名词解释
Unit1
https://www.doczj.com/doc/e617864603.html,nguage:can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(5ˊ)
2.Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of timein history.(5ˊ)
3.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.(5ˊ)
4.Parole:refers to the realization of langue in actual use and the naturally occurring language events.(5ˊ)
https://www.doczj.com/doc/e617864603.html,petence and performance:competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language﹔(2ˊ)and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication(3ˊ).
Unit2
6.Phonetics:is defined as the study of the phonic medium oflanguage(1ˊ)；it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’slanguages(2ˊ),these three branches of phonetics are labeledarticulator phonetics，auditory phonetics，an acoustic phonetics respectively(2ˊ)．
7.Diacritics:diacriticswhich are added to the letter-symbols to bring outthe finer distinctions than the letters alone may possibly do．(5ˊ)
8.Broad transcription and narrow transcription:one is the transcription with letter-symbols only(2ˊ),the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics(3ˊ)．
9.phoneme:a phoneme is a phonological unit：it is a unit that is of distinctive value(3ˊ);it is an abstract unit(2ˊ)．
10.Sequential rules: there are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.(5ˊ)
Unit3
11.Morpheme:The smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.(5ˊ)
12.Perivtion:It is an affixational proless that forms a word with a meaning(2ˊ) and/or category distinct from that of its bases(3ˊ).
13.Word:Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in language.(5ˊ)
14.Free morpheme:A morpheme which can be a word by itself.(5ˊ)
15.Root:The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major.(5ˊ)
Unit4
16.Phrase structure rule:A cortain word can only concur with certain other words(1ˊ).There must be certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate position that specifiers,heads,and complements occupy in phrase structure(2ˊ).Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule(2ˊ).
17.Syntax:syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.(5ˊ)
18.Coordination rule:For example,some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the relp of a conjunction such as and or(3ˊ).Such phrases are called coordinate structures(2ˊ).
19.Deep structure and surface structure:The first,formed by the XP rule in a accordance with the head's subcategorization properties,is called deep stmcture(3ˊ).The second,corresponding to the final syntanicform of the sentence which resuts from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure(2ˊ).
20.Categories:Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulficl the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence,a noun phrase or a verb(3ˊ).Word level categories are divided in two kinds:major lexical categories and minor lexical categories(2ˊ).
Unit5
21.semantics:can be simply defined as the study of meaning(2ˊ),meaning is central to the study of communication(3ˊ).
22.Contextualist:The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts(3ˊ).Two kinds of context are recognized:the situational context and the linguistic context(2ˊ).
23.Behaviorism:Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the "situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer."(5ˊ)
24.Sense:sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of linguistic form.(5ˊ)
25.Reference:means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world(2ˊ)﹔it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience(3ˊ).
26.Synonymy:refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning(1ˊ).Polysemy:while different words may have the same or similar meaning,the same one word may have more than one meaning(1ˊ).Homonymy:refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form(1ˊ).Hyponymy:refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word(1ˊ).Antonymy:antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning(1ˊ).
