Biologists?and?chemists?divide?compounds?into?two?principal?classes,?inorgan ic?and?organic.?Inorganic?compounds?are?defined?as?molecules,?usually?small, ?that?typically?lack?carbon?and?in?which?ionic?bonds?may?play?an?important?r ole.?Inorganic?compounds?include?water,?oxygen,?carbon?dioxide,?and?many?sal ts,?acids,?and?bases.??
生物学家和化学家分裂成两个主要种类化合物、无机和有机。无机化合物被定义为分子,通常小,通常缺乏的碳离子束缚,那么它就能起到重要的作用。无机化合物包括水、氧气、二氧化碳和许多盐、酸、和根据地。??
?All?living?organisms?require?a?wide?variety?of?inorganic?compounds?for?grow th,?repair,?maintenance,?and?reproduction.?Water?is?one?of?the?most?importan t,?as?well?as?one?of?the?rmost?abundant,?of?these?compounds,?and?it?is?parti cularly?vital?to?microorganisms.?Outside?the?cell,?nutrients?are?dissolved?i n?water,?which?facilitates?their?passage?through?cell?membranes.?And?inside? the?cell?,?water?is?the?medium?for?most?chemical?reactions.?In?fact,?water?i s?by?far?the?most?abundant?component?of?almost?all?living?cells.?Water?makes ?up?5%?to?95%?or?more?of?each?cell,?the?average?being?between?65%?and?75%.?S imply?stated,?no?organism?can?survive?without?water?所有生物体需要多种无机化合物的增长、维修、维护、和繁衍。水是其中一个最重要的、也是最丰富的,这类化合物,这是特别至关重要,微生物。细胞外,营养溶解在水中,有利于他们通过细胞膜。和进入细胞,水介质对大多数化学反应。事实上,水是迄今为止最丰富的组件几乎所有的活细胞。水产生的5%?~?95%或更多的每一个细胞,平均在65%和75%之间。简单的说,没有生物能生还,没有水。??
Water?has?structural?and?chemical?properties?that?make?it?particularly?suita ble?for?its?role?in?living?cells.?As?we?discussed,?the?total?charge?on?the?w ater?molecule?is?neutral,?but?the?Oxygen?region?of?the?molecule?has?a?slight ly?negative?charge?and?the?hydrogen?region?has?a?slightly?positive?charge.?A ny?molecule?having?such?an?unequal?distribution?of?charges?is?called?a?polar ?molecule.?The?polar?nature?of?water?gives?it?four?characteristics?that?make ?it?a??useful?medium?for?living?cells?
水具有的结构和化学特性使得其尤为适合在活细胞中发挥作用。像我们讨论过的一样,总金额在水分子是中立的,但氧区域的分子都有稍微否定的电荷和氢地区稍微正电荷。有这样一个任何分子分配不均等的指控被称为一个极性分子。极地自然的水给它有四个特点,使它成为一个有用的活细胞中。?
First,?every?water?molecule?is?capable?of?forming?four?hydrogen?bonds?with?n earby?water?molecules.?This?property?results?in?a?strong?attraction?between? water?molecules.?Because?of?this?strong?attraction,?a?great?deal?of?heat?is? required?to?separate?water?molecules?from?each?other?to?form?water?vapor,?th us,?water?has?a?relatively?high?boiling?point?(1OO℃).?Since?water?has?such? a?high?boiling?point,?it?exists?in?the?liquid?state?on?most?of?the?earth's?s urface,?Furthermore,?the?hydrogen?bonding?between?water?molecules?affects?th e?density?of?water,?depending?on?whether?it?occurs?as?ice?or?a?liquid.?for?e xample,?the?hydrogen?bonds?in?the?crystalline?structure?of?water?(ice)?make? it?more?spacious.?As?s?result，?ice?has?fewer?molecules?than?an?equal?volume ?of?liquid?water.?This?makes?its?crystalline?structure?less?dense?than?an?eq ual?olume?of?liquid?water.this?makes?its?crystalline?strucrure?less?dense?th
an?liquid?water.?It?is?for?this?reason?that?ice?floats?and?can?serve?as?an?i nsulating?layer?on?the?surfaces?of?lakes?and?streams?that?harbor?living?orga nisms.?
??首先,每个水分子的氢键能力四个形成与附近的水分子。这个属性导致水分子间有强烈的吸引力。因为这个强烈的吸引力,大量的热被要求从彼此分开的水分子形成的水蒸气,因此,水有一个相对高沸点(1?OO℃)。由于水有这样一个高沸点,它存在于液体状态对大部分的地球
表面,此外,水分子间的氢键的密度与水的影响,取决于它是冰或液体。例如,氢键在水晶结构水(冰)使它更宽敞。结果作为年代,ice已经比少与等体积分子液态水。这使其晶体结构体积密度要小于同等的液态水。这使其水晶全部的密度要小于液态水。正是因为这一原因,冰漂浮的,也可以作为隔热层表面的湖泊和溪流滋生的活的有机体。??? ????Second,the?polarity?of?water?makes?it?an?excellent?disolving?medium?or?s olvent.many?
polar?substances?dissociate?(separate)?into?individual?molecules?in?water-th at?is,?dissolve-because?the?negative?part?of?the?water?molecule?is?attracted ?to?the?positive?part?of?the?molecules?in?the?solute?(dissolying?substance)? ,?and?the?positive?part?of?the?water?molecules?is?attracted?to?the?negative? part?of?solute?molecules.?Substances?(such?as?salts)?that?are?composed?of?at oms?(or?groups?of?atoms)?held?together?by?ionic?bonds?tend?to?dissociate?int o?separate?cations?and?anions?in?water.?Thus,?the?polarity?of?water?allows?m olecules?of?many?different?substances?to?separate?and?become?surrounded?by?w ater?molecules.??
????第二,极性的水使它成为一个优秀的disolving中型或solvent.many?
极性物质(独立)游离water-that中的个别分子,dissolve-because消极部分的水分子被吸引到积极的分子的一部分溶质(dissolying物质),积极的部分水分子被你吸引溶质分子的消极作用。物质(如盐)组成的原子(或群体中的原子)通过离子债券维系在一起的倾向于分开成单独的阳离子和阴离子在水里。因此,水分子的极性允许许多不同的物质分离,成为水分子包围。?
Third,?polarity?accounts?for?water's?characteristic?role?as?a?reactant?or?pr oduct?in?many?chemical?reactions.?Its?polaritv?facilitates?the?splitting?and ?rejoining?of?hydrogen?(H+?)?and?hydroxide?(OH??)?ions.?Water?is?a?key?react ant?in?the?digestive?processes?of?organisms,?whereby?larger?molecules?are?br oken?down?into?smaller?ones.?Water?molecules?are?also?involved?in?synthetic? reactions--water?is?an?important?source?of?the?hydrogen?and?oxygen?that?are? incorporated?into?numerous?organic?compounds?in?living?cells.???????
