外文资料原文
外文资料原文
Transmitting and receiving serial data
The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) controller is the key component of the serial communications subsystem of a computer. The UART takes bytes of data and transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion. At the destination, a second UART re-assembles the bits into complete bytes.Serial transmission of digital information (bits) through a single wire or other medium is much more cost effective than parallel transmission through multiple wires. A UART is used to convert the transmitted information between its sequential and parallel form at each end of the link. Each UART contains a shift register which is the fundamental method of conversion between serial and parallel forms.
The UART usually does not directly generate or receive the external signals used between different items of equipment. Typically, separate interface devices are used to convert the logic level signals of the UART to and from the external signaling levels.
External signals may be of many different forms. Examples of standards for voltage signaling are RS-232, RS-422 and RS-485 from the EIA. Historically, the presence or absence of current (in current loops) was used in telegraph circuits. Some signaling schemes do not use electrical wires. Examples of such are optical fiber, IrDA (infrared), and (wireless) Bluetooth in its Serial Port Profile (SPP). Some signaling schemes use modulation of a carrier signal (with or without wires). Examples are modulation of audio signals with phone line modems, RF modulation with data radios, and the DC-LIN for power line communication.
Communication may be "full duplex" (both send and receive at the same time) or "half duplex" (devices take turns transmitting and receiving).
As of 2008, UARTs are commonly used with RS-232 for embedded systems communications. It is useful to communicate between microcontrollers and also with PCs. Many chips provide UART functionality in silicon, and low-cost chips exist to convert logic level signals (such as TTL voltages) to RS-232 level signals (for example, Maxim'sMAX232).
Asynchronous receive and transmit
In asynchronous transmitting, teletype-style UARTs send a "start" bit, five to
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eight data bits, least-significant-bit first, an optional "parity" bit, and then one, one and a half, or two "stop" bits. The start bit is the opposite polarity of the data-line's idle state. The stop bit is the data-line's idle state, and provides a delay before the next character can start. (This is called asynchronous start-stop transmission). In mechanical teletypes, the "stop" bit was often stretched to two bit times to give the mechanism more time to finish printing a character. A stretched "stop" bit also helps resynchronization.
The parity bit can either make the number of "one" bits between any start/stop pair odd, or even, or it can be omitted. Odd parity is more reliable because it assures that there will always be at least one data transition, and this permits many UARTs to resynchronize.
In synchronous transmission, the clock data is recovered separately from the data stream and no start/stop bits are used. This improves the efficiency of transmission on suitable channels since more of the bits sent are usable data and not character framing. An asynchronous transmission sends no characters over the interconnection when the transmitting device has nothing to send -- only idle stop bits; but a synchronous interface must send "pad" characters to maintain synchronism between the receiver and transmitter. The usual filler is the ASCII "SYN" character. This may be done automatically by the transmitting device.
USART chips have both synchronous and asynchronous modes.
Serial to Parallel Algorithm
Asynchronous transmission allows data to be transmitted without the sender having to send a clock signal to the receiver. Instead, the sender and receiver must agree on timing parameters in advance and special bits are added to each word which are used to synchronize the sending and receiving units.
When a word is given to the UART for Asynchronous transmissions, a bit called the "Start Bit" is added to the beginning of each word that is to be transmitted. The Start Bit is used to alert the receiver that a word of data is about to be sent, and to force the clock in the receiver into synchronization with the clock in the transmitter. These two clocks must be accurate enough to not have the frequency drift by more than 10% during the transmission of the remaining bits in the word. (This requirement was set in the days of mechanical teleprinters and is easily met by modern electronic equipment.)
After the Start Bit, the individual bits of the word of data are sent, with the Least Significant Bit (LSB) being sent first. Each bit in the transmission is transmitted
外文资料
for exactly the same amount of time as all of the other bits, and the receiver “looks” at the wire at approximately halfway through the period assigned to each bit to determine if the bit is a 1 or a 0. For example, if it takes two seconds to send each bit, the receiver will examine the signal to determine if it is a 1 or a 0 after one second has passed, then it will wait two seconds and then examine the value of the next bit, and so on.
The sender does not know when the receiver has “looked” at the value of the bit. The sender only knows when the clock says to begin transmitting the next bit of the word.
When the entire data word has been sent, the transmitter may add a Parity Bit that the transmitter generates. The Parity Bit may be used by the receiver to perform simple error checking. Then at least one Stop Bit is sent by the transmitter.
When the receiver has received all of the bits in the data word, it may check for the Parity Bits (both sender and receiver must agree on whether a Parity Bit is to be used), and then the receiver looks for a Stop Bit. If the Stop Bit does not appear when it is supposed to, the UART considers the entire word to be garbled and will report a Framing Error to the host processor when the data word is read. The usual cause of a Framing Error is that the sender and receiver clocks were not running at the same speed, or that the signal was interrupted.
Regardless of whether the data was received correctly or not, the UART automatically discards the Start, Parity and Stop bits. If the sender and receiver are configured identically, these bits are not passed to the host. If another word is ready for transmission, the Start Bit for the new word can be sent as soon as the Stop Bit for the previous word has been sent. Because asynchronous data is “self synchronizing”, if there is no data to transmit, the transmission line can be idle. A data communicationpulse can only be in one of two states but there are many names for the two states. When on, circuit closed, low voltage, current flowing, or a logical zero, the pulse is said to be in the "space" condition. When off, circuit open, high voltage, current stopped, or a logical one, the pulse is said to be in the "mark" condition. A character code begins with the data communication circuit in the space condition. If the mark condition appears, a logical one is recorded otherwise a logical zero.
Figure 1 shows this format.
The start bit is always a 0 (logic low), which is also called a space. The start bit signals the receiving DTE that a character code is coming. The next five to eight bits, depending on the code set employed, represent the character. In the ASCII code set the eighth data bit may be a parity bit. The next one or two bits are always in the
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mark (logic high, i.e., '1') condition and called the stop bit(s). They provide a "rest" interval for the receiving DTE so that it may prepare for the next character which may be after the stop bit(s). The rest interval was required by mechanical Teletypes which used a motor driven camshaft to decode each character. At the end of each character the motor needed time to strike the character bail (print the character) and reset the camshaft.
