外文资料翻译题目：弹性联轴器在燃气轮机中的应用
院（系）机电工程学院
专业机械设计制造及自动化
班级120204班
姓名高云云
学号120204103
导师姚慧
2016年5月3日
弹性联轴器在燃气轮机中的应用
JON R. MANCUSO
Manager of Engineering
Zurn Industries, Inc.
Mechanical Drives Division
1801 Pittsburgh Avenue
Erie, Pennsylvania 16512
摘要
齿式联轴器作为主要的挠性联轴器，在工业燃气轮机上使用了近二十五年。由于工业燃气轮机取得了进步，所以齿式联轴器也有了较大的发展。在齿式联轴器中有很多变量可以影响它们的特性，包括齿的设计，材料和润滑方式。所有的联轴器对于连接的设备都有影响。在设计系统时，系统设计人员必须考虑这些影响。当选用一个齿式联轴器时，在很多方面可以使设计人员的工作大大简化。本文就膜盘联轴器和齿式联轴器在工业燃气轮机中的应用特性进行了比较，包括了在涡轮发电机中的应用、涡轮机械驱动器（压缩机、泵和齿轮）中的应用和所有在涡轮和其配套齿轮之间起联接作用场合中的应用。齿式联轴器和膜盘联轴器都提供了用于分析该设计和力以及力矩的产生的方法。这些分析是用于表明由膜盘联轴器产生的力和力矩不仅是可预测的，而且通常比齿式联轴器产生的力和力矩要低得多。本文表明，在大多数工业燃气轮机中的应用中，膜盘联轴器比起齿式联轴器更加具有可预测性并且更加可靠。
引言
在今天的科技下，更高的马力和更高的速度不断推进着旋转设备设计的艺术。在新的燃气轮机技术下，其系统组件在可靠性方面、质量方面、维护方面及其载荷作用方面的重要性尤为明显。膜盘联轴器和齿式联轴器通常可用于这些高性能的场合中。当在这些应用中选择联轴器时，系统设计人员必须着眼于这些待选联轴器本身的固有的设计特点。在一些不能释放出力和力矩的应用要求（这将变得很难处理）中，设计人员还应该考虑挠性联轴器如何能够很好地去适应这种情况。
有这样一些例子，在发电机、机械驱动器、以及驱动附件的联接中等使用负载联轴器。
在联轴器所联接的组件安装时轴线错位以及存在扭矩的情况下，联轴器会因
此而受到影响。如果不考虑可能引起轴或轴承等设备部件的故障，这些反作用力比起其他联轴器要大得多。通常在系统中增加尺寸和重量时，会造成大的或不可预测的影响。
联轴器的类型
联轴器基本上可以分为两种类型，即刚性联轴器和挠性联轴器。刚性联轴器通常用于联接轴线错位非常小的场合，因此大多数场合中需要使用挠性联轴器。挠性联轴器主要有以下四种类型：
1.无金属弹性元件挠性联轴器
2.非金属弹性元件挠性联轴器
3.金属弹性元件挠性联轴器
4.其他
对应用状况进行比较，无金属元件挠性联轴器和金属弹性元件挠性联轴器由于能承载扭矩、消除不对中、拥有较高的速度以及还符合环保要求经常被考虑使用。齿式联轴器是属于无弹性元件挠性联轴器中的一种，膜盘式联轴器是属于金属弹性元件挠性联轴器中的一种。这两种类型的联轴器都在其所考虑的适宜的应用场合中具有独特的特点。
齿式联轴器
齿式联轴器（图1）能适应不对中和由于不对中和由不对中引起的轴端的浮动以及在套筒的毂上齿轮的齿的滑动（图2）。由于这种机械运动形式，所以联轴器必须进行润滑，齿式联轴器最常见的失效形式是磨损，而且它是当今使用过程中最常见的和最简单的一种联轴器。由于可以影响它成功运行的因素太多，所以它通常难以设计和进行评估。一些能影响它的设计和特征的因素有：
1.齿的设计
A．直齿或齿的类型和数量
B．齿的压力角
C．齿侧间隙
D．齿距的精度
2.材料
A．材料类型
B．核心热处理的类型
C．表面处理的类型图1 高性能齿式联轴器
3.润滑
A．油
B．润滑脂
C．密封润滑
D．连续润滑
E．润滑方式
