IEEETRANSACTIONS ON ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT, VOL. EM-34, NO. 3, AUGUST 1987
Defining the New Product Strategy
ROBERT G. COOPER
Abstract—New products are critical to the growth and survival of most corporations. The new product strategy is the master plan that guides the product innovation efforts of the firm, and links new product development to the corporate plan. This article looks first at what a product innovation strategy is, its role in the corporation, and why an innovation strategy is essential to an effective new product program. Next, the article focuses on the development of a new product strategy, beginning with objectives and moving to arena selection. A matrix approach to arena definition and selection is used. Empirical data from research by the author is employed in the model to prioritize new product arenas.
INTRODUCTION
NEW products are central to the growth and prosperity ofthe modern corporation. Increasingly, progressive managementsrecognize that a new product or technology strategyshould be an explicit and central element of the corporatestrategy. This article is about new productstrategy at the corporate level—about the need for a newproduct strategy, and about defining and developing such astrategy.
THE IMPORTANCE OF A NEW PRODUCT STRATEGY
New product development and technology bear an integralrelationship to a company's strategic thinking by helping todefine the range of that company's choices . For manycompanies, new products and technologies have become theleading edge of corporate strategy, opening up new market andnew business opportunities. The rapid growth of countlessfirms in office-of-the-future, bioengineering, microelectronics,and robotics is evidence of the growth potential of awell conceived new product strategy. Similarly, many oftoday's corporate giants, such as Xerox, IBM, Polaroid, andTexas Instruments, were fledgling companies only decadesago, but became great because of new product choices madeby management in earlier years.
The companies that are most likely to succeed in thedevelopment and launch of new products are those firmswhich implement a company specific approach, driven bycorporate objectives and strategies, with a well-defined newproduct strategy at its core. These are some of the conclusionsof a study of business practices by Booz-Allen
and Hamilton. There were other recommendations as well, but a productinnovation strategy ranks high on the list of the keys tosuccess.
Some firms do develop such strategies. For example,product innovation charters were described by Crawford in hisstudy of 125 firms. He notes that firms are now beginningto pull all the multifunctional elements of a new productstrategy together in one document, which specifies the types ofmarkets, products, technologies, and orientation the firm willpursue with its new product program.
PROBLEM
In spite o f the importance of new products, management canfind little help from the traditional literature in the formulationof a new product strategy. Few guidelines have beendeveloped to assist the manager in the choice of areas and thedirection for the new product program. That is, thereexist few conceptual frameworks or proven methodologies forformulating a new product strategy. Moreover, littleempirical research has been undertaken to determine thecomponents and results of firms' new product programs: thatis, how companies directly or indirectly choose new marketsand areas of technology, and organize and focus their R&Defforts in different ways.
Although there are many strategy development models inuse today, most deal with resource allocation and strategydevelopment for the firm's existing business units and existingproduct lines. For example, various portfolio models havebeen developed, essentially variations of the Boston ConsultingGroup model—cash cows, stars, dogs, and wildcats. While these portfolio or resource allocation models maysuggest new areas for product development, these modelswere developed principally to deal with products or businessesthat the company already possesses. Similarly, the PIMSmodel, another popular strategy development aid, looks atalternate strategies and their impact on profitability, but againlargely for existingbusinesses in the company. Inshort, these strategy models deal with what is rather than withwhat might be. What is lacking in these approaches is asystematic procedure for generating and choosing new strategicoptions, including new products and new businesses.
THE PRODUCT INNOVATION CHARTER
In a business context, strategy has been defined as "theschemes whereby a firm's resources and advantages aremanaged (deployed) in order to surprise and surpass competitorsor to exploit opportunities". More specifically,strategic change is defined as a realignment of the firm'sproduct/market environnent". Strategy is closely tied toproduct
and market specification. Corey identifies marketselection and product delineation as the two key dimensions ofcorporate strategy.
Product innovation strategy, while closely related to corporatestrategy, tends to be more specific. In recent years, theterm "product innovation charter"—or PIC for short—hasbeen used. The PIC charts the entire strategy for a firm'snew product program. It is the essential link between theproduct development program and the firm's corporate strategy.
The PIC has two key elements:
The PIC specifies the objectives of the game, the role thatproduct innovation will play in helping the firm achieveits corporate objectives. It answers the question:
wheredo new products and product innovation fit in thecompany's overall plan? This role then is translated intospecific objectives for the new product program. Statementssuch as "By 1990, 30 percent of our corporatesales will come from new products—products that we willdevelop and launch in the next five years " are typicalobjectives found in the PIC.
The PIC specifies the arenas in which the game will beplayed. That is, it defines the types of markets, marketapplications, technologies, and products that the newproduct program will focus on. These arenas provide afocus to the firm's product development program.
WHYHAVE A PRODUCTINNOVATION CHARTER AT ALL?
Developing a PIC is hard work. It involves many people,especially top management. Why, then, go to all the effort?Most of us can probably name countless firms that do notappear to have a master plan for their new product program.How did they get by?
Doing Business without an innovation Charter
Running an innovation program without a PIC like runninga war without a master military strategy. There's no rudder,there's no direction, and often, we don't end up where we'dlike to be.
A new product program without a PIC will inevitably leadto a number of ad hoc decisions made independently of eachother. New product and R&D projects are initiated solely ontheir own merits, with little regard to their fit into the granderscheme. The result is that the firm finds itself in unrelated orunwanted markets, products, and technologies.
Objectives: The Link to Corporate Strategy
What types of direction does a PIC give a firm's newproduct program? First, the objectives of a PIC tie the productdevelopment effort tightly to the firm's corporate strategy.New product development, so often taken for granted,becomes a central part of the corporate strategy, a key plank inthe company's overall strategic platform.
