知识回忆起来，就像助产婆帮助产妇产出婴儿一样。所谓“归纳”，是通过问答使对方的认识能逐步排除事物的个别的特殊的东西，揭示出事物的本质的普遍的东西。从而得出事物的“定义”。这是一个从现象、个别到普遍、一般的过程。 8、《初等教育法》：1870年，英国国会正式颁布“初等教育法”(Elementary也称福斯特法案)。这是英国国民教育制度正式形成的标志。 ⑴提出在全国各地5-12岁普及义务教育； ⑵国家仍然保留国民教育，特别是初等教育辅助权，监督权； ⑶将全国分成若干学区，每学区建立可征收税收，地方教育局领导地方教育，承认英国私立教育机构，认为这是国家教育的一种类型； ⑷宗教科目与世俗科目分离。 9、学习动机：是指激发个体进行学习活动、维持已引起的学习活动并致使行为朝向一定的
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
一、名词解释： 耐受性：指机体对药物反应性降低的一种状态。 半衰期：资血浆药物浓度下降一半所需要的时间。 毒性反应：指药物在用要药剂量过大，用药时间过长或机体对药物敏感性过高时产生的危害性反应。 半数致死量（LD50）：反应药物毒性大小的重要数据。 副作用：药物在治疗剂量时出现的与用药目的无关的作用。 受体激动剂：与受体有较强亲和力，又有较强内在活性的药物。 交叉耐药性：机体对某药产生耐受性后，对另一种药物也的敏感性也降低。 后遗效应：停药后血药浓度已降至阀浓度以下时残存的药理效应。 首关消除：口服药物在胃肠黏膜吸收后，首先经门静脉进入肝脏，当通过肠黏膜及肝脏时部分药物发生转化，使进入体循环的有效药量减少的现象。 疫苗；激活一种或多种免疫活性细胞，增强机体免疫功能的药物。 抗菌药物:是指对病原菌具有抑制或杀灭作用，主要用于防治细菌性感染疾病的一类药物；属于抗微生物药物的范畴。 抗微生物药物:对病原微生物有抑制或杀灭作用，用于防治病原微生物感染性疾病的药物。 化学治疗:化学药物抑制或杀灭机体内的病原微生物、寄生虫及恶性肿瘤细胞，消除或缓解由它们所引起的疾病。 抗菌谱:是指药物的抗菌范围 窄谱：仅对单一菌种或单一菌属有抗菌作用。 广谱：对多数革兰阳性、革兰阴性细菌有抗菌作用，还对某些衣原体、支原体、立克次体、螺旋体及原虫等也有抑制作用。 抗生素后效应：抗生素在撤药后其浓度低于最低抑菌浓度时，细菌仍受到持久抑制的效应。如青霉素类和头孢菌素类抗菌药的抗生素后效应十分明显。PAE 的确切机制尚不清楚。 固有耐药性：是由细菌染色体基因决定而代代相传的耐药，如肠道杆菌对青霉素的耐药。 获得耐药性：指细菌与药物多次接触后，对药物的敏感性下降甚至消失，致使药物疗效低或无效。
名词解释 https://www.doczj.com/doc/e412614875.html,petence and Performance: The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. ) 2.Sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.( It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic.) https://www.doczj.com/doc/e412614875.html,nguage Acquisition: refers to t he child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s devel opment of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.) 4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism. 5.Phrase structure rule: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP →(Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP →(Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP →(Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP →(Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.