运动训练学知识点 名词解释 运动训练学：是研究运动训练规律，以及有效的组织运动训练活动的行为的科学。 运动训练：是竞技体育的重要组成部分，是为提高运动员的竞技能力和运动成绩，在教练员的指导下，专门组织的有计划的体育活动。 竞技体育：是体育的重要组成部分，是以竞赛为主要特征，以创造优异运动成绩，夺取比赛优胜为主要目标的社会性体育活动。 运动竞赛：是在裁判员的主持下，按统一的规则要求组织实施的运动员个体或运动队之间的竞技较量，是竞技体育与社会发生发生关系，并作用于社会的媒介。 运动技术：是完成体育动作的方法，是决定运动员竞技能力水平的重要因素。（特征:不可分割性,不断发展的必然性,相对稳定与及时应变的统一性,个体差异性） 特长技术：是指运动员所掌握的技术群中那些对其获取优异运动成绩有决定意义的能够展现个人特点或优势,使用概率或得分效率相对较高的技术 间歇训练法：是指对动作结构和负荷强度，间歇时间提出严格的要求，以使机体处于不完全恢复状态下，反复进行练习的训练方法。 程序训练法：是按照训练过程的时序性和训练内容的系统性特点，将多种训练内容有序的编制成由若干个步骤组成的训练程序按照预定程序组织训练活动，对训练过程实施科学控制的方法。
法特莱克：是一种速度游戏，在大自然中进行，由于地势变化，空气清新，训练方式手段丰富，可以调节运动员情绪消除不良心理现象的训练方法。 项间移植：指把某个运动项目一种或几种训练方法转移应用到其他项目上的做法（模仿型，改进型，发展移植型） 选择 三大供能系统：1，ATP-CP（100m）2，乳酸能系统（800m）3,有氧氧化供能系统（产生CO2,H2O，不产生乳酸） 训练计划：时间：课,周,大周期,年度,多年对象人数：个人,队组训练内容：模拟,热身,赛前 战术分类：体力分配,参赛目的,心理战术 项群分类： 疲劳： 填空 训练恢复手段：训练学（内容,环境,负荷），医学生物学（水浴,蒸气浴,电兴奋,红,紫外线），营养学，心理学（自我暗示,气功,生物反馈）竞技体育的现代社会价值:1.激励人类自我奋斗精神2.推进竞争合作的道德教育3.提高现代社会生活品位4.促进社会大众的体育参与5.综合国力6.促进社会经济的迅速发展7.排解社会成员的不良心绪 准备活动种类：一般性专项性 简答 体能训练:A.动（离心向心超等长）B.静（等长）
现代语言学 一绪论 1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2 Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants. 3 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics. 二音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.
英语语言学试题（1） I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%) 1、As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___. A、prescriptive B、sociolinguistic C、descriptive D、psycholinguistic 2、Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible. A、mouth B、lips C、tongue D、vocal cords 3、The morpheme "vision" in the common word "television" is a(n) ___. A、bound morpheme B、bound form C、inflectional morpheme D、free morpheme 4、A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A、coordinator B、particle C、preposition D、subordinator 5、"Can I borrow your bike?" _____ "You have a bike." A、is synonymous with B、is inconsistent with C、entails D、presupposes 6、The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___. A、semantics B、pragmatics C、sociolinguistics D、psycholinguistics 7、Grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization. A、elaboration B、simplification C、external borrowing D、internal borrowing 8、___ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication. A、Lingua franca B、Creole C、Pidgin D、Standard language 9、Psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, ___ . A、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus B、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and cerebral cortex C、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and neurons D、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and Exner's area 10、According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. A、learning B、competence C、performance D、acquisition II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in One word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1%×10=10%) 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's k_______ of the rules of his language. 12、The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b______ . 13、M_______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 14、A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 15、Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are called c______ synonyms. 16、The illocutionary point of r_____ is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. 17、Words are created outright to fit some purpose. Such a method of enlarging the vocabulary is known as word c______.
《英语语言学概论》精选试题1 1. Which of the following statements about language is NOT true A. Language is a system B. Language is symbolic C. Animals also have language D. Language is arbitrary 2. Which of the following features is NOT one of the design features of language A. Symbolic B. Duality C. Productive D. Arbitrary 3. What is the most important function of language A. Interpersonal B. Phatic C. Informative D. Metalingual 4. Who put forward the distinction between Langue and Parole A. Saussure B. Chomsky C. Halliday D. Anonymous 5. According to Chomsky, which is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language A. competence B. parole C. performance D. langue 6. The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it" is . A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative 7. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies . A. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech B. the perception of sounds C. the combination of sounds D. the production of sounds 8. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in . A. the place of articulation B. the obstruction of airstream C. the position of the tongue D. the shape of the lips 9. Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 10. Which studies the sound systems in a certain language A. Phonetics B. Phonology C. Semantics D. Pragmatics 11. Minimal pairs are used to . A. find the distinctive features of a language B.find the phonemes of a language C. compare two words D. find the allophones of language 12. Usually, suprasegmental features include ___ ,length and pitch. A. phoneme B. speech sounds C. syllables D. stress 13. Which is an indispensable part of a syllable A. Coda B. Onset C. Stem D. Peak 三、判断
1.竞技体育:竞技体育是体育的重要组成部分，是以体育竞赛为主要 特征，以创造优异运动成绩、夺取比赛胜利为主要目标的社会体育活动。 2.运动员选材：运动员选材是竞技体育的开始，是挑选具有良好运 动天赋及竞技潜力的儿童少年或后备力量参加运动训练的起始性工作 3.运动训练：运动训练是为提高运动员的竞技能力和运动成绩，在 教练员的指导下，专门组织的有计划的体育活动。 4.运动竞赛：是在裁判员的指导下，按统一的规则要求，组织与实 施的运动员个体或运动队之间的竞技较量，是竞技体育与社会发生关联，并作用于社会的媒介。 5.竞技能力：运动员参加比赛的能力 6.项群训练理论：揭示项群训练基本规律的理论命名为“项群训练 理论” 7.运动成绩：运动成绩是运动员参加比赛的结果，是根据特定的评 定行为对运动员及其对手的竞技能力在比赛中发挥状况的综合评定。这一评定既包括运动员在比赛中表现出来的竞技水平，也包括竞赛的胜负或名次。 8.竞技水平：运动员所具备的竞技能力在比赛中的表现称作竞技水 平。 9.竞技能力：竞技能力既指运动员的参赛能力。由具有不同表现的 形式和不同作用的体能、技能、战术能力、运动智能以及心理能
力所构成，并综合得表现于专项竞技的过程之中。 10.运动能力：人体从事体育活动的能力即称运动能力 11.训练水平：运动员在训练过程中所达到的竞技能力的水平称作训 练水平。 12.优秀运动员竞技能力的结构模型：根据运动员竞技能力各组成要 素之间相互联系、相互作用方式的具体特性与功能建立的反映竞技能力构成共性的模型，是对运动员竞技能力结构的概括、归纳和抽象。 13.运动员竞技能力结构的非衡特征及补偿效应：运动员竞技能力构 成因素中某种素质或能力的缺陷，可由其他高度发展的素质或能力在一定范围内予以补偿和代偿，使其总体竞技能力保持在特定的水平，这种现象称为运动员竞技能力非衡结构的补偿效应。14.训练规律：是指运动训练系统内部各构成因素之间，以及它们与 系统外部各相关因素之间在结构与功能上的本质联系和发展的必然趋势。 15.训练原则：是依据运动训练活动的客观规而确定的组织运动训练 所必须遵循的基本原则，是运动训练活动客观规律的反应，对运动实践具有普遍的指导意义。 16.运动训练法：是在运动训练活动中，提高竞技运动水平、完成训 练任务的途径和方法。 17.运动训练手段：是指在运动训练过程中，以提高某一竞技运动能 力、完成某一具体的训练任务所采用的身体练习。是具体的有目
Chapter 12 : Lan guage And Brain 1. n euroli nguistics: It is the study of relati on ship betwee n brain and Ian guage. It in eludes research into how the structure of the brain in flue nces Ian guage lear ning, how and in which parts of the brain Ian guage is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use Ian guage. 2. psycholinguistics: ____ t he study of Ian guage process in g. It is concerned with the processes of Ian guage acqisiti on, comprehe nsion and product ion. 3. brain lateralizati on: The localizatio n of cog nitive and perceptive fun cti ons in a particular hemisphere of the brain. 4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cog nitive fun cti on. 5. right ear advantage: ___ The phe nomenon that the right ear shows an adva ntage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage. 6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cog niti on are called as split brain studies. 7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired Ianguage disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accide nt and so on. 8. non- flue nt aphasia: Damageto parts of the brain in front of the cen tral sulcus is called non-flue nt aphasia. 9. flue nt aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex beh ind the cen tral sulcus results in a type of aphasia called flue nt aphasia. 10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the an gular gyrus of the parietal lobe ofte n causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia. 11. phono logical dyslexia: ___ it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems to have lost the ability to use spelli ng-to-so und rules. 12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patie nt seems un able to recog nize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spell in g-to-so und rules. 13. spo on erism: a slip of ton gue in which the positi on of soun ds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let' s have chish and fips instend of Let' s have fish and chips. 14. prim ing: the process that before the participa nts make a decisi on whether the stri ng of letters is a word or not, they are prese nted with an activated word. 15. freque ncy effect: Subjects take less time to make judgeme nt on freque ntly used words tha n to judge less com monly used words . This phe nomenon is called freque ncy effect.
I. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only. 1. Clear ［1］and dark [?] are allophones of the same one phoneme /1/.They never take the same position in sound combinations, thus they are said to be in c omplementary distribution. (P24) 2. M orphology is the smallest meaningful unit of language. (P32) 3. Consonant sounds can be either?voiceless or voiced, while all v owel sounds are voiced. (P16) 4. In making conversation, the general principle that all participants are expected to observe is called the C ooperative?principle proposed by J. Grice. (P86-87) 5.??Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time is called a s ynchronic study of language. (P4) 6.?An essential difference between consonants and vowels is whether the air coming up from the lungs meets with any o bstruction when a sound is produced. (P18) 7.?XP may contain more than just X. For example, the NP “the boy who likes this puppy” consists of Det, N and S, with Det being the s pecifier, N the head and S the complement. (P46) 9.??While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an u tterance is concrete and context-dependent. (P70) 11. P sycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when people use language. (P70) 12. A d iachronic study of language is a historical study, it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (P70) 13. Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower level, there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined into a large number of meaningful units at the higher level. This design feature is called d uality. (P70) 14. The articulatory apparatus of a human being is contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity, the o ral cavity and the nasal cavity. (P15) 16. S uprasegmental features such as stress, tone and intonation can influence the interpretation of meaning. (P70) 18. H omonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (P70) 19. The three branches of phonetics are labeled as a rticulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics respectively. (P15)
《英语语言学概论》复习纲要 1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。第二，以 各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。第三，动手书写和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。 2.各章节复习要点如下 Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics, arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance Study of the origin of language What are the functions of language Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics Chapter 2 Speech Sounds Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with examples The classification of English consonants and English vowels and the features involved in the classification Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization, dentalization, velarization
运动训练名词解释 2003年真题名词解释运动训练：是竞技体育活动的重要组成部分，是为提高运动员的竞技能力和 运动成绩，在教练员的指导下，专门组织的有计划地体育活动。 周期安排原则：是指周期性地组织运动训练过程的训练原则。依运动员机体 的生物节奏变化规律、竞技状态与发展的周期性规律，以及运动竞赛安排的周期性特点，按一定的动态节奏，循环往复、逐步提高地安排内容和负荷。 重复训练法：是指多次重复同一次练习，两次（组）练习之间安排相对充分的休息练习方法。 灵敏素质：是指各种突然变化的条件下，运动员能够迅速、准确、协调地改变身体运动的空间位置和运动方向，以适应变化着的外环境的能力。 竞技战术：在比赛中为战胜对手或为表现出期望的比赛结果而采取的计谋和 行动。其主要构成有战术观念、战术指导思想、战术意识、战术形式和战术行动等。 2004年真题名词解释运动训练:是竞技体育活动的重要组成部分，是为提高运动员的竞技能力和运动成绩，在教练员的指导下，专门组织的有计划地体育活动。 系统训练原则:系统地不间断地坚持从事运动训练，并有序地选择训练内容和训练手段，有序地安排训练负荷的训练原则。 重复训练法:是指多次重复同一次练习，两次（组）练习之间安排相对充分的休息练习方法。 技术风格:所谓技术风格，是指某运动员或运动队的技术系统，区别于其他运动员或运动队的技术系统的，较为成熟和定型化了的，经常表现出来的特征。训练课结构:所谓训练课的结构是指训练课的各组成部分及其进行的顺序，一般训练课通常依次由准备部分，基本部分和结束部分组成。 2005年真题名词解释运动训练:是竞技体育活动的重要组成部分，是为提高运动员的竞技能力和运动成绩，在教练员的指导下，专门组织的有计划地体育活动。 竞技水平:运动员所具备的竞技能力在比赛中的表现称做竞技水平，是运动成
名词解释 https://www.doczj.com/doc/e617864603.html,petence and Performance: The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance. Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc.. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard. ) 2.Sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.( It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors, some of which are linguistic.) https://www.doczj.com/doc/e617864603.html,nguage Acquisition: refers to t he child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s devel opment of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.) 4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf (and also a belief held by some scholars). It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language. (2) The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts, i.e. linguistic determinism and relativism. Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, i.e. the notion of linguistic determinism. Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, i.e. relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism. 5.Phrase structure rule: The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as: NP →(Det) + N +(PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls. VP →(Qual) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments. AP →(Deg) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP →(Deg) + P + (NP)……on the shelf, in the boat, quite near the station.