一个齿式联轴器不仅在其自身上有显著的影响，而且对其滑动或者错位时产生力和力矩的系统组件上也有着显著的影响。当一个齿式联轴器由于温度升高或者基础偏移等引起了轴端浮动，轴向作用力就会反馈到推力轴承或者其他设备上。当不对中时，齿式联轴器将会产生弯曲力矩，它将加重轴、轴承或者其他系统组件负载。轴向作用力和弯曲力矩都受到润滑和与齿轮的齿配合的部件之间的摩擦系数的重要影响。
图2 鼓形齿联轴器的错位
膜盘式联轴器
膜盘式联轴器（图3）是金属膜联轴器中的一种。它由一个或多个金属薄膜组成，金属薄膜连接在传动法兰的外径上，并且通过膜盘径向传递扭矩给附件的内径上。另一种金属弹性元件挠性联轴器是膜片式联轴器。膜片式联轴器通常由数个挠性的金属薄膜组成，，相对的法兰由螺栓交替连接起来（图4）。
金属膜联轴器的发展有助于消除一些有关润滑联接的问题。金属膜联轴器依靠金属材料的弯曲以适应设备轴的轴向移动和错位。施加在轴承和设备上的轴向力是影响膜盘挠度的一个因素，也是影响膜盘柔性单元轴向刚度的一个因素。被
传输到轴、轴承等上的弯曲力矩，是关于膜盘柔性单元的弯曲刚度和被影响偏移量的函数。
图3 膜盘式联轴器图4 膜片式联轴器
用于工业燃气轮机中的联轴器
许多工业燃气轮机是飞机燃气轮机的衍生物或是使用了它们的大多数原理而工作。这些元件在高速下运转（3600-15000r/min），它们通常需要联轴器来增加轴向移动能力以超过0.5英寸。在这种应用场合下，通常需要专门设计的联轴器并且使用在航空科技上设计的设计和制造技术。这些联轴器是采用高强度合金制造，并且其制造标准采用制造飞机零件部件时用的公差等级。
图5是一个典型的重型工业燃气轮机。该燃气轮机表明它可以并且确实同时使用了齿式联轴器和膜盘联轴器。
图5 重型工业燃气轮机
许多先进的燃气轮机已经被设计为只使用膜盘式联轴器。
齿式联轴器设计特点
齿式联轴器有好多种方式来进行分类，但最常见的是根据齿形的类型来划分。所有的齿式联轴器都具有直边内齿，这些内齿是渐开线轮廓的，通常压力角为20度。大多数齿式联轴器错位产生的间隙一般是切进内齿形成。用来齿式联
轴器分类的两种轮毂齿的形式是：
图6 直边齿图7 鼓形齿
1.直边齿（如图6所示）
2.鼓形齿（如图7所示）
鼓形齿通过在凸轮上用刀具上下滚铣塑造而成。对于八分之一度或者更小的偏移角来说，直边齿的作用和鼓形齿几乎一样。对于偏移角超
过八分之一度的状况，应该使用鼓形齿，因为其齿顶能够允许更大面积
的齿面接触，从而在偏移中减小应力。
在设计齿式联轴器时需要考虑的一个最重要因素是齿在负载和错位下所产生的热量。人们已经多次尝试去建立限制和标准，最常使用的是
压应力或者滑动速度，但是也被证实这是考虑不充分的。测试和经验表
明，对于齿式联轴器齿的设计标准应该考虑以下几点：
A.载荷
B.偏移量
C.齿的几何结构（节径，径节，齿数）
D.接触齿的百分比
E.速度
F.材料，齿的硬度和光滑度
G.润滑油的质量和类型
齿式联轴器如何影响系统
一个齿式联轴器对系统最显著的影响是当它滑动或错位时所产生的力和力矩。
1.轴向作用力
作用在推力轴承和其它系统组件上的轴向力计算公式如下：
式中：T=扭矩（IN-LB），μ=摩擦系数，R=齿轮节圆直径（IN）
2.弯曲力矩
齿式联轴器上产生的力矩将会加重设备轴和轴承的负载，并且也改变了设备的运转特性。在一个齿式联轴器中三个基本力矩如图8所示。
A．传递扭矩和角度时产生的力矩（绕Z轴旋转）
B．由摩擦产生的力矩（绕Z轴旋转）
C．由其中心载荷的偏移产生的力矩（绕Y轴旋转）
图8 齿式联轴器坐标系
齿式联轴器的失效形式
齿式联轴器最常见的失效形式是齿的磨损。齿的磨损主要来源于以下几个原因：
1.不够充分的润滑
2.不正确的齿面接触
3.冷流或焊接更频繁地发生在持续润滑的联轴器上
4.油渣污泥等的积聚可引起几乎任何系统部件的故障，如轴和轴承等
膜盘联轴器设计时的注意事项
如前所述，有两种基本类型的挠性金属膜联轴器，即膜盘联轴器和膜片联轴器。每一种类型都可以单独使用，或者通过间隔或卷筒件分离作为一对使用。金属膜联轴器的使用由于1940年代那些低扭矩低速下的场合（对偏移量的需求有