All operations of the UART hardware are controlled by a clock signal which runs at a multiple (say, 16) of the data rate - each data bit is as long as 16 clock pulses. The receiver tests the state of the incoming signal on each clock pulse, looking for the beginning of the start bit. If the apparent start bit lasts at least one-half of the bit time, it is valid and signals the start of a new character. If not, the spurious pulse is ignored. After waiting a further bit time, the state of the line is again sampled and the resulting level clocked into a shift register. After the required number of bit periods for the character length (5 to 8 bits, typically) have elapsed, the contents of the shift register is made available (in parallel fashion) to the receiving system. The UART will set a flag indicating new data is available, and may also generate a processor interrupt to request that the host processor transfers the received data. In some common types of UART, a small first-in, first-out (FIFO) buffer memory is inserted between the receiver shift register and the host system interface. This allows the host processor more time to handle an interrupt from the UART and prevents loss of received data at high rates.
Transmission operation is simpler since it is under the control of the transmitting system. As soon as data is deposited in the shift register, the UART hardware generates a start bit, shifts the required number of data bits out to the line,generates and appends the parity bit (if used), and appends the stop bits. Since transmission of a single character may take a long time relative to CPU speeds, the UART will maintain a flag showing busy status so that the host system does not deposit a new character for transmission until the previous one has been completed; this may also be done with an interrupt. Since full-duplex operation requires characters to be sent and received at the same time, practical UARTs use two different shift registers for transmitted characters and received characters.
Transmitting and receiving UARTs must be set for the same bit speed, character length, parity, and stop bits for proper operation. The receiving UART may detect some mismatched settings and set a "framing error" flag bit for the host system; in exceptional cases the receiving UART will produce an erratic stream of mutilated characters and transfer them to the host system.
Typical serial ports used with personal computers connected to modems use eight data bits, no parity, and one stop bit; for this configuration the number of ASCII
外文原文
character per seconds equals the bit rate divided by 10.
History
Some early telegraph schemes used variable-length pulses (as in Morse code) and rotating clockwork mechanisms to transmit alphabetic characters. The first UART-like devices (with fixed-length pulses) were rotating mechanical switches (commutators). These sent 5-bit Baudot codes for mechanical teletypewriters, and replaced morse code. Later, ASCII required a seven bit code. When IBM built computers in the early 1960s with 8-bit characters, it became customary to store the ASCII code in 8 bits.
Gordon Bell designed the UART for the PDP series of computers. Western Digital made the first single-chip UART WD1402A around 1971; this was an early example of a medium scale integrated circuit.
An example of an early 1980s UART was the National Semiconductor8250. In the 1990s, newer UARTs were developed with on-chip buffers. This allowed higher transmission speed without data loss and without requiring such frequent attention from the computer. For example, the popular National Semiconductor 16550 has a 16 byte FIFO, and spawned many variants, including the 16C550, 16C650, 16C750, and 16C850.
Depending on the manufacturer, different terms are used to identify devices that perform the UART functions. Intel called their 8251 device a "Programmable Communication Interface". MOS Technology6551 was known under the name "Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter" (ACIA). The term "Serial Communications Interface" (SCI) was first used at Motorola around 1975 to refer to their start-stop asynchronous serial interface device, which others were calling a UART.
Some very low-cost home computers or embedded systems dispensed with a UART and used the CPU to sample the state of an input port or directly manipulate an output port for data transmission. While very CPU-intensive, since the CPU timing was critical, these schemes avoided the purchase of a costly UART chip. The technique was known as a bit-banging serial port.
UART models
8250, 16450, early 16550: Obsolete with 1-byte buffers
16550, 16550A, 16C552: 16-byte buffers, TL=1,4,8,14; 115.2 kbps standard, many support 230.4 or 460.8 kbps
16650: 32-byte buffers. 460.8 kbps
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16750: 64-byte buffer for send, 56-byte for receive. 921.6 kbps
16850, 16C850: 128-byte buffers. 460.8 kbps or 1.5 mbps
16950Hayes ESP: 1k-byte buffers.
Structure
A UART usually contains the following components:a clock generator, usually a multiple of the bit rate to allow sampling in the middle of a bit period.
input and output shift registers
transmit/receive control
read/write control logic
transmit/receive buffers (optional)
parallel data bus buffer (optional)
First-in, first-out (FIFO) buffer memory (optional)
Special Receiver Conditions
Overrun Error
An "overrun error" occurs when the UART receiver cannot process the character that just came in before the next one arrives. Various UART devices have differing amounts of buffer space to hold received characters. The CPU must service the UART in order to remove characters from the input buffer. If the CPU does not service the UART quickly enough and the buffer becomes full, an Overrun Error will occur.
Underrun Error
An "underrun error" occurs when the UART transmitter has completed sending a character and the transmit buffer is empty. In asynchronous modes this is treated as an indication that no data remains to be transmitted, rather than an error, since additional stop bits can be appended. This error indication is commonly found in USARTs, since an underrun is more serious in synchronous systems.
Framing Error
外文原文
A "framing error" occurs when the designated "start" and "stop" bits are not valid. As the "start" bit is used to identify the beginning of an incoming character, itacts as a reference for the remaining bits. If the data line is not in the expected idle state when the "stop" bit is expected, a Framing Error will occur.
Parity Error
A "parity error" occurs when the number of "active" bits does not agree with the specified parity configuration of the UART, producing a Parity Error. Because the "parity" bit is optional, this error will not occur if parity has been disabled. Parity error is set when the parity of an incoming data character does not match the expected value.
Break Condition
A "break condition" occurs when the receiver input is at the "space" level for longer than some duration of time, typically, for more than a character time. This is not necessarily an error, but appears to the receiver as a character of all zero bits with a framing error.
Some equipment will deliberately transmit the "break" level for longer than a character as an out-of-band signal. When signaling rates are mismatched, no meaningful characters can be sent, but a long "break" signal can be a useful way to get the attention of a mismatched receiver to do something (such as resetting itself). UNIX systems and UNIX-like systems such as Linux can use the long "break" level as a request to change the signaling rate.