第三,极性占水的特性作为反应物或产品在许多化学反应。它有利于分裂和重新polaritv 氢(H?+)和氢离子(哦)。水是一个关键的反应物在消化过程的有机体,因此更大的分子分解成较小的分子。水分子也参与——水是合成反应的重要来源,氢气和氧气纳入许多有机化合物在活体细胞。??
Finally,?the?relatively?strong?hydrogen?bonding?between?water?molecules?make s?water?an?excellent?temperature?buffer,?A?given?quantity?of?water?requires? a?great?gain?of?heat?to?increase?its?temperature?and?a?great?loss?of?heat?to ?decrease?its?temperature,?as?compared?with?many?other?substances.?Normally, ?heat?absorption?by?molecules?increases?their?kinetic?energy?and?thus?increa ses?their?rate?of?motion?and?their?reactivity.?In?water,?however,?heat?absor
ption?first?breaks?hydrogen?bonds?rather?than?increasing?the?rate?of?motion. ?Therefore.?much?more?heat?must?be?applied?to?raise?the?temperature?of?water ?than?to?raise?the?temperature?of?a?nonhydrogen-bonded?liquid.?The?reverse?i s?true?as?water?cools.?Thus,?water?more?easily?maintains?a?constant?temperat ??
最后,较强的水分子间的氢键使水成为优秀的温度缓冲区,给定数量的水需要一个重大收获的热增加它的温度和一个伟大的热量损失降低温度,相比而言,许多其他的物质。正常情况下,由分子吸收热量增加,从而增加动能的运动速度和反应。在水里,然而,第一个打破氢键吸收热量的速度,而不是增加运动。因此。更多的热量必须应用水的温度升高的温度升高一个nonhydrogen-bonded液体。事实正相反作为冷却水。因此,水更容易建立保持不变?when?inorganic?salts?such?as?sodium?chloride?(NaCl)?are?dissolved?in?wate r,?they?undergo?dissociation,?or?ionization.?That?is,?they?break?apart?into? ions.?Substances?called?acids?and?bases?show?similar?behavior.????
当无机盐如氯化钠(盐)溶解在水中,他们经历了分离、或游离。也就是说,他们分裂成离子。物质称为酸和碱显示类似的行为。??
?An?acid?can?be?defined?as?a?substance?that?dissociates?into?one?or?more?hyd rogen?ions?(H+?)?and?one?or?more?negative?ions?(anions).?Thus,?an?acid?can?a lso?be?defined?as?s?proton?CH+?)?donor.?A?base?dissociates?into?one?or?more? positive?ions?(cations)?plus?on?or?more?negatively?charged?hydroxide?ions?(O H-?)?that?can?accept,?or?combine?with,?protons.?Thus,?sodium?hydroxide?(NaOH )?is?a?base?because?it?dissociates?to?release?hydroxide?ions,?which?have?a?s trong?attraction?for?protons?and?are?among?the?most?important?proton?accepto rs.?A?salt?is?a?substance?that?dissociates?in?water?into?cations?and?anions, ?neither?of?which?is?H?or?OH???
酸可以被定义为一种物质dissociates成一个或多个氢离子(H?+)和一个或多个负离子(阴)。因此,一个酸也可以被定义为s质子CH?+)捐献者。基地dissociates成一个或多个正离子(阳离子)加上或更多的带负电荷的氢离子(哦-),可以接受,或者结合、质子。因此,氢氧化钠(氢氧化钠)是一个基地,因为它dissociates氢离子的释放,这有一个很大的吸引力,为质子质子中最重要的杂质。盐是一种物质dissociates阴离子在水变成阳离子,这两者都是H或哦
历史老照片不能说的秘密慈禧军阀明末清初文革晚清
Where?the?definition?in?a?monograph?states?the?tolerances?as?being?"calculat ed?on?the?dried?(or?anhydrous?or?ignited)?basis,?"?the?directions?for?drying ?or?igniting?the?sample?ptor?to?assaying?are?generally?omitted?from?the?Assa y?procedure.?Assay?and?test?procedures?may?be?performed?on?the?undried?or?un ignited?substance?and?the?results?calculated?on?the?dried,?anhydrous,?or?ign ited?basis,?provided?a?test?for?Loss?on?drying?,?or?Water?,?or?Loss?on?ignit ion?,?respectively,?is?given?in?the?monograph.?Where?the?presence?of?moistur e?or?other?volatile?material?may?interfere?with?the?procedure?,?previous?dry ing?of?the?substance?is?specified?n?the?individual?monograph?and?is?obligato ry.?在美国的定义中公差的专着是“干计算(或无水或点燃)的基础上,发展的方向ptor 干燥或点燃,样品分析测试通常是被检测程序。检测、试验程序可以进行物质或unignited 未晒干的话,计算结果在干燥、无水,或点燃的基础上,提供了一个测试损失干燥、或水点火或损失,分别在专着。在存在水分或其它挥发性物质可能干预程序,以前是指定的干燥
物质n个人专着,是必须的。?
?Throughout?a?monograph?that?includes?a?test?for?Loss?on?drying?or?water,?th e?expres,?sion?+previously?dried"?without?qualification?signifies?that?the?s ubstance?is?to?be?dried?as?directed?under?Loss?on?drying?or?Water?(gravimetr ic?determination).在一篇有关,包括试验干燥或水损失、表情,“以前干“未经资格意味着要干物质是按照损失干燥或水(重力坚定)。??
?Unless?otherwise?directed?in?the?test?or?assay?in?the?individual?monograph? or?In?a?general?chapter,?USP?Reference?Standards?are?to?be?dried?before?use, ?or?used?without?prior?drying,?specifically?in?accordance?with?the?instructi ons?given?in?the?chapter?USP?Reference?Stand,?ards,?and?on?the?label?of?the? Reference?Standard.?Where?the?label?instructions?differ?in?de.?tail?from?tho se?in?the?chapter,?the?label?text?is?determinative.除非特定,在测试或分析个人专着或一般章,USP参考标准要干在使用前,或者使用未经干燥,特别是按照指示USP参考站在这一章里,ards,并在标签上的参考标准。在不同的标签上的说明de.尾巴的一章,标签文本是决定性的。?
??In?stating?the?appropriate?quantities?to?be?taken?for?assays?and?tests,?th e?use?of?the?word?"about"?indicates?a?quantity?within?10%?of?the?specified?w eight?or?volume.?However,?the?weight?or?volume?taken?is?accurately?determine d?and?the?calculated?result?is?based?upon?the?exact?amount?taken.?The?same?t olerance?applies?to?specified?dimensions.在适当的量,说明采取截流式合流制、测试法等研究方法,使用的词“大约”量在10%以内,显示指定的重量或体积。然而,重量或体积可以准确地确定了,计算结果是基于准确的数目缠住了。同样的宽容适用于指定的尺寸。??