限）而受到了限制。在20世纪40年代，在看到航天领域中的使用情况后，小型燃气轮机的外观产生了对薄轮廓膜盘的需求。由于没办法适应高错位和较大的轴向运动，在工业和船舶领域中，这种联轴器的发展进程和被人们接受的程度收到了极大的阻碍。
齿式联轴器使用于蒸汽轮机、燃气轮机、压缩机和泵中已经许多年了。当马力、速度以及运转环境温度不断增加，关于齿式联轴器的许多问题也随之发展。对较低力矩、较低的力、较小的噪声特性的需求推动了在上千种应用场合中膜盘联轴器的先进发展和其用法。正因为如此发达的技术，自20世纪70年代中期以来膜盘联轴器被成功应用于燃气轮机之中。
许多制造商和旋转设备的用户增加了他们对于连接要求的清单，如下所示: A．不进行润滑
B．在不断增加的联接尺寸下更高的承载扭矩能力
C．可以适应更大的偏移
D．可以适应更大的运动
E．适用于高温下运转
F．适用于所有类型的联接：花键、锥轴、法兰等
G．产生较低的力矩和力
H．产生的力和力矩是可预测到的
I．容易保持平衡
J．多年不需要维修或者其他问题
K．没有大的振动输入设备
应用于这些场合的膜盘联轴器有两种基本形式：
A．锥形轮廓
B．多个错综复杂的膜盘
两个形状有一些外形轮廓上的改变以助于减小尺寸、提高挠性以及控制应力集中。例如，为了增加挠性，膜盘被设计为锥形轮廓以应对从内径到外径的一个恒定剪切力。
使用多个膜盘与多个平行的薄板而不是一个单一的厚的板来设计的联轴器已经提高了挠性并且通常具有较低的应力。膜盘应力、力矩、力与材料厚度的三次方成正比。因此，数个薄的膜盘会比单一的厚的产生较低的应力值。
由于膜盘联轴器通常应用于高性能且要求高可靠性的设备上，所以联接组件
通常由具有良好的抗疲劳性能的高强度合金制成。典型材料是AISI 4100或4300防腐蚀钢，PH不锈钢或是高强度镍合金。膜盘联轴器，类似于所有的金属膜联轴器，通常被设计成无限寿命。在膜联轴器应用于燃气轮机中时最重要的设计注意事项是考虑柔性膜中的运转应力。在膜盘或膜片上设计的应力应小于所使用材料的疲劳极限和符合其他一些安全因素。
齿式联轴器与膜盘联轴器的比较
图9 联轴器比较
图9列出了在典型工业燃气轮机应用中膜盘联轴器和齿式联轴器的比较，包括联轴器直径、重量、扭矩条件、弯矩和轴向力等。通过在两个不同的摩擦系数下计算出的力和力矩来证明该变量对齿式联轴器所产生的影响。摩擦系数将受到齿的设计、润滑油的质量、材料的类型和齿的表面光洁度等等的影响。膜盘联轴器上的力和力矩是可以预测的，并且只与金属膜的刚度有关。尽管齿式联轴器在高轴向行程的应用场合中通常具有较小的直径和较轻的重量，但是在系统中齿式联轴器所施加的弯曲力矩仍比等效膜盘联轴器高了几乎10倍。齿式联轴器施加的轴向力等同于膜盘联轴器受其摩擦系数的影响。在峰值扭矩条件下（5至10倍的正常操作扭矩），齿式联轴器比起膜盘联轴器，轴向力是其9倍之多，弯曲力矩更是高达50倍左右。
图9还比较了基于API标准（摩擦系数为0.25）下的要求所计算出的数据。在系统设计中力和力矩的影响是很显著的，所以要求较大的轴及轴承、加厚凸缘等与齿进行连接。
在燃气轮机使用的联轴器中，膜盘联轴器也展示出其在可靠性和维护方面的优点。尽管齿式联轴器被我们所知25年或者更长时间，它也需要定期排污以方便联轴器的连续润滑，需要对密封式联轴器进行定期更换润滑油，这是标准的维护要求。
总结
膜盘联轴器和齿式联轴器都可以在工业燃气轮机领域中使用。系统设计者必须分析诸如由不同类型的联轴器产生的力和力矩所带来的影响的这种特性。膜盘联轴器所产生的力和力矩不仅比齿式联轴器的低，而且更加可预测。
参考文献
Mancuso, Jon R., "Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application" Published by Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1986.