Baudrate
In embedded designs, it is necessary to choose proper oscillator to get correct baud rate with small or no error. Some examples of common crystal frequencies and baud rates with no error:
18.432 MHz: 300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200 Bd
22.118400 MHz: 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800, 7200, 9600, 14400, 19200, 38400, 57600, 115200 Bd
16 MHz: 125000, 500000 Bd
See also
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Asynchronous serial communication
Baud
bit rate
Modem
Morse code
Serial communication
Serial port
USB
16550 UART
8250 UART
External links
A tutorial on the RS-232 standard, describing the definition of mark, space and their relationship with negative and positive voltages
Freebsd Tutorials (includes standard signal definitions, history of UART ICs, and pinout for commonly used DB25 connector)
UART Tutorial for Robotics (contains many practical examples)
译文
通用异步接收/发送器是一种“异步接收器/发射器” ，一块电脑硬件的转换之间的数据并行和串行的形式。UART常用与其他通信标准，如环境影响评估RS - 232接口。
UART通常是个（或部分）积体电路用于串行通讯，电脑或外围设备的串行端口。UART现在包含在微控制器。双UART或两个UART 杜阿尔特结合到一个单一芯片中。许多现代集成电路与现在的UART还可以沟通同步;这些设备被称为通用同步。
Transmitting and receiving serial data 发送和接收串行数据
在通用异步接收/发送器（UART接口）控制器是关键的组成部分，串行通信子系统的一台计算机。采取的异步字节的数据传输和个人位依次时尚。在目的地，第二个UART重新组装成完整的bytes.Serial位数字信息传输模式（bits ）通过一个单一的有线或其他媒介更符合成本效益比并行传输，通过多条线路。阿的UART是用来转换之间的信息传播其顺序和并行形式两端的链接。每个UART 接口包含一个移位寄存器这是最根本的方法之间的转换串行和并行的形式。
该个UART通常并不直接产生或接收外部信号之间使用不同的设备。通常情况下，单独的接口设备是用来转换逻辑电平信号的UART和来自外部信号的水平。
外部信号可能有许多不同的形式。实例标准电压信号的RS - 232接口，遥感- 422和RS - 485接口的环境影响评估。从历史上看，存在或不存在电流（在目前的循环）用于电报电路。一些信令计划不使用电线。.例如是光纤，支持IrDA （红外）和（无线）蓝牙在串口简介（许可证）。一些计划使用信号调制的载波信号（带或不带线）。例子有调制的音频信号与电话线调制解调器，射频调制数据收音机，以及直流林的电力线载波通信。
通信可能是“全双工” （发送和接收在同一时间）或“半双工” （设备轮流发送和接收）。
截至2008年，个UART常用的RS - 232接口的嵌入式系统的通信。它是有用的微控制器之间的沟通，并与个人电脑。许多芯片提供的UART功能硅，和低成本的芯片存在转换逻辑电平信号（如对焦TTL电压），以RS - 232接口信号（例如，Maxim的MAX232 ）。
Asynchronous receive and transmit 异步接收和发送
在异步传输，电传式个UART发送“开始”位，7点55比特的数据，最重要的位第一，一个可选的“平价”位，然后一，一个半或两个“一站式”的位。起始位是极性相反的数据线的空闲状态。停车位是数据线的空闲状态，并规定在一段时间后，下一个字符就可以开始。（这就是所谓的异步起止传输）。在机械teletypes 的“一站式”位往往延伸到2位，以使这一机制更多的时间来完成印刷字符。加长“一站式”位也有助于同步。
奇偶校验位可以使一些“一”位之间的任何启动/停止对奇怪的，甚至，也可以省略。奇数奇偶更可靠，因为它确保总是会有至少一个数据过渡，这许多个UART ，以允许同步。
在同步传输，时钟数据恢复分开的数据流，并没有启动/停止位被使用。这提高了效率，传输的适当渠道，因为更多的比特发出的可用的数据，而不是性质的框架。异步传输传送任何字符的互连时，传动装置无关发送-只有闲置停止位;但同步接口必须发出“垫”字符之间保持同步的接收器和发射器。通常的填料是ASCII的“同步”的特点。这可能是自动完成的传动装置。
芯片同步和异步模式。
Serial to Parallel Algorithm 串行到并行算法
异步传输允许数据传送有没有发件人发送时钟信号的接收器。相反，发送和接收必须商定时间提前参数和特殊位被添加到每个单词用来同步发送和接收单位。
如果某个词给予的UART异步传输，有些所谓的“开始有点”被添加到开始每个单词是将转交。起始位是用来提醒接收器，一个字的数据即将发出，并以武力的时钟同步接收到的时钟发射机。这两个时钟必须准确没有足够的频率漂移了10 ％以上的传输过程中的其余位在Word 。（此要求是在未来的日子机械电传打字电报，是很容易满足了现代化的电子设备。）开始后位，个人位的话，数据传送，以最低有效位（LSB的）被第一次。每比特的传输转交正是相同的时间内为所有其他位，并接收“期待”在铁丝网约一半的期间分配给每个位，以决定是否位是1或0 。例如，如果需要两秒钟发送每比特，将审查接收的信号以确定它是否是一个1或0后一秒过去了，然后将等待2秒钟，然后检查的价值，未来位等等。
.发件人不知道什么时候接收了“期待”的价值位。寄件人只知道说，当时钟开始转递明年位一词。
.当整个数据一词已发送，发射器可添加一个奇偶校验位产生的发射机。的
奇偶校验位可使用的接收器进行简单的错误检查。那么至少一站式位发射机发出的。
当接收器收到的所有比特的数据字，可以检查奇偶校验码（包括发送和接收必须商定是否有奇偶校验位将用于），然后接收寻找停止位。如果停止位时，没有出现这是理应的异步认为整个词是乱码，并将报告帧错误的主机处理器的数据时，读字。通常的原因帧错误的是，发送和接收时钟并没有运行在相同的速度，或者说，信号中断。
无论是收到的数据正确与否，自动丢弃的UART开始，奇偶校验和停止位。如果发送和接收的配置相同，这些位不能传递到主机。如果另一个词准备传输，开始位的新词可以发送尽快停止位前一词已发送。由于异步数据是“自我同步” ，如果没有数据传输，传输线可以闲置。阿数据通信脉冲只能在两个国家之一，但也有许多名字，这两个国家。当打开时，关闭电路，低电压，电流流动，或逻辑为零，脉搏据说是在“空间”的条件。如果是off ，电路开放式，高电压，电流停止，或逻辑 1 ，脉冲被认为是在“商标”的条件。阿字符代码始于数据通信电路在空间条件。如果该商标的条件看来，是一个合乎逻辑的一个合乎逻辑的记录，否则为零。