Where?the?use?of?a?pipet?is?directed?for?measuring?a?specimen?or?an?aliquot? in?conducting?a?test?or?an?assay?the?pipet?conforms?to?the?standards?set?for th?under?Volumetric?Apparatus,?and?is?to?be?used?in?such?manner?that?the?err or?does?not?exceed?the?limit?stated?for?a?pipet?of?its?size.?Where?a?pipet?i s?specified,?a?suitable?buret,?conforming?to?the?standards?forth?under?Volum etric?Apparatus,?may?be?substituted.?Where?a"to?contain"?pipet?is?specified, ?a?suitable?volumetric?flask?may?be?substituted.在使用移液管直接衡量一个或一个能整除的标本进行检测或检测符合标准的移液管提出在容积仪器,应该是用在如此的方式误差不超过极限,以求一个移液管它的大小。一个移液管指定,一个合适的滴定管,必须符合以下标准容积装置发出,可以替换下场。一个“遏制”移液管指定,一个合适的容积瓶可以替换下场。?
Expressions?such?as?"25.?0?mL"?and?"25.?0?mg,?"?used?with?respect?to?volumet ric?or?gravimetric?measurements,?indicate?that?the?quantity?is?to?be?'accura tely?measured"?or?"accurately?weighed"with?the?limits?stated?under?volumetri c?apparatus?or?under?weights?and?balances表现形
式,如“25。0毫升”和“25。0毫克,”使用就容积或重力测量、显示数量为“精确”和“准确”规定的范围与重下机器或重量和体积下平衡?
the?term"transfer"?is?used?generally?to?specify?a?quantitative?manipulation, ?
the?term?"concomitantly",used?in?such?expressions?as?"concomitantly?determin e"or?"concomitantly?measured",ctions?for?assays?and?tests,is?intended?to?den ote?that?the?determinations?or?measurements?are?to?be?performed?in?immediate
?succession.?术语“转向”是指定一个普遍使用定量操作,?
术语“相符”,用于这样几条:“与此同时决定”或“与此同时测量”,为检测和测试。可是审稿人,是用来指示出时或尺码立即履行涌现。?
?Blank?Determination-Where?it?is?directed?that?.Cany?necessary?correction"?b e?made?by?a?blank?determination,?the?determination?is?to?be?conducted?using? the?same?quantities?of?the?same?reagents?treated?in?the?same?manner?as?the?s olution?or?mixture?containing?the?portion?of?the?substance?under?assay?or?te st?,?but?with?the?substance?itself?omitted.在空白,是为了确定。藤制的必要的纠正”是由一个空白的决心,自觉进行使用相同数量的同一试剂处理在相同的方式,溶液或混合物的下部分的化验或物质的测试,但是与物质本身省略。?
???Desiccator-The?expression?"in?a?desiccator"?specifies?the?use?of?a?tightl y?closed?contain.?r?of?suitable?size?and?design?that?maintains?an?atmosphere ?of?low?moisture?content?by?means?of?silica?gel?or?other?suitable?desiccant.干燥机表达"在干燥机”指定使用密闭容器尺寸合适的气氛和设计,保持低水分通过硅胶或其他适合的干燥剂。?
????A?"vacuum?desiccator"?is?one?that?maintains?the?low-moisture?atmosphere? at?a?reduced?pressure?of?not?more?than?20?mm?of?mercury?or?at?the?pressure?d esignated?in?the?individual?monograph.???Desiccator-The?expression?"in?a?des iccator"?specifies?the?use?of?a?tightly?closed?contain.?r?of?suitable?size?a nd?design?that?maintains?an?atmosphere?of?low?moisture?content?by?means?of?s ilica?gel?or?other?suitable?desiccant.是一种“真空干燥机”就是在保持low-moisture减压的气氛不超过20毫米汞或指定的个人专着的压力。?
?Dilution-Where?it?is?directed?that?a?solution?be?diluted?"quantitatively?an d?stepwise,?an?accurately?measured?portion?is?to?be?diluted?by?adding?water? or?other?solvent.?in?the?pro?portion?indicated,?in?one?or?more?steps.?The?ch oice?of?apparatus?to?be?used?should?take?into?ecount?the?relatively?larger?e rrors?generally?associated?with?using?small-volume?volumetric?apparatus.它在哪里下令稀释溶液和定量稀释”,一个精确的逐步部分被摊薄加入水或其他溶剂。在职业分表示,在一个或多个步骤。选择设备应考虑使用相对较大的误差一般用其有关容积装置。?
???Drying?to?Constant?Weight,the?specification?a?dried?to?constant?weight"?m eans?that?the?drying?shall?be?continued?until?two?consecutive?weighings?do?n ot?differ?by?more?than?0.50?mg?per?g?of?substance?taken,the?second?weighing? following?an?additional?hour?of?drying.烘干恒重、干重规格恒”意味着干燥应一直持续到连续两个不同的称重量不高于0.50毫克每克的物质,第二个称重后采取额外的小时的干燥。?
?Feltration-Where?it?is?directed?to?.Cfilter,"?without?further?qualification ,?the?intent?is?that?the?liquid?be?filtered?through?suitable?filter?paper?or ?equivalent?device?until?the?filtrate?is?clearFeltration在那里它是针对“过滤”,没有进一步的资格,意愿液体的过滤或同等适用滤纸过滤装置,直到是清楚的? (indentification?Tests)The?Pharmacopeial?tests?headed?identification?are?pro vided?a3?aid?in?verifying?the?identity?of?articles?as?they?are?purported?to? be,?such?as?those?taken?from?labeled?containers.?Such?tests,?however?specifi c,?are?not?necessarily?sufficient?to?establish?proof?of?identity:?but?failur e?of?an?article?taken?from?a?labeled?container?to?meet?the?requirements?of?a
?prescribed?
identification?test?indicates?that?the?article?may?be?mislabeted.?Other?test s?and?specifications?in?the?monograph?often?contribute?to?establishing?or?co nfirming?the?identity?of?the?article?under?examination.?(识别测试)为首的Pharmacopeial识别测试提供援助的身份核实a3文章为他们据称是,如那些取自标记的容器中。这些测试,不过具体,未必足以建立的身份证明:但失败的一篇来自标示容器符合要求的规定的识别实验表明,可能mislabeted条。其他测试规格通常有助于在专着建立或确认身份的文章在审查中。?
?indicators-Where?the?use?of?a?test?solution?('TS")?as?an?indicator?is?speci fied?in?a?test?or?an?assay,?approximately?0.?2?mL,?or?3?drops,?of?the?soluti on?shall?be?added,?unless?oth?erwise?directed(指标),使用一个测试解决方案(“TS”)作为一个指标是指定的测试或检测,约为0。2毫升或者3滴,要加的解决方案,除非另有指挥?
?Logarethms）Logarithms?used?in?the?assays?are?to?the?base?10.?(Logarethms)用于使用对数基本10。?
（microbile?strains）where?a?microbial?strain?is?cited?and?indenfied?strain?shall?be?directly?or, if?subculturedd,shall?be?used?not??more?than?five?passages?removed?from?the? original?strain.?microbile系)微生物菌株在表彰和indenfied应变应当直接或者,如果subculturedd,应不超过五个章节使用取出原菌株。?
Negligible-This?term?indicates?a?quantity?not?exceeding?0.?50?mg.可以忽略,这个术语表明量不超过0。50毫克。?