Zurn Catalog "High Performance Class 1 Couplings," Form No. 462-ADV. Zurn Catalog "High Performance Multiple Convoluted Diaphragm Couplings” Form No. 271 ADV.
零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
译文： 零售企业的营销策略 Philip Kotlor 今天的零售商为了招徕和挽留顾客，急欲寻找新的营销策略。过去，他们挽留顾客的方法是销售特别的或独特的花色品种，提供比竞争对手更多更好的服务提供商店信用卡是顾客能赊购商品。可是，现在这一切都已变得面目全非了。现在，诸如卡尔文·克连，依佐和李维等全国性品牌，不仅在大多数百货公司及其专营店可以看到，并且也可以在大型综合商场和折扣商店可以买到。全国性品牌的生产商为全力扩大销售量，它们将贴有品牌的商品到处销售。结果是零售商店的面貌越来越相似。 在服务项目上的分工差异在逐渐缩小。许多百货公司削减了服务项目，而许多折扣商店却增加了服务项目。顾客变成了精明的采购员，对价格更加敏感。他们看不出有什么道理要为相同的品牌付出更多的钱，特别是当服务的差别不大或微不足道时。由于银行信用卡越来越被所有的商家接受，他们觉得不必从每个商店赊购商品。 百货商店面对着日益增加的价格的折扣店和专业商店的竞争，准备东山再起。历史上居于市中心的许多商店在郊区购物中心开设分店，那里有宽敞的停车场，购买者来自人口增长较快并且有较高收入的地区。其他一些则对其商店形式进行改变，有些则试用邮购盒电话订货的方法。超级市场面对的是超级商店的竞争，它们开始扩大店面，经营大量的品种繁多的商品和提高设备等级，超级市场还增加了它们的促销预算，大量转向私人品牌，从而增加盈利。 现在，我们讨论零售商在目标市场、产品品种和采办、服务以及商店气氛、定价、促销和销售地点等方面的营销策略。 一、目标市场 零售商最重要的决策时确定目标市场。当确定目标市场并且勾勒出轮廓时，零售商才能对产品分配、商店装饰、广告词和广告媒体、价格水平等作出一致的决定。如沃尔玛的目标市场相当明确：
外文翻译 原文 World Trade and International Trade Material Source:https://www.doczj.com/doc/d610386757.html, Author: Ted Alax In today’s complex economic world, neither individuals nor nations are self-sufficient. Nations have utilized different economic resources; people have developed different skills. This is the foundation of world trade and economic activity. As a result of this trade and activity, international finance and banking have evolved. For example, the United States is a major consumer of coffee, yet it does not have the climate to grow any or its own. Consequently, the United States must import coffee from countries (such as Brazil, Colombia and Guatemala) that grow coffee efficiently. On the other hand, the United States has large industrial plants capable of producing a variety of goods, such as chemicals and airplanes, which can be sold to nations that need them. If nations traded item for item, such as one automobile for 10,000 bags of coffee, foreign trade would be extremely cumbersome and restrictive. So instead of batter, which is trade of goods without an exchange of money, the United State receives money in payment for what it sells. It pays for Brazilian coffee with dollars, which Brazil can then use to buy wool from Australia, which in turn can buy textiles Great Britain, which can then buy tobacco from the United State. Foreign trade, the exchange of goods between nations, takes place for many reasons. The first, as mentioned above is that no nation has all of the commodities that it needs. Raw materials are scattered around the world. Large deposits of copper are mined in Peru and Zaire, diamonds are mined in South Africa and petroleum is recovered in the Middle East. Countries that do not have these resources within their own boundaries must buy from countries that export them. Foreign trade also occurs because a country often does not have enough of a particular item to meet its needs. Although the United States is a major producer of sugar, it consumes more than it can produce internally and thus must import sugar.