The question of spending commitment is dealt with bydefining the role and objectives of the new product program.Too often, the R&D or new product budget is easy prey inhard economic times. In some firms, R&D is viewed as softmoney—a luxury. But with product innovation as a centralfacet of the firm's corporate strategy, with the role andobjectives of product innovation firmly established, cuttingthis budget becomes less arbitrary. There is continuity to theresource commitment to new products.
The Arenas: Guiding the Game Plan
The second facet of the PIC, the definition of arenas, iscritical to guiding and focusing the new product efforts (seeFig. 1). The first step in the new product process is ideageneration. But where does one search for new product ideas?Unless the arenas are defined, the result is a scatter gun searcheffort, undirected, unfocused, and ineffective!
A second key step in the new product process is ideascreening. The first criterion for this early GO/KILL decisionis: "Does the proposed product fall within the
company'smandate for its new product program?" This usuallytranslates into: is this
the kind of market, product, andtechnology that we as a company have decided is fair game forus? Without a definition of fair game—arenas—good luck intrying to make an effective screening decision!
The definition of arenas also guides resource and manpowerplanning. If certain markets are designated top priority arenas,then the firm can acquire resources, skills, and knowledge tobe better able to attack those markets. Similarly, if certaintechnologies are singled out as arenas, the firm can hire andacquire resources to bolster its abilities in those fields.Resource building doesn't happen overnight. One can't buy asalesforce on a moment's notice; and one can't acquire acritical mass of key researchers or engineers in a certaintechnology at the local supermarket. Putting the right people,resources, and skills in place takes both lead time and adirection, hence the need for the definition of arenas.
Where's the Evidence?
The argument for a PIC, although logical, appears somewhatacademic. One can't help but think about all thosecompanies that have succeeded without a grand strategy forproduct innovation. Then where's the evidence in support of aPIC? There isn't much,
unfortunately. One reason is that nottoo many studies have investigated the role and impact of aninnovation strategy. Most of the business research into productinnovation has focused on the individual product project as theunit of analysis—for example, on what makes a new product asuccess—rather than on the company's entire new productprogram.
The studies that have looked at firms' new productstrategies have a clear and consistent message: new productstrategies at the firm level are critical to success, and somestrategies clearly work better than others.
Booz-Allen and Hamilton's study of new product practicesin corporations found that "successful companiesare more committed to growth through new productsdeveloped internally"; and that "they are more likelyto have a strategic plan that includes a certain portion ofgrowth from new products." The authors of this study goon to explain why having a new product strategy was tiedto success:
A new product strategy links the new product process tocompany objectives, and provides focus for idea/conceptgeneration and for establishing appropriate screening criteria.The outcome of this strategy analysis is a set of strategic roles,used not to generate specific new product ideas, but to helpidentify markets for which new products will be developed.These market opportunities provide the set of product andmarket requirements from which new product ideas aregenerated. In addition, strategic roles provide guidelines fornew product performance measurement criteria. Performancethresholds tied to strategic roles provide a more precise meansof screening new product ideas.
The PIMS studies (profit impact of market strategy)considered new product strategies, but in only a peripheralway. These studies looked at why certainbusiness units were more profitable than others, andattempted to link profitability to the market strategyelected. R&D spending and product quality level weretwo of many strategy variables considered in thesestudies, and both were found to be closely connected toprofitability (although detractors of the studies argueabout direction of causality).
Nystrom and Edvardsson studied a number of industrialproduct firms, and identified how various new productstrategies were tied to performance. Strategiesemphasizing synergistic use of technology, a responsiveR&D organization, and an externally oriented R&Deffort were generally more successful. The study waslimited to only a handful of strategy dimensions, andR&D strategy may be different from new productstrategy.
Nonetheless, the message comes through thatnew product strategy and performance are closely linked.
Our own studies looked at the performance impact ofproduct innovation strategies in 120 firm. Thisstudy is one of the few investigations undertaken to datethat considers a large number of strategy dimensions, andhow strategy was tied to performance in a large numberof firms. The overriding conclusion was that productinnovation strategy and performance were stronglylinked. The types of markets, products, and technologiesthat firms elected, and the orientation and direction oftheir product innovation programs had a pronouncedimpact on the program's success and profitability. Strategyreally does count!
Evidence for Selecting the Right Arenas
Our investigation provided much more than a strong hintthat strategy pays off. The study also yielded insights into theingredients of a successful innovation strategy: the types ofobjectives that are reasonable and measurable; and criteriauseful in the selection of arenas—the kinds of products,markets, and technologies that successful firms elect. Here aresome of the more important conclusions, which we use later inthe article in the selection of arenas:
A number of strategy factors were found to impact on thenew product performance of a companies. These factorsfit into one of two categories: either they described thetype of new product arenas the firm had chosen; or theycaptured the basis of how the firm would compete.
Factors that captured the basis of competition portrayedthe orientation and commitment to the new productprogram. They included factors such as technologicalaggressiveness and sophistication, market orientation,program focus, R&D spending, and the like—usefulguides to how a new product program should be orientedand managed.
Factors that described the choice of arenas constituted thesecond category of factors that impacted upon programperformance. These could be further subcategorized intofactors that portrayed:
1) The attractiveness of the arena (for example, marketneed, growth and size, technological possibilities inthe arena, etc.);
2) The strength or ability of the firm to exploit thearena (for example, the fit or synergy between thefirm's resources and the new product arena).
In subsequent analysis, wewere able to put weights onthese different factors—how important is each factor inthe "success equation."These factors and their weightsare shown in Table I. We use Table I to provide the keycriteria and weights for the selection of the right arenas.The reader is cautioned, however, that these weights arederived from one study only, and serve as a guide orstarting point to arena selection.
DEVELOPING AN INNOVATION CHARTER
Few can deny the utility of having a product innovationcharter to guide the firm's new product efforts. But how doesone go about developing such a charter? The remainder of thearticle tackles the difficult task of molding the PIC. A numberof familiar concepts—business definition schemes and portfoliostrategy models—form the basis of this development. Butthese models have been integrated and modified in a novel apply to new product opportunities, rather than for businesses; further, we have incorporated from our research to help quantify the select of a new productarenas.