开始位总是0 （逻辑低），也就是所谓的空间。起始位信号接收终端的字符代码正在到来。在今后的5到8位，这取决于代码集就业，代表的性质。在ASCII 码的数据集第八位可能是奇偶校验位。在未来一个或两个位都是在马克（逻辑高，也就是说，'1 ' ）的条件，并呼吁停止位（县）。他们提供了一个“休息”间隔接收终端，以便它可以准备下一个字符可能会在停止位（县）。其余的时间间隔，需要用机械Teletypes使用电动机驱动凸轮轴解码每个字符。在每个字符的运动需要更多的时间来打击性质保释（打印的字符）和重置凸轮轴。
所有业务的UART硬件控制的时钟信号运行在一个多（也就是说，16日）的数据速率-每个数据位是，只要16个时钟脉冲。T该接收机测试状态的输入信号在每个时钟脉冲，寻找开始启动位。如果明显开始位持续至少有一半的比特时间，它是有效的，信号开始一个新的特点。如果不是，虚伪的脉冲被忽略。等待进一步位时间，国家线再次取样和由此产生的水平频率为移位寄存器。后所需数目的位期间的字符长度（第5至第8位，通常）已经过去了，内容的移位寄存器是提供（并行方式）的接收系统。该个UART将国旗表明新的数据，而且还可能产生一个处理器的中断请求，主机处理器转让收到的数据。在一些常见的
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UART ，一个小头中，先出（FIFO的）缓冲存储器之间插入接收移位寄存器和主机系统的接口。这使得主处理器有更多的时间来处理中断的UART和防止损失收到的数据率高。
system.传输操作更简单，因为它控制下的传输系统。当数据保存在移位寄存器的硬件生成的UART开始位，转变所需数量的数据位到线，生成和附加的奇偶校验位（如果使用），以及附加的停止位。由于传输的一个单一的字符可能会需要很长的时间相对于CPU的速度，将保持的UART国旗显示繁忙的地位，让主机系统并不存款一个新的字符传输到前一个已经完成，这也可能是完成中断。自全双工操作需要的字符将发送和接收在同一时间，实际个UART使用两种不同的移位寄存器的传播特征及收到字符。
发送和接收UART接口必须设置为同一位速度，字符长度，奇偶校验，停止位的正常运行。接收的UART可以检测一些不相符的设置，并设定了“帧错误”标志位的主机系统;在特殊情况下，接收的UART将产生不稳定流肢解字符和他们转移到主机系统。.典型的串行端口，使用个人电脑连接到调制解调器使用了8个数据位，无奇偶校验，一个停止位;这一配置的数量ASCII字符每秒等于比特率除以10。
History 历史
有些早期的电报计划使用可变长度豆类（如在莫尔斯电码）和旋转发条机制转交字母。第一次的UART样装置（与固定长度脉冲）的旋转机械式开关（换向器）。这些派出5位Baudot教授守则机械teletypewriters ，取代莫尔斯电码。Later, ASCII required a seven bit code.后来，ASCII的需要7位代码。当IBM公司建立的计算机在60年代初的8位字符，它成为习惯存储ASCII码的8位。
贝尔的UART设计的等离子系列个人电脑。西部数字作出了第一款单芯片的UART WD1402A约1971年;这是一个早期的例子一个中等规模的集成电路。
一个例子是20世纪80年代初的UART是美国国家半导体8250 。在20世纪90年代，制定了新的UART接口，带有片上缓冲器。这使得传输速度更高的数据丢失和未经而不需要如此频繁的注意力从电脑。例如，流行的国家半导体16550有一个16字节的FIFO ，并产生许多变种，其中包括16C550 ，16C650 ，16C750和16C850 。
根据不同的制造商，不同的条件下可用于识别装置执行的UART功能。英特尔所谓的8251设备的“可编程通信接口” 。马鞍山技术6551已知的名义下“异步通信接口适配器” （ACIA ）。所谓“串行通信接口” （SCI ）的首次使用在摩托罗拉公司在1975年提及的起止异步串行接口设备，它被调用的
UART 。
一些成本很低的家庭计算机或嵌入式系统配有UART和使用的CPU样品状况的一个输入端口，或直接操纵输出端口的数据传输。虽然非常CPU密集型的，因为CPU的时间是至关重要的，这些计划避免了购买昂贵的UART芯片。这项技术被称为位撞串行端口。
UART models 异步模式
早期16550 ：过时1字节缓冲器
1 16字节缓冲器的TL = 1,4,8,14 ; 115.
2 kbps的标准，许多支持230.4或460.8 kbps的
32字节的缓冲区。460.8 kbps 460.8 kbps的
64字节的缓冲区发送，56字节的接收。921.6 kbps 921.6 kbps的
128字节的缓冲区。460.8 kbps or 1.5 mbps 460.8 Kbps或1.5 Mbps的
16950 16950
Hayes ESP: 1k-byte buffers. 1000字节的缓冲区。
Structure 结构
UART通常包含以下内容：
.时钟发生器，通常是多种的比特率，使样品中有点时期。
输入和输出移位寄存器
发射/接收控制
读/写控制逻辑
发射/接收缓冲器（可选）
并行数据总线缓冲器（可选）
第一次中，先出（FIFO的）缓冲内存（可选）
特别接收条件
Overrun Error 溢出错误
一个“溢出错误”时发生的UART接收器无法处理的性质，仅仅排在之后再进入下一个到达。不同的UART设备有不同数量的缓冲空间举行收到字符。必须服务的CPU的UART接口，以便消除字符输入缓冲区。如果CPU不服务的UART 不够迅速，并成为全缓冲，超支将出现错误。
Underrun Error 欠载错误
一个“欠错误”时发生的UART发射机已完成派遣一个特点和传输缓冲区是空的。在异步模式，这被视为表明，仍然没有任何数据传送，而不是一个错误，因为额外的停止位可附加。此错误指示中常见的通用同步，因为一个更为严重的不足是在同步系统。
Framing Error 帧错误
.一个“帧错误”发生在指定的“开始”和“一站式”的位无效。随着“开始”位是用来识别开始传入性质，它作为参考，其余位。如果数据线是不能预期的空闲状态时，“一站式”位预计，一帧将出现错误。
Parity Error 奇偶错误
一个“平等的错误”时，就会发生一些“积极的”比特不同意指定平价配置的UART ，产生奇偶错误。.因为“平价”位是可选的，这个错误不会发生如果平价已被禁用。奇偶错误时设置的平价数据的性质不符预期价值。
Break Condition 突破条件
一个“打破状态”时，就会发生接收器输入是在“空间”的水平比一些期限较长的时间，通常情况下，一个多字符的时间。这不一定是一个错误，但似乎接收一个字符的所有零位的帧错误。
一些设备将转交故意“打破”水平的时间超过一个字符作为一个带外信号。当信号利率不匹配的，没有取得有意义的字符可以发送，但长期“打破”的信号可以是一个有用的方法来注意错接收做某事（如重置本身）。的UNIX系统和类UNIX 系统如Linux的可以使用较长的“打破”水平的要求来改变信号率。
Baudrate波特率
在嵌入式设计，有必要选择适当的振荡器，以获得正确的波特率与小或没有错误。一些实例共同晶体频率和波特率，也没有显示错误：
18.432 MHz: 300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200 Bd 18.432兆赫：300 ，600 ，1200 ，2400 ，4800 ，9600 ，19200 屋宇署
22.118400 MHz: 300, 600, 1200, 1800, 2400, 4800, 7200, 9600, 14400, 19200, 38400, 57600, 115200 Bd 22.118400兆赫：300 ，600 ，1200 ，1800 ，2400 ，4800 ，7200 ，9600 ，14400 ，19200 ，38400 ，57600 ，115200屋宇署