E---MARKETING (From:E--Marketing by Judy Strauss,Adel El--Ansary,Raymond Frost---3rd ed.1999 by Pearson Education pp .G4-G25.) As the growth of https://www.doczj.com/doc/d610386757.html, shows, some marketing principles never change.Markets always welcome an innovative new product, even in a crowded field of competitors ,as long as it provides customer value.Also,Google`s success shows that customers trust good brands and that well-crafted marketing mix strategies can be effective in helping newcomers enter crowded markets. Nevertheless, organizations are scrambling to determine how they can use information technology profitably and to understand what technology means for their business strategies. Marketers want to know which of their time-ested concepts will be enhanced by the Internet, databases,wireless mobile devices, and other technologies. The rapid growth of the Internet and subsequent bursting of the dot-com bubble has marketers wondering,"What next?" This article attempts to answer these questions through careful and systematic examination of successful e-mar-keting strategies in light of proven traditional marketing practices. （Sales Promotion;E--Marketing；Internet；Strategic Planning ） 1.What is E--Marketing E--Marketing is the application of a broad range of information technologies for: Transforming marketing strategies to create more customer value through more effective segmentation ,and positioning strategies；More efficiently planning and executing the conception, distribution promotion,and pricing of goods,services,and ideas;andCreating exchanges that satisfy individual consumer and organizational customers` objectives. This definition sounds a lot like the definition of traditional marketing. Another way to view it is that e-marketing is the result of information technology applied to traditional marketing. E-marketing affects traditional marketing in two ways. First,it increases efficiency in traditional marketing strategies.The transformation results in new business models that add customer value and/or increase company profitability.
当今时代是一个自动化时代，交通灯控制等很多行业的设备都与计算机密切相关。因此，一个好的交通灯控制系统，将给道路拥挤，违章控制等方面给予技术革新。随着大规模集成电路及计算机技术的迅速发展，以及人工智能在控制技术方面的广泛运用，智能设备有了很大的发展，是现代科技发展的主流方向。本文介绍了一个智能交通的系统的设计。该智能交通灯控制系统可以实现的功能有：对某市区的四个主要交通路口进行控制：个路口有固定的工作周期，并且在道路拥挤时中控制中心能改变其周期：对路口违章的机动车能够即时拍照，并提取车牌号。在世界范围内，一个以微电子技术，计算机和通信技术为先导的，一信息技术和信息产业为中心的信息革命方兴未艾。而计算机技术怎样与实际应用更有效的结合并有效的发挥其作用是科学界最热门的话题，也是当今计算机应用中空前活跃的领域。本文主要从单片机的应用上来实现十字路口交通灯智能化的管理，用以控制过往车辆的正常运作。 研究交通的目的是为了优化运输，人流以及货流。由于道路使用者的不断增加，现有资源和基础设施有限，智能交通控制将成为一个非常重要的课题。但是，智能交通控制的应用还存在局限性。例如避免交通拥堵被认为是对环境和经济都有利的，但改善交通流也可能导致需求增加。交通仿真有几个不同的模型。在研究中，我们着重于微观模型，该模型能模仿单独车辆的行为，从而模仿动态的车辆组。 由于低效率的交通控制，汽车在城市交通中都经历过长时间的行进。采用先进的传感器和智能优化算法来优化交通灯控制系统，将会是非常有益的。优化交通灯开关，增加道路容量和流量，可以防止交通堵塞，交通信号灯控制是一个复杂的优化问题和几种智能算法的融合，如模糊逻辑，进化算法，和聚类算法已经在使用，试图解决这一问题，本文提出一种基于多代理聚类算法控制交通信号灯。 在我们的方法中，聚类算法与道路使用者的价值函数是用来确定每个交通灯的最优决策的，这项决定是基于所有道路使用者站在交通路口累积投票，通过估计每辆车的好处(或收益)来确定绿灯时间增益值与总时间是有差异的，它希望在它往返的时候等待，如果灯是红色，或者灯是绿色。等待，直到车辆到达目的地，通过有聚类算法的基础设施，最后经过监测车的监测。 我们对自己的聚类算法模型和其它使用绿灯模拟器的系统做了比较。绿灯模拟器是一个交通模拟器，监控交通流量统计，如平均等待时间，并测试不同的交通灯控制器。结果表明，在拥挤的交通条件下，聚类控制器性能优于其它所有测试的非自适应控制器，我们也测试理论上的平均等待时间，用以选择车辆通过市区的道路，并表明，道路使用者采用合作学习的方法可避免交通瓶颈。 本文安排如下：第2部分叙述如何建立交通模型，预测交通情况和控制交通。第3部分是就相关问题得出结论。第4部分说明了现在正在进一步研究的事实，并介绍了我们的新思想。
市场营销策略 1 市场细分和目标市场策略 具有需求，具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。然而，在大多数市场中，购买者的需求不一致。因此，对整个市场采用单一的营销计划可能不会成功。一个合理的营销计划应以区分市场中存在的差异为起点，这一过程被称为市场细分，它还包括将何种细分市场作为目标市场。 市场细分使公司能更加有效地利用其营销资源。而且，也使得小公司可以通过集中在一两个细分上场上有效地参与竞争。市场细分的明显缺点是，其导致了比单一产品、单一大市场策略更高的生产和营销成本。但是，如果市场细分得当的话，更加符合消费者的需求，实际上将生产更高的效率。 确定目标市场有三种可供选择的策略，它们是统一市场、单一细分市场和多重细分市场。统一市场策略即采取一种营销组合用到一个整体的、无差异的市场中去。采取单一细分市场策略，公司仍然仅有一种营销组合，但它只用在整个市场的一个细分市场中。多重细分市场策略需要选择两个或更多的细分市场，并且每个细分市场分别采用一种单独的营销组合。 2 产品定位 管理者将注意力集中于一种品牌，并以恰当的方式将其与类似的品牌相区分，但这并不意味着该品牌就一定能够最后赢利。因此，管理者需要进行定位，即塑造与竞争品牌和竞争对手的其他品牌相关的自我品牌形象。 市场营销人员可以从各种定位策略中加以选择。有时，他们决定对某一特定产品采用一种以上的策略。以下是几种主要的定位策略： 2.1与竞争者相关的定位 对一些产品来说，最佳的定位是直接针对竞争对手。该策略特别适用于已经具有固定的差别优势或试图强化这种优势的厂商。为排挤微处理器的竞争对手，Intel公司开展了一项活动使用户确信它的产品优于竞争对手的产品。公司甚至为电脑制造商出钱，让它们在自己的广告中带上“Intel Inside”标志。作为市场领导者，可口可乐公司推出新产品并实施其市场营销策略。