Setting Objectives
Defining objectives for a product development program isessential; most of us accept that premise. Yet our strategystudy revealed that many firms actually lacked written andmeasurable objectives for their innovation programs.
What types of objectives should be included in an innovationcharter? First, the objectives should be measurable, hencequantifiable. Second, they should tie the new product programto the total corporate strategy. Finally, they must give the newproduct team a sense of purpose and help them makedecisions. In deciding upon a reasonable set of new productprogram objectives, consider some of the following types.
Role Objectives
One type of new product objective focuses on the role thatthe new product effort will play in achieving corporateobjectives. Examples include:
The percentage of company sales in year 5 that will bderived from new products introduced in that five yearperiod. (Five years is a commonly accepted time spanover which to count a product as "new") Alternatively,one can speak of absolute sales (dollars in year 5 fromnew products) rather than relative sales or percents.
The percentage of corporate profits (gross, contribution,or net) in year 5 that will be derived from new productsintroduced in that five year span. Again absolute dollarscould be used instead of relative profits.
Alternatively, these sales and profits objectives can beexpressed as a percentage of corporate growth. Forexample: 70 percent of growth in company sales over thenext five years will come from new products to beintroduced in this period.
定义“新产品策略”
罗伯特G·库珀
摘要：新产品对于大多公司的成长和生存至关重要。新产品策略是公司的主要计划，它指导公司的产品创新力度，并链接企业的新产品开发计划。本文首先探讨什么是产品创新策略，其在公司中的作用，以及为什么创新策略是一个有效的新产品计划必不可少的一部分。接下来，本文着重于一个新产品策略的发展过程，从开发目标产品开始和再到产品开发领域的选择。文章使用到矩阵方法去定义和选择产品开发的领域。来源于笔者的实证研究数据在优先选择新产品开发的领域的模型中将会被用到。
一、简介
新产品是现代企业发展和繁荣的核心。越来越多的有见地的管理者认识到，一个新产品或新技术战略应该成为企业策略的明确和中心要素。这篇文章是关于在企业层面上的新产品策略——关于对一个新的产品策略的需求和关于定义和开发这样一个战略。
二、新产品策略的重要性
新产品开发和技术通过帮助定义公司决策的范畴，对公司的战略性思维起到支撑性的完整的关系作用。对于许多公司来说，新的产品和技术已成为企业战略、开辟新的市场、新的商业机会的先驱。无数在办公室的未来，生物工程，微电子，机器人快速增长的公司表明，一个精心构思的新产品战略具有潜在发展势头。同样地，今天的许多企业巨头，如IBM，施乐，宝丽来德州仪器，在几十年前羽翼未丰的公司，如今能成为伟大的公司，就是因为管理者在早期做出了新产品决策。在开发和推出新产品上最有可能取得成功的公司就是那些明确核心新产品策略，为之实施公司的具体做法，驱使和带动企业目标及策略的公司。这些都是一些布兹- 艾伦和汉密尔顿的关于商业惯例的研究结论。还有其他发现，在企业成功要素上，产品创新策略也起到至关重要的作用。
有些公司制定这样的策略。例如，克劳福德在研究了125家公司后的研究结果中提出了产品创新章程。他指出，公司现在开始在一个文件中一起推出一个具
有多功能元素的新产品策略，这个策略指定了市场类型，产品，技术和公司在新产品项目上追求的方向。
三、问题
忽视新产品的重要性，管理者从传统的模式的文献得到关于新产品策略的帮助微乎其微。很少指示被发展，用于协助管理者在新产品项目开发的领域和方向上做出。也就是说，基本没有几个概念框架，或成熟的方法来帮助制定新产品策略。此外，很少人做关于确定公司的新产品计划的组成和结果的实证研究：这就是，企业如何直接或间接地选择新的市场和技术领域，用不同方式组织和集中自己的研发成果。
虽然在今天有很多战略发展模式被使用到，但是大多至少被公司现有的业务单位，现有的发展产品线使用到，它们一般涉及资源分配和战略发展而已。例如，各种组合模式被开发出来，基本变化遵循波士顿咨询集团模型——现金奶牛，明星，狗和野猫。这些组合或资源分配模型被应用在产品开发的新领域的同时，这些模型也被主要开发应用在公司既有的产品或业务处理上。同样，另一种流行的战略发展援助模型，PIMS模型，着眼于可供选择的战略及其对企业盈利能力的影响，同样也是主要针对在公司现有业务的。总之，这些策略模型着重处理的是什么，而不是可能是什么。这些方法是模型缺乏一个生成和选择新的战略选项的系统程序，其中包括新产品和新业务。