第一章绪论 1.1什么是语言 1.2语言的性质 （1）语言具有系统性（systematic） （2）语言是一个符号系统 语言符号是一种象征符号。 （3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation） （4）口头性 （5）语言是人类特有的 （6）语言是用于交际的 寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。 1.3语言的起源 1.4语言的分类 1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification） 历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。 将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言 英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。 汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。 1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation） 根据词的结构类型，可分为 （1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。汉语是典型的孤立语。 （2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。 （3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。英语是不太典型的屈折语。 （4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。 根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等 1.5语言的功能 1.5.1 一般功能 1.5.2元功能（metafunction） 1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）
药理学 名词解释 绪论 1．药理学Pharmacology 研究药物与机体（含病原体）之间相互作用规律及其机制的一门科学。 2. 药物diug 能改变或查明机体的生理功能及病理状态，用以预防、治疗及诊断疾病的物质。3．药动学pharmacokinetics 研究机体对药物的处置过程，即药物在机体的作用下发生的动态变化规律。 4．药效学Pharmacodynamics 研究药物对机体的作用及作用机制。即机体在药物影响下发生的生理、生化变化及机制。 5. 售后调研postmarketing surveillance 上市后在社会人群大范围内继续进行受试药物安全性和有效性评价，在广泛长期使用的条件下考查疗效和不良反应，该期对最终确定新药的临床价值有重要意义。 药效学 1．药物作用drug action 药物与组织细胞之间的初始作用。 2．药理效应drug effect 指继发于药物作用之后的组织细胞原有功能的改变。 3. 兴奋excitation 凡能使机体原有生理、生化功能加强的作用。 4. 抑制inhibition 凡能使机体原有生理、生化功能减弱的作用。 5. 特异性specifity 多数药物是通过化学反应而产生药理效应，这种化学反应的专一性使药物具有特异性。 6. 选择性selectivity 药物只对某些组织器官发生明显作用，而对其他组织作用很小或无作用。 7. 疗效therapeutic effect 药物作用的结果有利于改变病人的生理生化功能或病理过程，使患病机体恢复正常。 8．对因治疗etiological treatment 用药目的在于消除原发致病因子，彻底治愈疾病称对因治疗，或称治本。 9．对症治疗symptomatic treatment 用药目的在于改善疾病症状，减轻疾病的并发症称对症治疗，或称治标。 10．不良反应adverse reaction 凡不符合用药目的或给病人带来痛苦与危害的反应称不良反应。多数不良反应是药物固有效应的延伸． 11．副反应side reaction （副作用side effect）药物在治疗剂量时出现的与治疗目的无关的作用称副反应，亦称副作用。副反应是药物本身固有的，是因药物选择性低而引起的，一般不严重，难避免． 12．毒性反应toxic reaction 药物在剂量过大、用药时间过长、机体敏感性过高时对机体发生的危害性反应称毒性反应。一般较严重，但是可以预知和避免。 13．后遗效应residual effect 停药后血药浓度已降至阈浓度以下时残存的药理效应 14. 停药反应withdrawal reaction 长期应用某些药物，突然停药后原有病情加重现象。又称回跃反应（rebound reaction） 15. 变态反应allergic reaction（过敏反应hypersensitive reaciton）药物对过敏特质病人引起的异常免疫反应。 16. 特异质反应idiosyncratic reaction 少数患者对某些药物发生的与往常性质不同的不良良应。是由于遗传缺陷造成的。
教育学：教育学是研究人类教育现象，揭示教育规律的一门科学。 教育现象：教育现象指人类各种教育活动的外在表现形式。 教育规律：教育规律是教育现象与其它社会现象及教育现象部各个要素之间本质的、在的、必然的联系和关系。 教育原理：教育原理是普通教育学理论体系历史发展中逐渐形成的一门学科，它以教育中最一般的问题作为自己的研究对象，或者说是研究教育中最一般性问题的科学。 教育科学：教育科学是以教育现象和教育规律为共同研究对象的各门教育学科的总称，是若干个教育学科构成的学科总体。 教育理论：教育理论是人类从事的各种各样的教育实践的理性述。 教育改革：教育改革是人们有计划、有目的地变革现存的教育活动，它是一种特殊的教育实践，是教育领域里的创新。 观察法：观察法是指研究者在自然情境下，直接用自己的眼睛、耳朵等感觉器官或借助仪器和其他技术等手段去感知和研究对象的方法。 实验法：实验法是指研究者按照预先确定的教育目的，合理地控制或创设一定条件，人为地变革研究对象，从而验证假设探讨教育现象因果关系的研究方法。 调查法：调查法是研究者为深入了解教育实际情况，弄清事实，发现存在的问题或原因，探索教育规律而采取的系统研究步骤和方法。 文献法：文献法是指在教育科学研究中，对需要的文献进行查阅、分析、整理，从而筛选出有助于研究进行的文献的一种方法。 行动研究法：行动研究法是指身处教育实践第一线的研究者与受过专门训练的科学研究者密切协作，以教育实践中存在的某一问题作为研究对象，通过合作研究，再把研究结果应用到自身从事的教育实践中去的一种方法。 第二章 生物起源论：生物起源论者认为，人类教育发源于动物界中各类动物的生存本能活动。主生物起源的代表人物有利托尔诺、沛西·能等。` 心理起源论：心理起源论的主要代表人物是美国教育家孟禄，心理起源论者认为教育起源于儿童对成人无意识的模仿。 劳动起源论：这是马克思主义教育学关于教育起源的基本观点。马克思主义认为，教育起源于劳动，起源于劳动过程中社会生产需要和人的发展需要的辩证统一。