同时，它密切注视百事可乐公司，以确保对主要竞争对手的任何一次巧妙、有效的营销举措采取相应的对策。 2.2 与产品类别和属性相关的定位 有时候，公司的定位策略有必要将自己的产品与其类别和属性相联系（或相区别）。一些公司尽力将其产品定位在期望的类别中，如“美国制造”。用一句某顾问的话来说，“当你说‘美国制造’的时候，有一种强烈的感情因素在吸引着你”。因此，一家名为Boston Preparatory的规模不大的运动服制造商正在运用这种定位策略，以期胜过那些并非所有产品都在美国制造的势力强大的竞争对手如Calvin Kiein和Tommy Hilfiger。 2.3 通过价格和质量定位 某些生产者和零售商因其高质量和高价格而闻名。在零售行业，Saks Fifth Avenue和Neiman Marcus公司正是定位于该价格—质量策略的。折扣店Target Kmart则是定位于该策略的反面。我们不是说折扣商店忽视质量，而是说它们更加强调低廉的价格。Penny's公司努力—并且大多获得了成功—通过升级高级服装线和强调设计者的名字将其商店定位于价格—质量策略上。 “品牌”一词是个综合性的概念，它包含其他更狭义的理解。品牌即一个名称和（或）标志，用以识别一个销售者或销售集团的产品，并将之与竞争产品相区别。 品牌名称由能够发音的单词、字母和(或)数字组成。品牌标志是品牌的一部分，它以符号、图案或醒目的颜色、字体的形式出现。品牌标志通过视觉识别，但当人们仅仅读出品牌名称的时候，品牌标志并不能够被表达出来。Crest、Coors、Gillette都是品牌名称。AT&T由醒目的线条构成的地球以及Ralph Lauren's Polo的马和骑手是品牌标志，而Green Giant（罐装冷冻菜蔬产品）和Arm&Hammer（面包苏打）既是品牌名称又是品牌标志。 商标是销售者已经采用并且受到法律保护的品牌。商标不仅包括品牌标志，如许多人所认为的那样，也包括品牌名称。1946年的The Lanham Art法案允许厂商向联邦政府注册商标，以保护它们免受其他厂商的使用或误
Strategic transformations in Danish and Swedish big business in an era of globalisation, 1973-2008 The Danish and Swedish context In the difficult inter-war period, a state-supported, protected home market orientation had helped stabilise both Denmark’s and Sweden’s economies, but after WorldWar II priorities changed. Gradually and in accordance with the international economic development, restrictions on foreign trade were removed, and Danish and Swedish industry was exposed to international competition. As a consequence, several home market oriented industries –such as the textile and the shoe industry –were more or less outperformed, while in Sweden the engineering industry soon became the dominant leader of Swedish industry, with companies such as V olvo, Ericsson, Electrolux, ASEA and SKF. In the Danish case, the SMEs continued to be dominant but in combination with expanding export oriented industrial manufacturers such as Lego, Danfoss, Carlsberg and the shipping conglomerates ok and A.P. moller-Marsk. In Sweden and Denmark stable economic growth continued into the 1970s, but due to the problems during the oil crises, the economies came into fundamental structural troubles for the first time since World War II. In the beginning this was counteracted by traditional Keynesian policy measures. However, because of large budget deficits, inflation and increasing wages, both the Danish economy from 1974 and the Swedish economy from 1976 encountered severe problems. Towards the late 1970s Denmark’s and Sweden’s economic policies were thus increasingly questioned. It was clear that Keynesian policy could not solve all economic problems. Expansive fiscal policies in terms of continued deficits on the state budget could not compensate for the loss of both national and international markets and step by step the Keynesian economic policy was abandoned. The increased budget deficit also made it difficult for the state to support employment and regional development. These kinds of heavy governmental activities were also hardly acceptable under the more market oriented policy that developed first in Great Britain and the USA, but in the 1980s also in Denmark and Sweden (Iversen & Andersen, 2008, pp. 313–315; Sjo¨ gren, 2008, pp. 46–54). These changes in political priorities were especially noticeable in the financial market. After being the most state regulated and coordinated sector of the economy since the 1950s, then between 1980 and 1985 the Danish and Swedish financial markets underwent an extensive deregulation resulting in increased competition. Lending from banks and other credit institutes was no longer regulated, and neither were interest rates. The bond market was also opened as the issuance of new bond loans was deregulated in Sweden in 1983. When the control of foreign capital flows was liberalised in the late 1980s the last extraordinary restriction was now gone. Together with the establishment of the new money market with options and derivates, this opened up to a much larger credit market and the possibility for companies to finance investments and increase business domestically as well as abroad (Larsson, 1998, pp. 205–207). Another important part of the regulatory changes in the early 1980s were new rules for the Copenhagen and Stockholm stock exchanges. Introduction on the stock exchange was made much