四、产品创新章程
在商业竞争中，战略已被定义为“根据企业的资源和优势管理（部署）制定出的以诧异和超越竞争对手或利用机会的计划”。更具体地说，随着公司的产品或市场环境重新调整，战略的变化也随之重新定义。战略与产品和市场规范是紧密联系在一起的。科瑞指出，市场选择和产品划分是企业战略的两个关键维度。产品创新策略与企业策略密切相关，将变得更加具体。近年来，“产品创新章程”或PIC精简版已经被使用。PIC记录了企业新产品项目的所有策略。在产品发展项目和该公司的企业战略中，这也是必不可少的联系。
4.1 PIC有两个关键要素：
1、PIC指明了游戏的目标，产品创新在帮助企业实现其企业目标过程中扮演的角色。它回答了这个问题：新产品和产品创新在哪里与公司的整体规划相契合？
这个角色然后被转化成新产品计划的具体目标。报表，如“到1990年，我们的企业30％的销售额将来自新产品，我们将在未来五年的开发和推出这些新产品”，就是在PIC中发现的典型目标。
2、PIC指明了比赛进行的具体区域。即，它定义了类型的市场，市场适应者，技术和新产品项目专注的产品。这些领域为企业的产品开发项目提供了一个重点。
五、为什么会有产品创新章程？
开发PIC是艰苦的工作。它涉及到很多人，特别是高层管理人员。那么，为什么会付出所有的努力？我们大多数人或许可以说出很多没有一个新产品项目总体规划的企业。他们是如何做到的？
5.1没有创新章程下开展业务
在没有PIC下运行一个创新项目就像在打一场没有重点军事战略的仗。在没有舵，没有方向的时候，没到彼岸我们早已沉没。
一个没有PIC的新产品项目将不可避免地导致每个人做出一些各自独立的临时的决定。新产品研发项目的启动仅仅参照各自的长处，很少考虑到他们是否适合宏大的项目。其结果是，该公司发现自己身处无关或不必要的市场，产品和技术。
5.2目标：与企业战略链接
一个PIC给予公司的新产品项目什么类型的方向指引呢？首先，PIC的目标使得产品开发成功与公司战略紧密联系在一起。新产品的开发，成为企业战略的核心组成部分，成为公司的整体战略平台一块关键的木板，往往是理所当然的。预算费用承诺的问题正通过定义新产品项目的角色和目标来处理研发项目或新产品的产品预算问题在经济困难时期经常
不能幸免于难。在一些公司中，研发项目被认为是软金钱——一种奢侈品。但是，随着产品创新作为公司战略中的核心面，产品创新的角色和目标牢固地确立起来，缩减这个预算会变得没那么随意。要有连续性的利用资源致力于新产品。
5.3范畴：指导规范游戏计划
PIC的第二个方面，即范畴的定义，对于指导和专注于新产品成果非常关键（见图1）。新产品的开发过程中的第一步是创意产生。但是，新产品的创意如何产生？除非限定范畴的，否则结果就像散射枪击打的结果一样，无方向，重点不突出，无效！
在新产品开发过程中的第二个关键步骤的创意筛选。早期筛选创意的第一标准是：“所提及的产品是否属于公司新产品项目的强制任务？这也可以解释成：我们作为一家公司什么样的市场，产品，技术，是否对我们公平？如果没有公平的游戏的定义——范畴——有利于对试图做出有效的创意筛选！
范畴的定义也引导着资源和人力资源计划。如果某些市场被指定为重点市场，那么企
业可以收购资源，技能和知识，以能够更好地打开那些市场。同样，如果目标技术被挑选出来作为重点，企业可以雇佣和获取资源，以加强其在这些领域的能力。资源的建设不是一朝一夕的事。在片刻的注意间人们不可能雇佣到一支销售队伍，没有人可以在当地的超市上获得大量重要的，在特定技术上有作为的研究人员或工程师。把合适的人，资源和技能用到合适的地方，需要领先时间和方向，因此需要进行定义范畴重点。
5.4证据在哪儿？
PIC理论的论断，虽然有逻辑性，但看起来似乎还是有点学术性。不禁会让人想起那
些想那些没有宏伟的产品创新策略却已经成功的公司。那么，哪来的证据支持PIC理论呢？，很遗憾的是并没有太多证据，原因之一是关于创新策略的作用和影响的研究调查并不是很多。大多数关于产品创新的商业研究一直专注于以个别产品项目为单位来进行分析，例如，是什么让一个新产品成功，而不是对整个公司的新产品计划。
关于企业的新产品策略的研究，传递了一个清晰及一贯的信息：新产品策略在企业层
面来说是成功的关键，而一些策略显然比其他策略做得更好。
1、布兹- 艾伦和汉密尔顿的关于企业新产品策略实践的研究发现：“成功的企业更致力于通过内部的新产品来实现增长”，并认为“他们更容易有一个包括来源于新产品的若干部分发展的战略计划”。研究的作者继续解释为什么成功与拥有新产品策略息息相关：
新产品战略把新产品的开发过程链接到公司的目标，并为想法/概念的产生提供焦点和建立适当的筛选标准。这一战略分析的结果是一组战略性的角色，不是用来产生特定的新产品的创意，但却可以帮助确定将新产品开发的市场。这些市场机会提供产品组合和新产品创意的产生的市场需求。此外，战略角色为新产品表现测评标准提供指引。性能阈值和战略角色一起为筛选新的产品理念提供了
更精确的手段。
2、PIMS研究（利润影响市场战略）考虑了新产品策略的影响，但仅限于在外围方法。这些研究侧重于为什么某些特定业务单元比其他的更有利可图，并且试图把盈利能力与市场策略相连接起来等。研发项目的支出和产品质量水平是在研究中众多被考虑到的策略因素中的两个变量，发现两个因素均与盈利能力紧密相连（虽然研究的反对者在因果关系的方向上有争论）。
3、奈斯特龙和爱德华松研究了大量的工业产品企业，并确定了各种新产品策略捆绑如何与企业表现相关联。策略强调协同技术的运用，一个负责任的研发项目组织和一个外向型的研发成功一般比较顺利。这项研究局限于只有极少数的战略维度，而且研发项目策略与新产品研发策略是有不同的。尽管如此，该消息显示新产品策略和业绩表现密切相关。
4、我们自己的研究涉及到产品创新策略对120家企业表现的影响。这项研究是少数考虑到大量策略维度，和在大量公司中，策略是如何与公司表现联系在一起的调查之一。最重要的结论是，产品创新策略和业绩表现是强烈联系在一起的。市场、产品和公司选择技术的类型、方位和他们的产品创新计划的方向对项目的成功和盈利能力有着明显的影响。策略的确非常重要！
5.5选择正确范畴的证据
我们的调查提供远不止策略表现的强烈暗示。该研究深入洞察一个成功的创新策略的成分：目标的类型是合理的和可测量的；有利于选择范畴的标准——产品、市场和公司选择成功的技术的种类。下面是一些更重要的结论，我们稍后在范畴的选择的部分将会用到：
1、大量影响公司新产品表现的策略因素被发现。这些因素适合分为两类：一类是他们描述了公司已选择的新产品范畴的类型，一类是他们获得的公司如何完成任务的基础。