Odor-Terms?such?as?"odorless,?,,?practically?odorless,?"?"a?faint?characteri stic?odor,,?r?variations?thereof?,?apply?to?examination?,?after?exposure?to? the?air?for?lS?minutes?,?of?either?Or?a?freshly?opened?package?of?the?articl e?(for?packages?containing?not?more?than?25?g)?or?(for?larger?packages)?of?a ?portion?of?about?25?g?of?the?article?that?has?been?removed?from?its?package ?to?an?open?evaporating?dish?of?about?100mL?capacity.?An?odor?designation?is ?descriptive?only?and?is?not?to?be?regarded?as?a?standard?of?purity?for?a?pa rticular?lot?of?an?article.?Odor-Terms如“无嗅、无味,几乎”、“微弱的气味,变化特点,r组合,适用于考试,在暴露于大气,或动物分钟一个新拧开包的文章(包包含不超过25克)或(更大的包)部分约25克的文章已被删除从它的包装,开放的蒸发盘大约100毫升容量。指定准确地识别出相同的味道,而不是描述只被看作是一种标准的纯度为一个特别的许多文章。?
?Pressure?Measurements--The?term?'Cmm?of?mercury"?used?with?respect?to?measu rements?of?blood?pressure,?pressure?within?an?apparatus,?or?atmospheric?pres sure?refers?to?the?use?of?a?suitable?manometer?or?barometer?calibrated?in?te rms?of?the?pressure?exerted?by?a?colurmi?of?mercury?of?the?stated?height,?压力测量——这个词的使用Cmm的水银”尊重测量血压、压力在一个设备,或大气压力指的是用一个合适的压力或气压计校准方面所发挥的压力的一个colurmn汞的规定的高度,? Solutions-Unless?otherwise?specified?in?the?individual?monograph,?all?soluti ons?called?for?in?tests?and?assays?are?prepared?with?Purified?Water.Solution s-除非个人专着中另有说明,所有解决方案的测试和分析要求的准备与纯水。?
An?Expression?such?as?o?(1?in?10)?"?means?that?I?part?by?volume?of?a?liquid? is?to?be?dilt?ted?with,?or?I?part?by?weight?of?a?solid?is?to?be?dissolved?in
,?sufficient?of?the?diluent?or?ad.?ent?to?make?the?volume?of?the?finished?so lution?10?parts?by?volume.一个表达式如o(1在10)我一边”是指一个液体的体积是被稀释,或者我部分固体的重量解散,足够的稀释剂或广告。花使的体积溶液体积10部分完成
An?expression?such?as?"(20:5:2)"?means?that?the?respective?numbers?of?parts, ?by?volunme?of?the?designated?liquids?are?to?be?mixed,?unless?otherwise?indi cated.一个表达式,如“(20:5:2)"意味着各自的编号的部件,在指定的体积比混合液体,除非另有说明。??
?the?notation?"VS"?after???a?specified?volumertric?solution?indicates?that?s uch?solution?is?standardized?in?accordance?with?directions?given?in?the?indi vidual?monograph?or?under?Volumetric?solutions?in?the?section?Reagents,?Indi cators,?and?Solutions,?and?is?thus?differentiated?form?Solutions?ted?from?so lutions?of?approximate?normality?or?molarity.?这个符号”和“一个指定的volumertric表明这样的解决方案是标准化按照指挥在个人专着或在容积的解部分试剂、指标,和解决方案,从而解决方案从各种类型的近似常态特德或摩尔浓度。?
?Where?a?standardized?solution?of?a?specific?concentration?is?called?for?in? a?test?or?an?assay,?solution?of?other?normatity?or?molarity?may?be?used,?pro vided?allowance?is?made?for?the?lifference?in?concentration?and?provided?the ?error?of?measurement?is?not?increased?thereby.?在解决具体的浓度标准要求的是测试或检测、解决其他正常可以使用或摩尔浓度,提供补贴是为不同的浓度和提供了测量误差从而并未增加。?
?Specific?Gravity-Unless?otherwise?stated,?the?specific?gravity?basis?is?25c /25C,?the?ratio?of?the?weight?of?a?substance?in?air?at?2500?to?the?weight?of ?an?equal?volume?oi?water?at?the?same?temperature.(具体重力)除非另有说明,比重根据25?c?/?25?c的重量之比在空气中物质在2500的重量与等体积水在相同温度下一级。?
temperatures-Unless?otherwise?specified,?all?temperatures?in?this?Pharmacope ia?are?expressed?in?centigrade?(Celsius)?degrees,?and?all?measurements?are?m ade?at?25T),?Where?moderate?heat?is?specified,?any?temperature?not?higher?th an?4500?(1130F)?is?indicated.?See?Storage?Temperature?under?Preservation?,?P ackaging?,?Storage?,?and?labeling?for?other?definitions.(温度),除非另有说明,所有的温度在摄氏表达这药典(摄氏度)度,和所有测量在25吨),在适度热指定,任何温度不高于4500(1130?F)治疗。看到贮藏温度下保存、包装、储存、贴标签为其他定义。? （Time?Limit)In?the?conduct?of?tests?and?assays,?5?minutes?shall?be?allowed? for?the?reaction?to??take?place?unless?otherwise?specified,???
（Vacuum）he?term?"in?vacuum"?denotes?exposure?to?a?pressure?of?less?than?20?mm?of?mer cury?unless?otherwise?indicated.?(时间限制)在处理试验和检测,5分钟应给予反应发生,除非另有说明,?
(真空)他术语“真空”表示接触压力小于20毫米汞除非另有说明。?
?Where?drying?in?vacuum?over?a?desiccant?is?directed?in?the?individual?monog raph,?a?vat?rml?desicator?or?a?vacuum?drying?pistol,?or?other?suitable?vacuu m?drying?apparatus,?is?m?be?used.?在一个地方在真空干燥除湿是为了个人专着中,真空干燥器或真空干燥的手枪,或其他适合的真空干燥设备,是被使用。????