外文翻译 原文 Foreign T rade o f China Material Source:W anfang Database Author:Hitomi Iizaka 1.Introduction On December11,2001,China officially joined the World T rade Organization(WTO)and be c a me its143rd member.China’s presence in the worl d economy will continue to grow and deepen.The foreign trade sector plays an important andmultifaceted role in China’s economic development.At the same time, China’s expanded role in the world economy is beneficial t o all its trading partners. Regions that trade with China benefit from cheaper and mor e varieties of imported consumer goods,raw materials and intermediate products.China is also a large and growing export market.While the entry of any major trading nation in the global trading system can create a process of adjustment,the o u t c o me is fundamentally a win-win situation.In this p aper we would like t o provide a survey of the various institutions,laws and characteristics of China’s trade.Among some of the findings, we can highlight thefollowing: ?In2001,total trade to gross domestic pr oduct(GDP)ratio in China is44% ?In2001,47%of Chinese trade is processed trade1 ?In2001,51%of Chinese trade is conduct ed by foreign firms in China2 ?In2001,36%of Chinese exports originate from Gu an gdon g province ?In2001,39%of China’s exports go through Hong Kong to be re-exported elsewhere 2.Evolution of China’s Trade Regime Equally remarkable are the changes in the commodity composition of China’s exports and imports.Table2a shows China’s annu al export volumes of primary goods and manufactured goods over time.In1980,primary goods accounted for 50.3%of China’s exports and manufactured goods accounted for49.7%.Although the share of primary good declines slightly during the first half of1980’s,it remains at50.6%in1985.Since then,exports of manufactured goods have grown at a much
外文翻译 原文 Marketing Material Source：Marketing Management Author：Philip Kotler Marketing Channels To reach a target market, the marketer uses three kinds of marketing channels. Communication channels deliver messages to and receive messages from target buyers. They include newspapers, magazines, radio, television, mail, telephone, billboards, posters, fliers, CDs, audiotapes, and the Internet. Beyond these, communications are conveyed by facial expressions and clothing, the look of retail stores, and many other media. Marketers are increasingly adding dialogue channels (e-mail and toll-free numbers) to counterbalance the more normal monologue channels (such as ads). The marketer uses distribution channels to display or deliver the physical product or service to the buyer or user. There are physical distribution channels and service distribution channels, which include warehouses, transportation vehicles, and various trade channels such as distributors, wholesalers, and retailers. The marketer also uses selling channels to effect transactions with potential buyers. Selling channels include not only the distributors and retailers but also the banks and insurance companies that facilitate transactions. Marketers clearly face a design problem in choosing the best mix of communication, distribution, and selling channels for their offerings. Supply Chain Whereas marketing channels connect the marketer to the target buyers, the supply chain describes a longer channel stretching from raw materials to components to final products that are carried to final buyers. For example, the supply chain for women’s purses starts with hides, tanning operations, cutting operations, manufacturing, and the marketing channels that bring products to customers. This supply chain represents a value delivery system. Each company captures only a certain percentage of the total value generated by the supply chain. When a company acquires competitors or moves upstream or downstream, its aim is