16 MHz: 125000, 500000 Bd 16兆赫：一十二点五○○万，500000屋宇署
[ edit ] See also [ 编辑]另见
Asynchronous serial communication 异步串行通信
Baud 波特率
bit rate 比特率
Modem 调制解调器
Morse code 莫尔斯电码
Serial communication 串行通信
Serial port 串口
USB USB接口
16550 UART 16550个UART
8250 UART 8250个UART
RS - 232接口标准，说明商标的定义，空间及其与消极和积极电压
FreeBSD的教程（包括标准信号的定义，历史的UART IC和引脚常用DB25连接器）
异步教学的机器人（包含了许多实际例子）
第二部分 控制理论 第1章 1.1控制系统的引入 人类控制自然力量的设计促进人类历史的发展,我们已经广泛的能利用这种量进行在人类本身力量之外的物理进程?在充满活力的20世纪中,控制系统工程的发展已经使得很多梦想成为了现实?控制系统工程队我们取得的成就贡献巨大?回首过去,控制系统工程主要的贡献在机器人,航天驾驶系统包括成功的实现航天器的软着陆,航空飞机自动驾驶与自动控制,船舶与潜水艇控制系统,水翼船?气垫船?高速铁路自动控制系统,现代铁路控制系统? 以上这些类型的控制控制系统和日常生活联系紧密,控制系统是一系列相关的原件在系统运行的基础上相互关联的构成的,此外控制系统存在无人状态下的运行,如飞机自控驾驶,汽车的巡航控制系统?对于控制系统,特别是工业控制系统,我们通常面对的是一系列的器件,自动控制是一个复合型的学科?控制工程师的工作需要具有力学,电子学,机械电子,流体力学,结构学,无料的各方面的知识?计算机在控制策略的执行中具有广泛的应用,并且控制工程的需求带动了信息技术的与软件工程的发展? 通常控制系统的范畴包括开环控制系统与闭环控制系统,两种系统的区别在于是否在系统中加入了闭环反馈装置? 开环控制系统 开环控制系统控制硬件形式很简单,图2.1描述了一个单容液位控制系统, 图2.1单容液位控制系统 我们的控制目标是保持容器的液位h 在水流出流量V 1变化的情况下保持在一定 可接受的范围内,可以通过调节入口流量V 2实现?这个系统不是精确的系统,本系 统无法精确地检测输出流量V 2,输入流量V 1以及容器液位高度?图2.2描述了这 个系统存在的输入(期望的液位)与输出(实际液位)之间的简单关系, 图2.2液位控制系统框图 这种信号流之间的物理关系的描述称为框图?箭头用来描述输入进入系统,以及
Mechatronics Electrical machinery and electronics, also known as the integration of science, English as Mechatronics, it is by English mechanics of the first half of Mechanics and Electronics of the latter part of a combination of Electronics. Mechatronics 1971, first appeared in Japanese magazine, "Machine Design" on the supplement, with the mechanical-electrical integration of the rapid development of technology, electromechanical integration, the concept was widely accepted and we have universal application. With the rapid development of computer technology and extensive application of mechatronics technology unprecedented development. Mechatronics present technology, mechanical and micro-electronics technology is closely a set of technologies, the development of his machine has been cold humane, intelligent. Specific mechanical and electrical integration technologies, including the following: (1) mechanical engineering machinery and technology is the basis of mechatronics, mechanical technology, focused on how to adapt to mechanical and electrical integration technologies, the use of other high and new technology to update the concept, the realization of the structure, materials, the performance changes to meet the needs to reduce weight, reduce the size and improve accuracy, increase the stiffness and improving the performance requirements. Mechatronic systems in the manufacturing process, the classical theory and technology of mechanical computer-aided technology should help, while the use of artificial intelligence and expert systems, the formation of a new generation of mechanical manufacturing technology. (2) Computer and Information Technology Which information exchange, access, computing, judge and decision-making, artificial intelligence techniques, expert system technology, neural networks are computer information processing technology. (3) System Technology System technology that is the concept of the overall application of related technology organizations, from the perspective of the overall objectives and systems will be interconnected into the overall number of functional units, system interface technology is an important aspect of technology, it is an organic part of the realization of system guarantee connectivity.