Water-Where?water?is?called?for?in?tests?and?assays?,?Purified?Water?is?to?b
e?used?unless?otherwise?specified.?For?special?kinds?of?water?such?as?. ?Water?and?Loss?on?Drying--Where?the?water?of?hydration?or?adsorbed?water?of ?a?Pharmacopeial?article?is?determined?by?the?titrimetric?method,?the?test?i s?generally?givet?under?the?heading?Water,?Monograph?limits?expressed?as?a?p ercentage?are?figured?on?a?weight/weight?basis?unless?otherwise?specified.?W here?the?determination?is?made?by?drying?under?specified?conditions,?the?tes t?is?generally?given?under?the?heading?Loss?drying.?However?Loss?on?drying?i s?most?often?given?as?the?heading?where?the?loss?weight?is?known?to?represen t?residual?volatile?constituents?including? organic?solvents?well?as?water.?水和损失,在水的干燥或吸附水的水化Pharmacopeial是由条滴定法,测试通常是在标题下面吉水、专着限制百分比来表示,在计算重量/重量相配,除非另有说明。决心是由在干燥在规定的条件下,测试通常是在标题下面损失了干燥。然而损失干燥是最常给标题的如果损失重量是众所周知的挥发性成分代表残留有机溶剂和水。? A?The?Microbial?World?? A?microbe?or?microorganism?is?a?member?of?a?large?,?extremely?diverse?,?grou p?of?organisms?that?are?lumped?together?on?the?basis?of?one?property-the?fac t?that,?normally,?they?are?all?that?they?cannot?be?seen?without?the?use?of?a ?microscope.?细菌或微生物是一个大的、极其多样化、一个性质的集合在一起的生物体。事实上,通常情况下,他们都说他们不使用显微镜不能观察到。?The?word?is?therefore?used?to?describe?viruses?bacteria,?fungi,?protozo a?and?some?algae:?the?relative?sizes?and?nature?of?these?are?shown?in?Table? 5-1,因此,这个词是用来形容病毒细菌、真菌、原生动物和一些藻类相对大小和特性的显示于表格5:1,?? However,?there?are?a?few?exceptions?for?example,?the?fruiting?bodies?of?many ?fungi?such?as?mushrooms?are?frequently?visible?to?the?naked?eye；?equally,? some?algae?can?grow?to?meters?in?length.?Generally,?microbes?may?be?consider ed?as?fairly?simple?organisms.然而,有少数例外,例如,果期的尸体等许多真菌蘑菇经常是肉眼能看得见的;同样,有些藻类能长到米长。一般来说,微生物可以被看作是相当简单的生物体?? Most?of?the?bacteria?and?protozoa?and?some?of?the?algae?and?fungi?are?single ?celled?microorganisms,?and?even?the?multi-celled?microbes?do?not?have?a?gre at?range?of?cell?types.?Viruses?are?not?even?cells,?just?genetic?material?su rrounded?by?a?protein?coat,?and?are?incapable?of?independent?existence.大部分的细菌和原生动物和一些藻类和真菌是单细胞微生物,甚至没有大范围的细胞类型的微生物。病毒甚至没有细胞,就遗传物质包围在蛋白质外衣,不能独立存在。?? The?science?of?microbiology?did?not?start?until?the?invention?of?the?microsc ope?in?the?mid?16th?century?and?it?was?not?until?the?late?17th?century?that? Robert?Hooke?and?Antoine?van?Leeuwenhoek?made?their?first?records?of?fungi,? bacteria?and?protozoa.微生物学的科学直到16th世纪中期直到17th世纪后期罗伯特虎克和安东尼·范·列文虎克显微镜的发明才开始——使用显微镜首次记录的真菌、细菌和原生动物 The?late?19th?century?was?the?time?when?the?first?real?breakthroughs?on?the? role?of?microbes?in?the?environment?nd?medicine?were?made.19th世纪后期是第一个真正的突破的作用在环境医学微生物日。?Louis?Pasteur?disproved?the?theory?of?spontaneous?generation?(?that?liv ing?organisms?spontaneously?arose?from?inorganic?materiaD?and?Robert?Koch's? development?of?pure?culture?techniques?allowed?him?to?show?unequivocally?tha t?a?bacterium?was?respon?sible?for?a?particular?disease.?路易·巴斯德否定自然发生的理论,从无机生物自发产生的资料),并且把罗伯特·科赫纯培养技术的发展使他毫不含糊地表明,一种细菌被响应为一个特定的疾病。Since?then?the?science?has?grown?dramatically?as?microbiology?impinges?on?aI L?aspects?of?life?and?the?environment.自从那时起,科学已经大幅增长,因为微生物在生活的各个方面,保护我们的环境? ?Within?the?microbial?world?can?be?found?two?different?categories?of?CEll?ty pe?,?Prokaryole?and?eukaryole.在微生物世界可以发现两个不同的认同范畴的细胞类型,原核细胞和真核细胞。?Bacteria?are?Prokaryoies?:?theylack?a?distinct?nuclear?membrane,the?org anelles?associated?with?energy?generation?,such?as?mitochondria?and?chloroph lasts,and?complex?internal?membrane,?such?as?endoplasmic?reticulum?and?Golgi ?apparatus,?which?are?faund?in?euharyotes.原核细菌他们缺少清晰的核膜,与能源相关的细胞器如线粒体和叶绿体和复杂的内部膜,如内质网和高尔基体是真核细胞所发现。??Although?the?basic?mechanisms?of?DNA?replication,?RNA?ynthesis?and?pro tein?synthesis?are?the?same?in?both?prokaryotes?and?eukaryotes,there?are?in? the?components,?and?enzymes?involved.?These?are?discussed?in?the?appropriate ?topics.??虽然基本机制的DNA复制, 历史老照片不能说的秘密慈禧军阀明末清初文革晚清 在两个原核生物和真核生物RNA合成配位化合物和蛋白质合成是相同的,在组成、酶参与。这些都是在适当的讨论话题。?? ?Food.?Microbes?have?been?used?for?thousands?of?years,?in?many?processes,to? produce?food,?from?brewing?and?wine?making,?through?cheese?production?and?br ead?making,?to?the??manufacture?of?soy?sauce.微生物已经使用了数千年之久,在许多过程中产生的食物,从酿造葡萄酒的制作过程,通过奶酪生产和面包制作、生产酱油。?At?the?other?end?of?the?scale,?microbes?are?responsible?for?food?spoila ge?,?and?diseast?causing?microbes?are?frequently?carried?on?food.?在另一端的规模、微生物负责食物变质,致病微生物经常进行的食物。? ??Biotechnology.?Traditionally?microbes?have?been?used?to?synthesize?many?im portant?chemicals?such?as?acetone?and?acetic?acid.传统的微生物已经被用于许多重要的化工如丙酮、乙酸的合成。?More?recently,?the?advent?of?genetic?engineering?techniques?has?led?to? the?cloning?of?pharmaceuticallv?important?polypeptides?into?microbes,?which? may?be?produced?on?a?large?scale.??最近,遗传工程技术的出现导致了微生物克隆制药地重要的多肽微生物,which?may?then?be?produced?on?a?large?scale.这可能会大规模地生产。。? ?Research,?microbes?have?been?used?extensively?as?model?,?organisms?for?the? investigation?of?biochemical?and?genetical?processes?as?they?are?much?easier ?to?work?with?than?more?complex??animals?and?plants.?研究,微生物已被广泛用于 模型、生物调查与生化和遗传过程要比更复杂的动物和植物运转容易得多,。Millions?of?copies?of?the?same?single?cell?can?be?produced?in?large?numbers? very?quickly?and?at?low?cost?to?give?plenty?of?hornogeneous?experimental?mat erial?。And?additional?advaatage?is?that?most?people?have?no?ethical?objections?to?e xperiments?with?these?microorganisms.?数百万份相同的单个细胞能产生大量的、低成本的基因型很快给足够的同质试验资料和这些微生物额外的优势是,大多数的人都没有任何伦理反对实验。 