英文 Because of the rapid development of our economy resulting in the car number of large and medium-sized cities surged and the urban traffic, is facing serious test, leading to the traffic problem increasingly serious, its basically are behaved as follows: traffic accident frequency, to the human life safety enormous threat, Traffic congestion, resulting in serious travel time increases, energy consumption increase; Air pollution and noise pollution degree of deepening, etc. Daily traffic jams become people commonplace and had to endure. In this context, in combination with the actual situation of urban road traffic, develop truly suitable for our own characteristics of intelligent signal control system has become the main task. Preface In practical application at home and abroad, according to the actual traffic signal control application inspection, planar independent intersection signal control basic using set cycle, much time set cycle, half induction, whole sensor etc in several ways. The former two control mode is completely based on planar intersection always traffic flow data of statistical investigation, due to traffic flow the existence of variable sex and randomicity, the two methods have traffic efficiency is low, the scheme, the defects of aging and half inductive and all the inductive the two methods are in the former two ways based on increased vehicle detector and according to the information provided to adjust cycle is long and green letter of vehicle, it than random arrived adaptability bigger, can make vehicles in the parking cord before as few parking, achieve traffic flowing effect In modern industrial production,current,voltage,temperature, pressure, and flow rate, velocity, and switch quantity are common mainly controlled parameter. For example: in metallurgical industry, chemical production, power engineering, the papermaking industry, machinery and food processing and so on many domains, people need to transport the orderly control. By single chip microcomputer to control of traffic, not only has the convenient control, configuration simple and flexible wait for an advantage, but also can greatly improve the technical index by control quantity, thus greatly improve product quality and quantity. Therefore, the monolithic integrated circuit to the traffic light control problem is an industrial production we often encounter problems. In the course of industrial production, there are many industries have lots of traffic equipment, in the current system, most of the traffic control signal is accomplished by relays, but relays response time is long, sensitivity low, long-term after use, fault opportunity increases greatly, and adopts single-chip microcomputer control, the accuracy of far greater than relays, short response time, software reliability, not because working time reduced its performance sake, compared with, this solution has the high feasibility. About AT89C51 (1)function characteristics description: AT89C51 is a low power consumption, high performance CMOS8 bit micro-controller, has the 8K in system programmable Flash memory. Use high-density Atmel company the beltpassword nonvolatile storage technology and manufacturing, and industrial 80S51 product instructions and pin fully compatible. Chip Flash allow program memory in system programmable, also suitable for conventional programmer. In a single chip, have dexterous 8 bits CPU and in system programmable Flash, make AT89C51 for many embedded control application system provides the high flexible, super efficient solution. AT89C51 has the following standard function: 8k bytes Flash, 256 bytes RAM, 32-bit I/O mouth line, the watchdog timer, two data pointer, three 16 timer/counter, a 6 vector level 2 interrupt structure, full-duplex serial port, piece inside crystals timely clock circuit. In addition, AT89C51 can drop to 0Hz static logic operation, support two software can choose power saving mode. Idle mode, the CPU to stop working, allowing the RAM, timer/counter, serial ports, interruption continue to work. Power lost protection mode, RAM content being saved, has been frozen, microcontroller all work stop, until the next interruption or hardware reset so far. As shown in