2、获得竞争基础的因素描绘了新产品项目的方向和目标。他们包括诸如技术的侵略性和复杂性的因素，市场导向，项目的重点，研发支出等有利于指引如何在新的产品项目的进行导向和管理。
3、描述范畴选择的因素构成了第二类因素，影响着后续项目的表现。这些可以被进一步细分为如下因素：
1）区域范畴的吸引力（例如，市场的需求，成长和规模，在区域范畴内技术的可操作性等）；
2）公司的利用区域范畴的实力或能力（例如，在公司资源和新产品开发区域范畴内的适应和协调能力）。
在随后的分析中，我们可以把不同因素赋予权重——每个因素在“成功等式”中有多重要。这些因素和它们的权重我们如表1所示，我们用表1为选择争取的区域范畴提供的重要标
准和权重。然而要告诫读者的是，这些权重来自一项研究，并作为指导或区域范畴选择的标准点。
六、创新章程的发展
很少人能否认有一个产品创新策略章程来指导公司新产品的取得成功的重要性。但如
何去开发这样的章程？文章的其余部分着手处理建立PIC模型的艰难考验。一连串熟悉的
概念：业务定义计划和投资组合战略模型，形成章程发展的基础。但这些模型已经在被整合和修改在一写书籍中，以适用于提供新产品的机会，而不是为了私人业务；进一步地说，我们已经从研究中纳入国家的需求，以帮助量化新产品开发的区域范畴。
6.1设定目标
为一个产品开发计划的设定目标是至关重要的，也是我们大多数人接受的前提。然而，我们的战略研究表明，许多企业实际上在他们的创新项目缺乏书面的，可衡量的目标。
在创新章程中应包括哪些类型的目标？首先，目标应该是可衡量的，可量化的。其次，他们应该把新产品项目和整个公司战略结合起来。最后，他们必须给新产品团队的目的感，并帮助他们做出决定。在决定一个合理的新产品项目目标组合，考虑以下一些类型。
6.2目标角色
新产品的目标的一种类型，要聚焦于在实现企业目标过程中新产品所扮演的角色。例
子包括：
1、在5年内，公司新产品销售额的百分比来自于这五年时期内推出的新产品。（五年是普遍接受的时间跨度，这五年内产品可以被认为“新”。）另外，可以说绝对销售额（第五年新产品的销售额），而不是相对销售或百分比。来源于在这5年的跨度内已经推出的新
产品，例如：70％的公司销售增长将来源于未来五年内推出的新产品，2、企业第五年利润的百分比（总量，贡献，或净额），来源于在这5年的跨度内已经推出的新产品。同样绝
对美元可以用相对利润来代替。3、另外，这些销售和利润目标，可表示作为企业成长的百分比。例如：70％的公司销售增长将来源于未来五年内推出的新产品。
2、企业第五年利润的百分比（总量，贡献，或净额），来源于在这5年的跨度内已经推出的新产品。同样绝对美元可以用相对利润来代替。
3、另外，这些销售和利润目标，可表示作为企业成长的百分比。例如：70％的公司销售增长将来源于未来五年内推出的新产品。
零售企业营销策略中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)
译文： 零售企业的营销策略 Philip Kotlor 今天的零售商为了招徕和挽留顾客，急欲寻找新的营销策略。过去，他们挽留顾客的方法是销售特别的或独特的花色品种，提供比竞争对手更多更好的服务提供商店信用卡是顾客能赊购商品。可是，现在这一切都已变得面目全非了。现在，诸如卡尔文·克连，依佐和李维等全国性品牌，不仅在大多数百货公司及其专营店可以看到，并且也可以在大型综合商场和折扣商店可以买到。全国性品牌的生产商为全力扩大销售量，它们将贴有品牌的商品到处销售。结果是零售商店的面貌越来越相似。 在服务项目上的分工差异在逐渐缩小。许多百货公司削减了服务项目，而许多折扣商店却增加了服务项目。顾客变成了精明的采购员，对价格更加敏感。他们看不出有什么道理要为相同的品牌付出更多的钱，特别是当服务的差别不大或微不足道时。由于银行信用卡越来越被所有的商家接受，他们觉得不必从每个商店赊购商品。 百货商店面对着日益增加的价格的折扣店和专业商店的竞争，准备东山再起。历史上居于市中心的许多商店在郊区购物中心开设分店，那里有宽敞的停车场，购买者来自人口增长较快并且有较高收入的地区。其他一些则对其商店形式进行改变，有些则试用邮购盒电话订货的方法。超级市场面对的是超级商店的竞争，它们开始扩大店面，经营大量的品种繁多的商品和提高设备等级，超级市场还增加了它们的促销预算，大量转向私人品牌，从而增加盈利。 现在，我们讨论零售商在目标市场、产品品种和采办、服务以及商店气氛、定价、促销和销售地点等方面的营销策略。 一、目标市场 零售商最重要的决策时确定目标市场。当确定目标市场并且勾勒出轮廓时，零售商才能对产品分配、商店装饰、广告词和广告媒体、价格水平等作出一致的决定。如沃尔玛的目标市场相当明确：
顾客满意策略与顾客满意营销 原文来源：《Marketing Customer Satisfaction 》自20世纪八十年代末以来, 顾客满意战略已日益成为各国企业占有更多的顾客份额, 获得竞争优势的整体经营手段。 一、顾客满意策略是现代企业获得顾客“货币选票”的法宝随着时代的变迁, 社会物质财富的极大充裕, 顾客中的主体———消费者的需求也先后跨越了物质缺乏的时代、追求数量的时代、追求品质的时代, 到了20世纪八十年代末进入了情感消费时代。在我国, 随着经济的高速发展,我们也已迅速跨越了物质缺乏时代、追求数量的时代乃至追求品质的时代, 到今天也逐步迈进情感消费时代。在情感消费时代, 各企业的同类产品早已达到同时、同质、同能、同价, 消费者追求的已不再是质量、功能和价格, 而是舒适、便利、安全、安心、速度、跃动、环保、清洁、愉快、有趣等,消费者日益关注的是产品能否为自己的生活带来活力、充实、舒适、美感和精神文化品位, 以及超越消费者期望值的售前、售中、售后服务和咨询。也就是说, 今天人们所追求的是具有“心的满足感和充实感”的商品, 是高附加值的商品和服务,追求价值观和意识多元化、个性化和无形的满足感的时代已经来临。 与消费者价值追求变化相适应的企业间的竞争, 也由产品竞争、价格竞争、技术竞争、广告竞争、品牌竞争发展到现今的形象竞争、信誉竞争、文化竞争和服务竞争, 即顾客满意竞争。这种竞争是企业在广角度、宽领域的时空范围内展开的高层次、体现综合实力的竞争。它包括组织创新力、技术创新力、管理创新力、产业预见力、产品研发力、员工向心力、服务顾客力、顾客亲和力、同行认同力、社会贡献力、公关传播沟通力、企业文化推动力、环境适应力等等。这些综合形象力和如何合成综合持久的竞争力, 这就是CSft略所要解决的问题。CS寸代,企业不再以“自己为中心”,而是以“顾客为中心”；“顾客为尊”、“顾客满意”不再是流于形式的口号, 而是以实实在在的行动为基础的企业经营的一门新哲学。