Managemengt Information Systems By a management information system,we propose the follow alternate definition: an integrated uer/machine system (usually computerized) for providing information to support decision making in an enterprise. The key elements of this definition are —An integrated uer/machine system —For proving information —To support decision making —In an enterprise A management information system utilizes —Computer hardware and software —Manual procedures —Models for analysis —A database Just as there is a logical flow of materials in the creation of a product, there is logical flow of information in a management information system.In manufacturing,raw materials move through a process that transforms the raw materials into usable products. In a similar fashion, in an information system,data are supplied to a system(input), the data are manipulated(processed),and they are transformed into information(output).In its simplest form ,a management information systemed may be depicted by an input-process-output(IPO) model Lesson eight 第八课 Ⅱ.翻译句子，并注意remain和above的词类和词义 2. In this case the voltage applied must remain unchanged. 在这种情况下，那个应用电压必须保持不变 4. If you take 3 from 8, 5 remain. 如果从8中拿走3，剩5. 6. The above property was discovered by Faraday. 法拉第发现以上性质。 8. Lenz states that the self-induced emf impedes any change of current and tends to support the former current value. The above is known as Lenz’s law. 楞茨陈述自感电动势阻止电流的变化而保持先前电流的值。上面就是我们所知的楞 次定律。 Ⅲ.翻译句子，注意some的词义 2. That radio receiver weighs some five kilograms. 那个无线接收器重五公斤。 4. Some element in the substance is not known. 物质中的一些元素是人们不知道的。 Ⅳ.翻译句子，注意句中one 的不同用法和词义。 2. This concept was discussed in Chapter One. 这个概念在第一张讨论过。 4. No one can lift this equipment. 没人能举起这件设备。 6. This chapter will deal with one of the three functions of a turning circuit. 这章我们将介绍螺旋电路三个功能中的一个。 8. Before one studies a system, it is necessary to define and discuss some important terms. 在研究一个系统之前，确定且讨论一些重要的术语是有必要的。 Ⅴ.画出句中的名词从句，说明其种类，并将句子译成汉语。 2. These experiments do not show which particles. 这些实验不能显示他们的粒子结构。 4. The operating point is determined by how much bias is used. 操作要点是被用多少偏压决定的。 6. It is not important how this voltage is produced. 这个电压是怎么产生的并不重要。 8. It may be questioned whether this approach is the best for the physicist. 这种方式最适合于医生可能会被质疑。 10. This ball may be used to determine whether that body is charged. 这个球可能用于检测是否身体是带电的。 12. It is known that charged particles emit electromagnetic waves whenever they are accelerated. 众所周知的当电子被加速他们就会发射电磁波。 14. The value of this factor determines how fast the amplitude of the current Unit 1 Production of Drugs About 5000 antibiotics have already been isolated from microorganisms，but of these only somewhat fewer than 100 are in therapeutic use. It must be remembered，however，that many derivatives have been modified by partial synthesis for therapeutic use;some 50，000 agents have been semisynthetically obtained from户lactams alone in the last decade. Fermentations are carried out in stainless steel fermentors with volumes up to 400 m3. To avoid contamination of the microorganisms with phages etc. the whole process has to be performed under sterile conditions. Since the more important fermentations occur exclusively under aerobic conditions a good supply of oxygen or air(sterile)is needed. Carbon dioxide sources include carbohydrates，e. g. molasses，saccharides，and glucose. Additionally the microorganisms must be supplied in the growth medium with nitrogen-containing compounds such as ammonium sulfate，ammonia，or urea，as well as with inorganic phosphates. Furthermore，constant optimal pH and temperature are required. In the case of penicillin G，the fermentation is finished after 200 hours，and the cell mass is separated by filtration. The desired active agents are isolated from the filtrate by absorption or extraction processes. The cell mass，if not the desired product，can be further used as an animal feedstuff owing to its high protein content. 关于5000抗生素已经分离出的微生物，但其中只有不到100有些治疗使用。必须记住，但是，许多衍生工具已被用于治疗使用部分合成修改;约50,000剂已被semisynthetically取得户内酰胺在过去十年孤独。发酵都是在不锈钢发酵罐出来的量高达400立方米。为了避免与噬菌体等微生物污染的全过程都必须在无菌条件下进行。由于更重要的发酵只发生在有氧条件下的氧气或空气好电源（无菌）是必要的。二氧化碳的来源包括碳水化合物，大肠杆菌克糖蜜，糖和葡萄糖。另外必须提供的微生物在与含氮如硫酸铵，氨水或尿素化合物生长介质，以及与无机磷酸盐。此外，不断最适pH和温度是必需的。在青霉素G的情况下，发酵完成200小时后，细胞的质量是由过滤分离。所需的活性剂是隔离的滤液吸收或提取工艺。大规模的细胞，如果不理想的产品，可进一步用作动物，由于其蛋白质含量高的饲料。 By modern recombinant techniques microorganisms have been obtained which also allow production of peptides which were not encoded in the original genes. Modified E. coli bacteria make it thus possible to produce A- and B- chains of human insulin or proinsulin analogs. The disulfide bridges are formed selectively after isolation，and the final purification is effected by chromatographic procedures. In this way human insulin is obtained totally independently from any pancreatic material taken from animals. Other important peptides，hormones，and enzymes，such as human growth hormone (HGH)，neuroactive peptides，somatostatin，interferons，tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)，lymphokines，calcium regulators like calmodulin，protein vaccines，as well as monoclonal antibodies used as diagnostics，are synthesized in this way. 利用现代微生物重组技术已获得这也让其中不是在原来的基因编码多肽的生产。改性大肠杆菌从而使可能产生A型和B -人胰岛素或胰岛素原类似物链。二硫键形成的选择性分离后，最终由色谱净化工序的影响。通过这种方式获得的人类胰岛素完全独立采取任何从动物胰腺材料。 其他重要肽，激素和酶，如人类生长激素（hGH），神经活性肽，生长抑素，干扰素，组织型纤溶酶原激活物（tPA），淋巴因子，如钙调节钙调蛋白，蛋白疫苗，以及作为诊断用单克隆抗体是合成了这种方式。 The enzymes or enzymatic systems which are present in a single microorganism can be used for directed stereospecific and regiospecific chemical reactions. This principle is especially useful in steroid chemistry. Here we may refer only to the microbiological 11-a- hydro xylation of progesterone to 11-a-hydroxyprogesterone，a key product used in the synthesis of cortisone. Isolated enzymes are important today not only because of the technical importance of the enzymatic saccharification of starch，and the isomerization of glucose to fructose，They are also significant in the countless test procedures used in diagnosing illness，and in enzymatic analysis which is used in the monitoring of therapy. A number of enzymes are themselves used as active ingredients. Thus preparations containing proteases (e. g. chymotrypsin，pepsin，and trypsin)，amylases and lipases，mostly in combination with synthetic antacids，promote digestion. Streptokinase and urokinase are important in thrombolytics，and asparaginase is used as a cytostatic agent in the treatment of leukemia. 