1、 外文原文 A: Fundamentals of Single-chip Microcomputer Th e si ng le -c hi p m ic ro co mp ut er i s t he c ul mi na ti on of both t h e de ve lo pm en t o f t he d ig it al co m pu te r an d th e i n te gr at ed c i rc ui t a rg ua bl y t h e to w m os t s ig ni f ic an t i nv en ti on s o f t he 20th c e nt ur y [1]. Th es e t ow ty pe s of ar ch it ec tu re a re fo un d i n s in g le -ch i p m i cr oc om pu te r. So m e em pl oy t he spl i t pr og ra m/da ta m e mo ry o f th e H a rv ar d ar ch it ect u re , sh ow n in Fi g.3-5A -1, o th ers fo ll ow t he p h il os op hy , wi del y a da pt ed f or ge n er al -p ur po se co m pu te rs a nd m i cr op ro ce ss o r s, o f ma ki ng n o log i ca l di st in ct ion be tw ee n p r og ra m an d d at a m e mo ry a s i n t he P r in ce to n ar ch ite c tu re , sh ow n i n F ig.3-5A-2. In g en er al te r ms a s in gl e -chi p m ic ro co mp ut er i s c h ar ac te ri ze d b y t h e i nc or po ra ti on o f a ll t he un it s of a co mp uter i n to a s in gl e d ev i ce , as s ho wn in Fi g3-5A -3. Fig.3-5A-1 A Harvard type Program memory Data memory CPU Input& Output unit memory CPU Input& Output unit
景德镇陶瓷学院 毕业设计(论文)有关外文翻 译 院系：机械电子工程学院 专业：自动化 姓名：肖骞 学号： 201010320116 指导教师：万军 完成时间： 2014.5.8 说明
1、将与课题有关的专业外文翻译成中文是毕业设计（论文）中的一个不可缺少的环节。此环节是培养学生阅读专业外文和检验学生专业外文阅读能力的一个重要环节。通过此环节进一步提高学生阅读专业外文的能力以及使用外文资料为毕业设计服务，并为今后科研工作打下扎实的基础。 2、要求学生查阅与课题相关的外文文献3篇以上作为课题参考文献，并将其中1篇（不少于3000字）的外文翻译成中文。中文的排版按后面格式进行填写。外文内容是否与课题有关由指导教师把关，外文原文附在后面。 3、指导教师应将此外文翻译格式文件电子版拷给所指导的学生，统一按照此排版格式进行填写，完成后打印出来。 4、请将封面、译文与外文原文装订成册。 5、此环节在开题后毕业设计完成前完成。 6、指导教师应从查阅的外文文献与课题紧密相关性、翻译的准确性、是否通顺以及格式是否规范等方面去进行评价。 指导教师评语： 签名： 年月日
TMS320LF2407, TMS320LF2406, TMS320LF2402 TMS320LC2406, TMS320LC2404, MS320LC2402 DSP CONTROLLERS The TMS320LF240x and TMS320LC240x devices, new members of the ‘24x family of digital signal processor (DSP) controllers, are part of the C2000 platform of fixed-point DSPs. The ‘240x devices offer the enhanced TMS320 architectural design of the ‘C2xx core CPU for low-cost, low-power, high-performance processing capabilities. Several advanced peripherals, optimized for digital motor and motion control applications, have been integrated to provide a true single chip DSP controller. While code-compatible with the existing ‘24x DSP controller devices, the ‘240x offers increased processing performance (30 MIPS) and a higher level of peripheral integration. See the TMS320x240x device summary section for device-specific features. The ‘240x family offers an array of memory sizes and different peripherals tailored to meet the specific price/performance points required by various applications. Flash-based devices of up to 32K words offer a reprogrammable solution useful for: ◆Applications requiring field programmability upgrades. ◆Development and initial prototyping of applications that migrate to ROM-based devices. Flash devices and corresponding ROM devices are fully pin-to-pin compatible. Note that flash-based devices contain a 256-word boot ROM to facilitate in-circuit programming. All ‘240x devices offer at least one event manager module which has been optimized for digital motor control and power conversion applications. Capabilities of this module include centered- and/or edge-aligned PWM generation, programmable deadband to prevent shoot-through faults, and synchronized analog-to-digital conversion. Devices with dual event managers enable multiple motor and/or converter
电厂蒸汽动力的基础和使用 1.1 为何需要了解蒸汽 对于目前为止最大的发电工业部门来说, 蒸汽动力是最为基础性的。 若没有蒸汽动力, 社会的样子将会变得和现在大为不同。我们将不得已的去依靠水力发电厂、风车、电池、太阳能蓄电池和燃料电池,这些方法只能为我们平日用电提供很小的一部分。 蒸汽是很重要的,产生和使用蒸汽的安全与效率取决于怎样控制和应用仪表,在术语中通常被简写成C&I(控制和仪表 。此书旨在在发电厂的工程规程和电子学、仪器仪表以 及控制工程之间架设一座桥梁。 作为开篇,我将在本章大体描述由水到蒸汽的形态变化,然后将叙述蒸汽产生和使用的基本原则的概述。这看似简单的课题实际上却极为复杂。这里, 我们有必要做一个概述:这本书不是内容详尽的论文,有的时候甚至会掩盖一些细节, 而这些细节将会使热力学家 和燃烧物理学家都为之一震。但我们应该了解,这本书的目的是为了使控制仪表工程师充 分理解这一课题,从而可以安全的处理实用控制系统设计、运作、维护等方面的问题。1.2沸腾:水到蒸汽的状态变化 当水被加热时,其温度变化能通过某种途径被察觉(例如用温度计 。通过这种方式 得到的热量因为在某时水开始沸腾时其效果可被察觉,因而被称为感热。 然而,我们还需要更深的了解。“沸腾”究竟是什么含义?在深入了解之前,我们必须考虑到物质的三种状态:固态,液态,气态。 (当气体中的原子被电离时所产生的等离子气体经常被认为是物质的第四种状态, 但在实际应用中, 只需考虑以上三种状态固态,
物质由分子通过分子间的吸引力紧紧地靠在一起。当物质吸收热量,分子的能量升级并且 使得分子之间的间隙增大。当越来越多的能量被吸收,这种效果就会加剧,粒子之间相互脱离。这种由固态到液态的状态变化通常被称之为熔化。 当液体吸收了更多的热量时,一些分子获得了足够多的能量而从表面脱离,这个过程 被称为蒸发(凭此洒在地面的水会逐渐的消失在蒸发的过程中,一些分子是在相当低的 温度下脱离的,然而随着温度的上升,分子更加迅速的脱离,并且在某一温度上液体内部 变得非常剧烈,大量的气泡向液体表面升起。在这时我们称液体开始沸腾。这个过程是变为蒸汽的过程,也就是液体处于汽化状态。 让我们试想大量的水装在一个敞开的容器内。液体表面的空气对液体施加了一定的压 力,随着液体温度的上升,便会有足够的能量使得表面的分子挣脱出去,水这时开始改变 自身的状态,变成蒸汽。在此条件下获得更多的热量将不会引起温度上的明显变化。所增 加的能量只是被用来改变液体的状态。它的效用不能用温度计测量出来,但是它仍然发生 着。正因为如此,它被称为是潜在的,而不是可认知的热量。使这一现象发生的温度被称为是沸点。在常温常压下,水的沸点为100摄氏度。 如果液体表面的压力上升, 需要更多的能量才可以使得水变为蒸汽的状态。 换句话说, 必须使得温度更高才可以使它沸腾。总而言之,如果大气压力比正常值升高百分之十,水必须被加热到一百零二度才可以使之沸腾。
电气工程与自动化学院 本科毕业设计专业翻译资料（中文读书报告） 学生姓名：王超杰 专业班级：自动化12-06班 学号：311208002219 2016 年 6 月11 日