企业不再以质量达标, 自己满意为经营理念, 而是以顾客满意, 赢得顾客高忠诚度为经营理念。企业经营策略的焦点不再以争取或保持市场占有率为主, 而是以争取顾客满意为经营理念。因此, 营销策略的重心不再放在竞争对手身上而是放在顾客身上, 放在顾客现实的、潜在的需求上。当企业提供的产品和服务达到了顾客事先的期望值, 顾客就基本满意；如果远远超越顾客的期望值, 且远远高于其他同行, 顾客才真正满意；如果企业能不断地或长久地令顾客满意, 顾客就会忠诚。忠诚的顾客不仅会经常性地重复购买, 还会购买企业其它相关的产品或服务；忠诚的顾客不仅会积极向别人推荐他所买的产品, 而且对企业竞争者的促销活动具有免疫能力一个不满意的顾客会将不满意告诉16-20个人, 而每一个被告知者会再传播给12-15个人。这样, 一个不满意者会影响到二、三百人。在互联网普及的今天, 其影响则更大。据美国汽车业的调查, 一个满意者会引发8笔潜在的生意, 其中至少有一笔会成交。而另一项调查表明, 企业每增加5%的忠诚顾客, 利润就会增长25%-95%。一个企业的80%的利润来自20%的忠诚顾客；而获取一个新顾客的成本是维持一个老顾客成本的6倍。所以,美国著名学者唐?佩 珀斯指出: 决定一个企业成功与否的关键不是市场份额, 而是在于顾客份额。 于是, 企业纷纷通过广泛细致的市场调研、与消费者直接接触、顾客信息反馈等方式来了解顾客在各方面的现实需求和潜在需求。依靠对企业满意忠诚的销售、服务人员, 定期、定量地对顾客满意度进行综合测定, 以便准确地把握企业经营中与“顾客满意” 目标的差距及其重点领域, 从而进一步改善企业的经营活动。依靠高亲和力的企业文化、高效率的人文管理和全员共同努力, 不断地向顾客提供高附加值的产品, 高水准的亲情般的服
E---MARKETING (From:E--Marketing by Judy Strauss,Adel El--Ansary,Raymond Frost---3rd ed.1999 by Pearson Education pp .G4-G25.) As the growth of https://www.doczj.com/doc/7c178008.html, shows, some marketing principles never change.Markets always welcome an innovative new product, even in a crowded field of competitors ,as long as it provides customer value.Also,Google`s success shows that customers trust good brands and that well-crafted marketing mix strategies can be effective in helping newcomers enter crowded markets. Nevertheless, organizations are scrambling to determine how they can use information technology profitably and to understand what technology means for their business strategies. Marketers want to know which of their time-ested concepts will be enhanced by the Internet, databases,wireless mobile devices, and other technologies. The rapid growth of the Internet and subsequent bursting of the dot-com bubble has marketers wondering,"What next?" This article attempts to answer these questions through careful and systematic examination of successful e-mar-keting strategies in light of proven traditional marketing practices. （Sales Promotion;E--Marketing；Internet；Strategic Planning ） 1.What is E--Marketing E--Marketing is the application of a broad range of information technologies for: Transforming marketing strategies to create more customer value through more effective segmentation ,and positioning strategies；More efficiently planning and executing the conception, distribution promotion,and pricing of goods,services,and ideas;andCreating exchanges that satisfy individual consumer and organizational customers` objectives. This definition sounds a lot like the definition of traditional marketing. Another way to view it is that e-marketing is the result of information technology applied to traditional marketing. E-marketing affects traditional marketing in two ways. First,it increases efficiency in traditional marketing strategies.The transformation results in new business models that add customer value and/or increase company profitability.