这些酶或微生物在一个单一的酶系统，目前可用于立体定向和regiospecific化学反应。这个原则是有用的，尤其是在化学类固醇。在这里，我们只能引用的微生物十一水电黄体酮xylation至11人羟，一个关键的产品在可的松合成。隔离酶是重要的，不仅因为淀粉的酶法糖化技术重要性的今天，和葡萄糖异构果糖，他们也都在无数次试验在诊断疾病所用的程序显着，在酶的分析，在使用监测治疗。 数量的酶本身作为活性成分。因此，含有蛋白酶制剂（如糜蛋白酶，胃蛋白酶和胰蛋白酶），淀粉酶和脂肪酶的合成主要是在与抗酸药相结合，促进消化。链激酶和尿激酶溶栓是重要的，是天冬酰胺酶在治疗白血病细胞生长剂。 Finally mention must be made of the important use of enzymes as `biocatalysts’in chemical reactions where their 专业英语 一、专业术语 RFID射频识别IOT物联网Cloud Computing云计算ANN神经网络BI商业智能E-business /Web-business / e-commerce电子商务KM知识管理GIS地理信息系统PDA掌上电脑Bluetooth蓝牙技术CAD计算机辅助设计CMD计算机辅助制作branch manager部门经理binary format二进制格式USB（Universal Serial Bus）通用串行总线computer case计算机机箱 temporary storage of information临时存储信息floppy disk软盘CD-ROM只读光盘textual源代码video card视频卡，显卡sound card音频卡，声卡 DVD数字化视频光盘SISP战略信息系统计划Project Management项目管理Human Resources人力资源End-User Systems Development最终用户系统开发rolling business plans流动业务计划MIS(management information system)管理信息系统DB（database）数据库DBMS（database Management system）数据库管理系统DSS（decision support system）决策支持系统operational manager运营经理Senior manager 高级经理semi-structured decision半结构化决策 ANS（Advanced Network&Service）高级网络及服务公司 TPS（Transaction Processing systems）事务管理系统 KWS（Knowledge Work Systems）只是工作系统GRASP绘制机器人技术应用软件包OAS（Office Automation Systems）办公自动化系统 ESS（Executive Support Systems）经理支持系统 EIS（Executive Information Systems）经理信息系统 OLAP（on-line analytical processing）联机分析处理 GIS（Group Information Systems）集群信息系统 GDSS（Group Decision Support Systems）集群决策支持系统 MIT（Management Information technology）管理信息技术 RAD（rapid application development）快速应用开发 Two-way communications 双工通讯client-server environment 客户服务环境Data warehouse 数据仓库logistics information systems 物流信息系统 ERP（Enterprise resource planning）企业资源规划 CRM（customer relationship Management）客户关系管理 OOD（Object-Oriented design）面向对象设计 OOP（Object0Oriented Programming）面向对象编程 HLLs（High Level Languages）高级语言ADTs（Abstract Data Types）抽象数据类型Software Ics软件的组成单元machine code机器码op-code输出码 EDI（Electronic Data interchange）电子数据交换 SMEs（small and medium sized enterprises）中小企业 B2B企业对企业电子商务B2C企业对用户电子商务 CERT(Character Error Rate Tester)字符出错率测试器 CIAS（Communication Link Analyzer System）通信链路分析系统 IMS（Information Management System）管理信息系统 NDMS（Netware Data Management System）网络数据管理系统 果粒橙 图解:译文“蓝色” Unit 6 The Principle of PCM PCM原理 Pcm is dependent on three separate operations, sampling, quantizing, and coding. Many different schemes for performing these three functions have evolved during recent years, and we shall describe the main ones. In these descriptions we shall see how a speech channel of telephone quality may be conveyed as a series of amplitude values, each value being represented, that is, coded as a sequence of 8 binary digits. Furthermore, we shall prove that a minimum theoretical sampling frequency of order 6.8 kilohertz(khz) is required to convey a voice channel occupying the range 300 HZ to 3.4 Khz. Practical equipments, however, normally use3 a sampling rate of 8 khz, and if 8-digits per sample value are used, the voice channel becomes represented by a stream of pulses with a repetition rate of 64khz. Fig .1-1 illustrates the sampling, quantizing, and coding processes. PCM的构成依赖于三个环节，即采样、量化和编码。近年来，人们对这三个环节的实现提出了许多不同的方案，我们将对其中的一些主要的方案进行讨论。在这些讨 论中，我们会看到话路中的语声信号是如何转换成幅值序列的，而每个幅值又被编码，即以8位二进制数的序列表示。而且，我们将证明，为了转换频率范围为300HZ— 3.4KHZ的话路信号，理论上最小采样频率须为6.8khz。但是，实际设备通常用8khz 的采样速率，而如果每个样值用8位码的话，则话路是由一个重复速率为64khz的脉 冲流来表示的。图1-1表示了采样、量化、编码的过程。 Reexamination of our simple example shows us that the speech signal of maximum frequency 3.4khz has been represented by a signal of frequency 64khz. However, if only 4-digits per sample value had been used, the quality of transmission would drop, and the repetition rate of the pulses would be reduced to 32khz. Thus the quality of transmission is dependent on the pulse repetition rate, and for digital communication systems these two variables may be interchanged most efficiently. 让我们再研究一下上面提到的简单例子。可以看出，最高频率为3.4khz的话音信号适用64khz的（脉冲流）信号来表示的。但是，如果每个样值中用4位（码）表示，则传输质量会下降，而脉冲的重复速率也将减小到32khz。因而传输质量是取决于脉 冲重复速率的。对于数字通信系统，这两个量之间极明显的互相影响着。 Digital transmission provides a powerful method for overcoming noisy environments. Noise can be introduced into transmission patch in many different ways : perhaps via a nearby lightning strike, the sparking of a car ignition system, or the thermal low-level noise within the communication equipment itself. It is the relationship of the true signal to the noise signal, known as the signal-to-noise ratio, which is of the most interest to the communication engineer.Basically, if the signal is very large compared to the noise level, then a perfect message can take place; however, this is not always the case. For example, the signal received from a PART 3 INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY Unit 11 Tablets (The Pharmaceutical Tablets Dosage Form) Role in Therapy The oral route of drug administration is the most important method of administering drugs for systemic effects. Except in cases of Insulin therapy，the parenteral route is not routinely used for self-administration of medications. The topical route of administration has only recently been employed to deliver drugs to the body for systemic effects，with two classes of marketed products: Nitroglycerin硝酸甘油酯for the