原文： Design of Combustible Gas Detection system using Wireless Transmission Technology Shijiazhuang Universities of Economics, Hebei, China zkzhlp@https://www.doczj.com/doc/e216580500.html, Keywords:TGS813, AT89S52, DS18B20, nRF905, TC35i Abstract.The detection device of combustible gas are designed in the presented work,using wireless transceiver and GSM network.The system realize the wireless transmission of the gas concentration,and also can send alarm information to user’s mobile when an exception occurs. The system consists of two parts: a master and slave. The function of the slave is to collect data, process data and transffer the data to the master.The taskof the master is to receive data and display it by LED. The signal acquisition is completed by sensor TGS813 and A/D converter TLC2543. The wireless transmission is achieved through wireless transceiver nRF905. Since the accuracy of the sensor is affected by the environment,using DS18B20 to achieve temperature compensation. And with wireless communication module TC35i and GSM network platform, we can send the alarm information to user’s mobile promptly. Introduction Gas detection is widely used in petroleum, chemical, metallurgy, family, shopping malls, gas stations and other places. Currently, how to monitor the hazardous gas fast and accurately are the important issues. Although the gas detection technology is relatively mature, but most products has many shortcomings, such as single function, operating complex, bulky, expensive and low sensitivity. Wireless communication technology applied to the gas monitoring field, can resolve the problem of remote monitoring in special environment, such as high temperature, low temperature, toxic gas.and unable to wiring . In the presented work, the combustible gas detectoris fully functional (with wireless transceiver), simple, small size, low cost, and has high sensitivity. The equipment can greatly improve the system's detection capability and accuracy with temperature compensation algorithm, and also can send alarm information to the user's mobile phone promptly through the GSM network. System design The system consists of two parts as shown in Figure 1. Fig. 1 Overall system block diagram
1.1 In recent years the performance requirements for process plant have become increasingly difficult to satisfy. Stronger competition, tougher (更加严苛的) environmental and safety regulations (法规), and rapidly changing economic conditions have been key factors in the tightening of plant product quality specifications (产品质量规范).A further complication (复杂) is that modern processes have become more difficult to operate because of the trend toward larger, more highly integrated plants with smaller surge capacities (谐振能力) between the various processing units. Such plants give the operators little opportunity to prevent upsets (扰乱) from propagating from one unit to other interconnected units. In view of (考虑到，由于) the increased emphasis placed on safe, efficient plant operation, it is only natural that the subject of process control has become increasingly important in recent years. In fact, without process control it would not be possible to operate most modern processes safely and profitably (有利的), while satisfying plant quality standards. 近年来，对过程系统的性能改善需求变得越来越困难.更为激烈的竞争，更加严格的环境和安全规范，以及快速变化的经济条件都是加强工厂产品质量规范的关键因素更为复杂的情况是，由于现代制造业朝着规模更大,集成度更高的方向发展,而使不同的加工环节之间的应变能力更低, 所以加工过程更难控制近年来，考虑到工业制造逐渐加强的安全、高效需求，过程控制这个课题变得越来越受重视. 实际上，对于大多数现代工业，要满足安全、高效，产品质量的要求，没有控制系统是不可能的. It is assumed that the inlet and outlet flow rates are identical (相同的) and that the liquid density ρ (rho) remains consant,that is, the temperature variations are small enough that the temperature dependence of ρ can be neglected. Under these conditions the volu me V of liquid in the tank remains constant. 假设输入和输出流量是相等的，并且液体密度保持恒定，也就是说温度变化足够小，密度对温度的影响可以忽略不计. 在这些条件下，槽内液体的体积保持恒定 Use a larger tank. If a larger tank is used, fluctuations (波动) in Ti will tend to be damped out (阻尼，衰减) due to the larger thermal capacitance of the tank contents. However, increased volume of tankage would be an expensive solution for an industrial plant due to the increased capital costs of the larger tank.Note that this approach is analogous to the use of water baths in chemistry laboratories where the large thermal capacitance of the bath serves as a heat sink (散热装置) and thus provides an isothermal (恒温的) environment for a small-scale research apparatus (仪器). 使用一个更大的槽. 如果使用更大的槽，因为更大的热容，Ti的波动会趋向于衰减. 然而，体积增加使得开支增加，会使工厂系统的解决方案变得更加昂贵.要指出的是这个方法类似于化学实验室中水缸的使用，水缸的大热容量可以看作散热装置，因此可以为小型研究仪器提供一个恒温环境. Note that in feedforward control, the controlled variable T is not measured. 在前馈控制中，被控变量T是没有被测量的. 1.2 The motivation of using feedback, illustrated (说明) by the examples in Section (1), is somewhat oversimplified.In these examples, the use of feedback is shown to be for the purpose of reducing the error between the reference input and the system output.However, the significance of the