Positioning in Practice Strategic Role of Marketing For large firms that have two or more strategic business units (SBUs), there are generally three levels of strategy: corporate-level strategy, strategic-business-unit-level (or business-level) strategy, and marketing strategy. A corporate strategy provides direction on the company's mission, the kinds of businesses it should be in, and its growth policies. A business-level strategy addresses the way a strategic business unit will compete within its industry. Finally, a marketing strategy provides a plan for pursuing the company's objectives within a specific market segment. Note that the higher level of strategy provides both the objectives and guidelines for the lower level of strategy. At corporate level, management must coordinate the activities of multiple strategic business units. Thus the decisions about the organization's scope and appropriate resource deployments/allocation across its various divisions or businesses are the primary focus of corporate strategy.Attempts to develop and maintain distinctive competencies tend to focus on generating superior financial, capital, and human resources; designing effective organizational structures and processes; and seeking synergy among the firm's various businesses. At business-level strategy, managers focus on how the SBU will compete within its industry. A major issue addressed in business strategy is how to achieve and sustain a competitive advantage. Synergy for the unit is sought across product-markets and across functional department within the unit. The primary purpose of a marketing strategy is to effectively allocate and coordinate marketing resources and activities to accomplish the firm's objectives within a specific product-market. The decisions about the scope of a marketing strategy involve specifying the target market segment(s) to pursue and the breadth of the product line to offered. At this level of strategy, firms seek competitive advantage and synergy through a well-integrated program of marketing mix elements tailored to the needs and wants of customers in the target segment(s). Strategic Role of Positioning Based on the above discussion, it is clear that marketing strategy consists of two parts: target market strategy and marketing mix strategy. Target market strategy consists of three processes: market segmentation, targeting (or target market selection), and positioning. Marketing mix strategy refers to the process of creating a unique
文献出处: Dalman, M. Deniz, and Junhong Min. "Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect." International Journal of Marketing Studies 6.5 (2014): 63-72. 原文 Marketing Strategy for Unusual Brand Differentiation: Trivial Attribute Effect Dalman, M. Deniz & Junhong Min Abstract This research investigates that brand differentiation creating superior values can be achieved not only by adding meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes, which is called "trivial attribute effect." Two studies provided empirical evidences as following; first, trivial attribute effect creates a strong brand differentiation even after subjects realize that trivial attribute has no value. Second, trivial attribute effect is more pronounced in hedonic service category compared to the utilitarian category. Last, the amount of willingness to pay is higher when trivial attribute is presented and evaluated in joint evaluation mode than separate evaluation mode. Finally, we conclude with discussion and provide suggestions for further research. Keywords: brand differentiation, evaluation mode, service industry, trivial attribute Introduction Problem Definition Perhaps the most important factor for new product success is to create the meaningful brand differentiation that provides customers with superior values beyond what the competitors can offer in the same industry (Porter, 1985). Not surprisingly, more than 50 percent of annual sales in consumer product industries including automobiles, biotechnology, computer software, and pharmaceuticals are attributed to such meaningful brand differentiation by including new or noble attributes (Schilling &Hill, 1998). However, the brand differentiation that increases consumer preference is not only by introducing meaningful attributes but also meaningless attributes. For
市场营销策略外文文献及翻译 Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails
外文翻译 原文 Marketing Material Source：Marketing Management Author：Philip Kotler Marketing Channels To reach a target market, the marketer uses three kinds of marketing channels. Communication channels deliver messages to and receive messages from target buyers. They include newspapers, magazines, radio, television, mail, telephone, billboards, posters, fliers, CDs, audiotapes, and the Internet. Beyond these, communications are conveyed by facial expressions and clothing, the look of retail stores, and many other media. Marketers are increasingly adding dialogue channels (e-mail and toll-free numbers) to counterbalance the more normal monologue channels (such as ads). The marketer uses distribution channels to display or deliver the physical product or service to the buyer or user. There are physical distribution channels and service distribution channels, which include warehouses, transportation vehicles, and various trade channels such as distributors, wholesalers, and