《自动化专业英语教程》-王宏文主编-全文翻译 PART 1Electrical and Electronic Engineering Basics UNIT 1A Electrical Networks ————————————3 B Three-phase Circuits UNIT 2A The Operational Amplifier ———————————5 B Transistors UNIT 3A Logical Variables and Flip-flop ——————————8 B Binary Number System UNIT 4A Power Semiconductor Devices ——————————11 B Power Electronic Converters UNIT 5A Types of DC Motors —————————————15 B Closed-loop Control of D C Drivers UNIT 6A AC Machines ———————————————19 B Induction Motor Drive UNIT 7A Electric Power System ————————————22 B Power System Automation PART 2Control Theory UNIT 1A The World of Control ————————————27 B The Transfer Function and the Laplace Transformation —————29 UNIT 2A Stability and the Time Response —————————30 B Steady State—————————————————31 UNIT 3A The Root Locus —————————————32 B The Frequency Response Methods: Nyquist Diagrams —————33 UNIT 4A The Frequency Response Methods: Bode Piots —————34 B Nonlinear Control System 37 UNIT 5 A Introduction to Modern Control Theory 38 B State Equations 40 UNIT 6 A Controllability, Observability, and Stability B Optimum Control Systems UNIT 7 A Conventional and Intelligent Control B Artificial Neural Network PART 3 Computer Control Technology UNIT 1 A Computer Structure and Function 42 B Fundamentals of Computer and Networks 43 UNIT 2 A Interfaces to External Signals and Devices 44 B The Applications of Computers 46 UNIT 3 A PLC Overview B PACs for Industrial Control, the Future of Control
外文出处：Farhadi, A. (2008). Modeling, simulation, and reduction of conducted electromagnetic interference due to a pwm buck type switching power supply. Harmonics and Quality of Power, 2008. ICHQP 2008. 13th International Conference on, 1 - 6. Modeling, Simulation, and Reduction of Conducted Electromagnetic Interference Due to a PWM Buck Type Switching Power Supply I A. Farhadi Abstract:Undesired generation of radiated or conducted energy in electrical systems is called Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). High speed switching frequency in power electronics converters especially in switching power supplies improves efficiency but leads to EMI. Different kind of conducted interference, EMI regulations and conducted EMI measurement are introduced in this paper. Compliancy with national or international regulation is called Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC). Power electronic systems producers must regard EMC. Modeling and simulation is the first step of EMC evaluation. EMI simulation results due to a PWM Buck type switching power supply are presented in this paper. To improve EMC, some techniques are introduced and their effectiveness proved by simulation. Index Terms:Conducted, EMC, EMI, LISN, Switching Supply I. INTRODUCTION FAST semiconductors make it possible to have high speed and high frequency switching in power electronics []1. High speed switching causes weight and volume reduction of equipment, but some unwanted effects such as radio frequency interference appeared []2. Compliance with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations is necessary for producers to present their products to the markets. It is important to take EMC aspects already in design phase []3. Modeling and simulation is the most effective tool to analyze EMC consideration before developing the products. A lot of the previous studies concerned the low frequency analysis of power electronics components []4[]5. Different types of power electronics converters are capable to be considered as source of EMI. They could propagate the EMI in both radiated and conducted forms. Line Impedance Stabilization Network (LISN) is required for measurement and calculation of conducted interference level []6. Interference spectrum at the output of LISN is introduced as the EMC evaluation criterion []7[]8. National or international regulations are the references for
第一部分：电子技术 第一章电子测量仪表 电子技术人员使用许多不同类型的测量仪器。一些工作需要精确测量面另一些工作只需粗略估计。有些仪器被使用仅仅是确定线路是否完整。最常用的测量测试仪表有：电压测试仪，电压表，欧姆表，连续性测试仪，兆欧表，瓦特表还有瓦特小时表。 所有测量电值的表基本上都是电流表。他们测量或是比较通过他们的电流值。这些仪表可以被校准并且设计了不同的量程，以便读出期望的数值。 1．1安全预防 仪表的正确连接对于使用者的安全预防和仪表的正确维护是非常重要的。仪表的结构和操作的基本知识能帮助使用者按安全工作程序来对他们正确连接和维护。许多仪表被设计的只能用于直流或只能用于交流，而其它的则可交替使用。注意：每种仪表只能用来测量符合设计要求的电流类型。如果用在不正确的电流类型中可能对仪表有危险并且可能对使用者引起伤害。 许多仪表被设计成只能测量很低的数值，还有些能测量非常大的数值。 警告：仪表不允许超过它的额定最大值。不允许被测的实际数值超过仪表最大允许值的要求再强调也不过分。超过最大值对指针有伤害，有害于正确校准，并且在某种情况下能引起仪表爆炸造成对作用者的伤害。许多仪表装备了过载保护。然而，通常情况下电流大于仪
表设计的限定仍然是危险的。 1．2基本仪表的结构和操作 许多仪表是根据电磁相互作用的原理动作的。这种相互作用是通过流过导体的电流引起的（导体放置在永久磁铁的磁极之间）。这种类型的仪表专门适合于直流电。 不管什么时候电流流过导体，磁力总会围绕导体形成。磁力是由在永久磁铁力的作用下起反应的电流引起。这就引起指针的移动。 导体可以制成线圈，放置在永久磁铁磁极之间的枢钮（pivot中心）上。线圈通过两个螺旋型弹簧连在仪器的端子上。这些弹簧提供了与偏差成正比的恢复力。当没有电流通过时，弹簧使指针回复到零。 表的量程被设计来指明被测量的电流值。线圈的移动（或者是指针的偏移）与线圈的电流值成正比。如果必须要测量一个大于线圈能安全负载的电流，仪表要包含旁路或者分流器。分流器被容纳在仪表盒内或者连接到外部。 例子 一个仪表被设计成最大量程是10A。线圈能安全负载0。001A，那分流器必须被设计成能负载9。999A。当时。001A流过线圈时指针指示10A。 图1。1（A）说明了一个永久磁铁类型仪表。图1。1（B）显示了一个外部分流器连接到仪表端子上。永久磁铁类型仪表可以被用作安培表或者电压表。当量程被设计成指示电流并且内阻保持最小时，这个表可以作为安培表用。当量程被设计成指示电压，内阻相对高一些
生产自动化 自动化是一个在制造业中广泛使用的术语。文中，自动化可被定义为有关应用机械、 电子和计算机的系统去管理和控制生产的技术，这种技术的例子包括： ?加工零件的自动化机床 ?自动连续生产线和类似的顺序生产系统。 .自动装配机器。 .工业机器人 .自动材料处理和储存系统 .用于质量控制的自动检验系统。 .反馈控制和计算机程序控制 .使支持制造业活动的计划、数据收集和决策的过程自动化的计算机系统。 自动化生产系统可被化分为两个基本类别硬件自动化和可编程自动化。 1硬件自动化 1.1硬性自动化 硬性自动化是哈德尔（Harder）杜撰自动化”这个单词时所提出的硬性自动化是指生产系统中生产顺序或装配工作由设备配置确定，并且在没更换设备的情况下不能轻易改变。虽然顺序中的每一个操作通常是简单的，但是，将许多简单的操作集成和协调成一个单一系统使硬性自动化变得复杂化。硬性自动化的典型特点包括：1?定做设计设备的光期投资高；2?高生产效率；3?应用于大批量产品生产；4.适应产品变更的相对固定性。 硬性自动化对高需求率产品是经济合适的。先期设备的高投人可以被大量部件分摊，也许是数百万件，这样与其他生产方法相比部件花费低。硬性自动化的例子包括机加工连续生产线、转盘换位机械和自动装配机器。硬性自动化的大部分技术是在汽车工业中发展起来的；连续生产线（追溯到大约1920年）就是一个例子。 1.2机床 数控系统的又一个元件是机床或其他被控制的工序。它是数控系统完成有用工作的部分。在最常见的数控系统例子中，一个设计来完成机加工操作的系统中，机床由工作台、主轴以及驱动它们所必要的马达和控制器组成。它也包括刀具、工件夹具以及其他机加工