retailers. The marketer also uses selling channels to effect transactions with potential buyers. Selling channels include not only the distributors and retailers but also the banks and insurance companies that facilitate transactions. Marketers clearly face a design problem in choosing the best mix of communication, distribution, and selling channels for their offerings. Supply Chain Whereas marketing channels connect the marketer to the target buyers, the supply chain describes a longer channel stretching from raw materials to components to final products that are carried to final buyers. For example, the supply chain for women’s purses starts with hides, tanning operations, cutting operations, manufacturing, and the marketing channels that bring products to customers. This supply chain represents a value delivery system. Each company captures only a certain percentage of the total value generated by the supply chain. When a company acquires competitors or moves upstream or downstream, its aim is
Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment. Positioning the Product Management's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products. Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:
附件1：外文资料翻译译文 营销策略 内容提要：为了组织的销售能是成功的，它需要根据一个营销策略计划来帮助保证其努力的目标和宗旨与市场的需要想吻合。营销策略审查市场以确定潜在顾客的需要，竞争者的战略和市场地位，并且尝试制定出一套能使组织在市场上获取或维护竞争优势的相关战略。有一些因素会对营销策略计划的发展造成冲击性的影响，它包括内部因素例如组织的财产、技能和组织文化，外在因素例如各种各样的市场驱动者、市场或产业运作方式、战略窗口和竞争的本质。一个优选的营销策略计划也需具备一套意外情况防备策略以应对市场治理及组织生产能力的不确定性。 关键词：竞争优势竞争策略市场地位市场份额营销销售计划组织文化营销策略 营销策略简述 无论组织的产品或服务多么好，除非它们的价值能被传达给潜在的顾客，否则组织依然无法实现它的使命。这种传达和交流是组织内市场营销功能的职责。根据美国市场协会，营销是“一个组织效能和一套创造过程、交流和传达产品价值给顾客、处理与顾客关系的有益于组织和它的利益共享者的方式”。营销作用包括相辅相成的两方面。营销策略在市场上审查市场来确定潜在顾客和竞争者本质的需要，并且试图开发出在市场上将使组织获取或维护竞争优势的战略。操作的营销被建立在营销策略作用和贯彻各种各样的计划和策略(包括适当的混合营销的发展)吸引顾客和促进顾客忠实的基础之上的。 产品和服务营销的方法 有很多的方式能用来销售你的产品或服务包括做广告，直接响应、推销活动和宣传。然而，除非你能了解顾客、市场和产业的需要并且竞争的优势和劣势，否则这些方法是不太可能成功的。营销策略帮助一个组织尖化它的焦点和在市场顺利地竞争。营销策略与二个组分有关：目标市场和用最佳的方式传达你的产品价值或服务到那个市场。一个可实行的销售方针的发展取决于几个关键维度。首先，与组织之内的所有全球性战略一样，一个成功的销售方针需要由在组织之内的最高管理层
营销策略外文翻译文献 (文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)
译文: 营销策略 内容提要：为了组织的销售能是成功的，它需要根据一个营销策略计划来帮助保证其努力的目标和宗旨与市场的需要想吻合。营销策略审查市场以确定潜在顾客的需要，竞争者的战略和市场地位，并且尝试制定出一套能使组织在市场上获取或维护竞争优势的相关战略。有一些因素会对营销策略计划的发展造成冲击性的影响，它包括内部因素例如组织的财产、技能和组织文化，外在因素例如各种各样的市场驱动者、市场或产业运作方式、战略窗口和竞争的本质。一个优选的营销策略计划也需具备一套意外情况防备策略以应对市场治理及组织生产能力的不确定性。 关键词：竞争优势竞争策略市场地位市场份额营销销售计划组织文化营销策略 营销策略简述 无论组织的产品或服务多么好，除非它们的价值能被传达给潜在的顾客，否则组织依然无法实现它的使命。这种传达和交流是组织内市场营销功能的职责。根据美国市场协会，营销是“一个组织效能和一套创造过程、交流和传达产品价值给顾客、处理与顾客关系的有益于组织和它的利益共享者的方式”。营销作用包括相辅相成的两方面。营销策略在市场上审查市场来确定潜在顾客和竞争者本质的需要，并且试图开发
出在市场上将使组织获取或维护竞争优势的战略。操作的营销被建立在营销策略作用和贯彻各种各样的计划和策略(包括适当的混合营销的发展)吸引顾客和促进顾客忠实的基础之上的。 产品和服务营销的方法 有很多的方式能用来销售你的产品或服务包括做广告，直接响应、推销活动和宣传。然而，除非你能了解顾客、市场和产业的需要并且竞争的优势和劣势，否则这些方法是不太可能成功的。营销策略帮助一个组织尖化它的焦点和在市场顺利地竞争。营销策略与二个组分有关：目标市场和用最佳的方式传达你的产品价值或服务到那个市场。一个可实行的销售方针的发展取决于几个关键维度。首先，与组织之内的所有全球性战略一样，一个成功的销售方针需要由在组织之内的最高管理层签名。销售方针本质上也具有政治性的色彩：在组织之内的强有力的单位在最佳的销售方针也许不同意，并且协议也许需要谈判达成。销售方针也许受组织文化的也影响，并且那得假定这发生。例如，如果组织总是销售它的装饰物给商业主管，它也许就看不到组织之内的低层人员甚至是成人或少年的个人消费潜力。 实施战略销售计划发展的因素 存在一些能冲击战略销售计划发展的因素，这些因素首先包括组织已经拥有或它可能欣然获取的财产和技能。例如，如果组织拥有一个重大编程的部门，就为它能做和销售应用软件提供了可行性的条件。然而，如果这些人员已经在其他工作介入并且不能自由研究一个新的软件项目，并且组织没能力聘用另外的程序员，起始一条新的软件线是不妥当
市场营销专业术语中英文对照标准翻译 本文为市场营销中经常用到的一些中文与英文互译的标准用语，希望对市场营销从业人员有所帮助。 《财富》杂志Fortune 案头调研Desk Research 奥美公司Ogilvy & Mather 白色商品White Goods 百乐门Parliament 百威啤酒Budweiser 包裹销售法Banded Pack 宝洁公司Procter & Gamble 宝丽来Polaroid 宝马BMW 边际成本Marginal Cost 边际收益Marginal Benefit 标准差，均差Standard Deviation 别克Buick 波立兹调查公司Alfred Politz Research, Inc 波旁王朝Ancient Age Bourbon 波特福洛分析Portefolio Analysis 产品差异Product Differentiation 产品生命周期Product Life Cycle 产品系列Product Line 产品组合Product Mix 阐述Presentation 超级市场Supermarket 成对比较法Paired Comparisons 成功的理想主义者Successful Idealist 承诺型消费者Committed Buyer 程度测试Tachistoscope 橙色商品Orange Goods 冲动购买Impulse Buying 重叠率Duplication 抽样Sampling 传销Pyramid Selling 传阅发行量Pass-on Circulation 词语联想法Word Associaton 刺激营销Incentive Marketing 促销Promotion 达彼思广告公司Ted Bates & Copany 大卫·奥格威David Ogilvy 戴比尔斯De Beers
本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译 学院：商贸学院 学号： 120134030 专业班级：市场营销1301班 学生姓名：宫超 指导教师：赵丹 年月日 Marketing Channels and Value Networks Most producers do not sell their goods directly to the final users between them stands a set of intermediaries performing a variety of functions. These intermediaries constitute a marketing channel also called a trade channel or distribution channel .Formally marketing channels are sets of interdependent organizations involved in the process of making a product or service available for use or consumption. They are the set of pathways a product or service follows after production culminating in purchase and use by the final end user. Some intermediaries-such as wholesalers and retailers-buy take title to and resell the merchandise they are called merchants. Others-brokers manufacturer’s representatives sales agents-search for customers and may negotiate on the producers behalf but do not take title to the goods they are called agents. Still others-transportation companies independent warehouses banks advertising agencies-assist in the distribution process but neither take title to goods nor negotiate purchases or sales they are called facilitators. The Importance of Channels A marketing channel system is the particular set of marketing channels a firm employs and decisions about it are among the most critical ones management