treatment of angina心绞痛and scopolamine莨菪胺for the treatment of motion sickness晕动病，指晕车、晕船等. Other drugs are certain to follow，but the topical route of administration is limited in its ability to allow effective drug absorption for systemic drug action. The parenteral route of administration is important in treating medical emergencies in which a subject is comatose昏迷的or cannot swallow，and in providing various types of maintenance therapy for hospitalized patients. Nevertheless，it is probable that at least 90 % of all drugs used to produce systemic effects are administered投药，给药by the oral route. When a new drug is discovered，one of the first questions a pharmaceutical company asks is whether or not drug can be effectively administered for its intended effect by the oral route. If it cannot，the drug is primarily relegated to被降级到administration in a hospital setting or physician's office. If patient self- administration cannot be achieved，the sales of the drug constitute only a small fraction of what the market would be otherwise. Of drugs that are administered orally，solid oral dosage forms represent the preferred class of product. The reasons for this preference are as follows. Tablets and capsules represent unit dosage forms in which one usual dose of the drug has been accurately placed. By comparison相比之下，liquid oral dosage forms，such as syrups，suspensions，emulsions，solutions，and elixirs，are usually designed to contain one dose of medication in 5 to 30 ml. The patient is then asked to measure his or her own medication using a teaspoon， 第三部分工业药剂学 第11单元药片(医药的片剂剂型) 在治疗中的作用 口服给药途径是通过给药获得全身作用效果中最重要的方法。除了胰岛素疗法之外，肠外给药途径通常不用于（病人的）自主性用药。而局部给药途径则是在最近才被用来把药物送到体内从而产生全身作用。这种途径有两种上市产品：用于治疗心绞痛的硝酸甘油酯和用于治疗晕动病的莨菪胺。今后肯定还会有其他的药物相继出现，但是局部给药的途径在有效的药物吸收从而获得全身性药物作用方面仍有其局限性。在病人处于昏迷状态或病人不能吞咽的医疗急救处理中，肠外给药途径是很重要的，同时它也给住院的病人提供了各种不同类型的维持疗法。然而，可能至少有90%的被用于产生全身作用的药物是通过口服的途径给药的。当一种新的药物被研发出来的时候，制药公司问的第一个问题就是这种药物能否有效地通过口服给药途径来达到预期的效果。如果不能，那么这种药物就要被降级到医院或者医生的办公室里。如果病人的自主用药不能实现，那么（这种）药物的销量就会是能实现病人的自主用药的药物销量的很少一部分。在所有通过口服来给药的药物当中，固体口服制剂是（人们）偏爱的产品种类。其原因如下：药片和胶囊代表着单元剂量的形式，其中通常已经放置好了一个剂量的药物。相应地，液体口服制剂，比如说糖浆、悬浮液、乳剂、溶液和酏剂，则通常被设计成在5-30 ml （液体中）包含一个剂量的药物。病人会被要求用茶匙、调羹或其他测量装置来衡量他自己的用药量。病人自己用药时这种剂量测量方法，其误差范围通常 管理的角色和技能 管理角色 亨利·明茨伯格对执行者行为的研究让他得出这样的结论:经理都需要承担大量的角色。一个角色是一组预期的行为对一个特定的位置。明茨伯格的角色可以分为三大类如图1.1所示:信息角色(管理信息);人际角色(管理通过人)和决策角色(管理行动)。每个角色代表活动经理承担最终完成的功能规划、组织、领导、控制。重要的是要记住,真正的工作的管理不能练习作为一组独立的部分;所有的角色交互的方式在现实世界的管理。 图1.1 管理角色 信息角色描述活动用来维持和发展一个信息网络。这三个信息角色监督者、传播者和发言人。监督者涉及从许多来源寻求当前的信息。经理获得信息来自他人和扫描书面材料来保持消息灵通。传播者和发言人的角色是正好相反。经理把当前信息传递给他人,内部和外部的组织,才能使用它。与授权趋势的低级别员工,很多经理都共享尽可能丰富的信息。 由于人际角色让经理们被叫去与众多组织和个人交互。这三个人际角色是挂名首脑、领袖和交流与合作者。这个挂名首脑角色专注于管理正式的和象征性的活动的部门或组织。经理代表本组织在他或她作为单位的负责人的正式管理能力。领导的作用是指经理的工作在激励下属,以满足单位的目标。交流与合作者的作用来自于经理的责任与各种团体在组织内外交流。一个例子是一个面对面讨论控制器和计划主管之间解决关于预算的一种误解。 决策角色指管理的决策过程。这些角色通常需要概念以及人类的技能。这四种管理角色都属于这一类企业家,障碍处理者,资源分配者,谈判代表。一个管理者承担一个企业家的角色当他或她启动项目来提高部门或工作单位时。当问题比如错过了交付关键客户的出现,经理必须采用一个障碍处理的角色。决定如何分配单位的金钱、时间、材料和其他资源,称为经理的资源分配角色。最后,谈判者角色指的是这种情况,经理必须代表单位和其他人的利益,如供应商、客户和政府。 A business survives and thrives on information: information within the organization and information changed with suppliers, customers,and regulators. Moreover, the information needs to be consistent, accessible, and at the right location. We consider information in four forms-voice, data, image, and video-and the implications of distributed requirements. The term voice communications refers primarily to telephone related communications. By far the most common form of communication in any organization and for most personnel is direct telephone conversation. The telephone has been a basic tool of business for decades. Telephone communications has recently been enhanced by a variety of computer-based services, including voice mail and computerized telephone exchange systems. V oice mail provides the ability to send, forward , and reply to voice messages nonsimultaneously , and it has become a cost-efficient tool even for many midsize organizations. It provides saving on answering machines and services as well as more responsive service to customers and suppliers. Advances have also been made in computerized telephone exchange systems, including in-house digital private branch exchanges(PBX) and Centrex systems provided by the local telephone company. These new systems provide a host of features, including call forwarding, call waiting, least-cost routing of long-distance calls, and a variety of accounting and auditing features. The term data communications is sometimes used to refer to virtually any form of information transfer other than voice. It is sometimes convenient to limit this term to information in the form of text(such as reports, memos, and other documents) and numerical data(such as accounting files). The rapid changes in technology have created fresh challenges for management in making effective use of data communications. We will briefly outline the changes in technology in transmission, networks, and communications software that present the manager with new powerful business tools but also the necessity of making choices among complex alternatives. 一个企业生存和蓬勃发展的信息：在改变与供应商，客户和监管机构的组织和信息的信息。此外，对信息的需求是一致的，访问，并在合适的位置。我们认为，在四种形式的语音，数据，图像，视频和分布式需求的影响的信息。 长期的语音通信，主要是指以电话相关的通讯。迄今为止最常见的沟通形式中的任何组织和大多数工作人员是直接的电话交谈。电话已几十年来的基本的业务工具。电话通讯最近已加强各种以计算机为基础的服务，包括语音邮件和程控电话交换系统。语音信箱提供的能力，发送，转发和回复语音邮件nonsimultaneously，它已成为一个成本效益的工具，甚至许多中小型组织。提供节省答录机和服务，以及更快捷的服务客户和供应商。程控电话交换系统，包括内部数字专用分支交换机（PBX）和本地电话公司提供的Centrex系统也取得了进展。这些新系统提供主机的功能，包括呼叫转接，呼叫等待，长途电话的最低成本路由，各种会计和审计功能。 长期的数据通信有时被用来指几乎任何其他信息传输比语音形式。有时可以很方便限制这个术语在文本形式的信息（如报告，备忘录和其他文件）和数字数据（如会计档案）。已创建管理新的挑战，在有效地利用数据通信技术的迅速变化。我们将简要概述在传输技术的变化，网络和通信软件，经理提出新的强大的商业工具，但也使复杂的替代品之间的选择的必要性。 这里汇聚了计算机和网络技术领域的大部分英语词汇和详细解说，如果要查询相关词汇，你可以点此word文档工具栏的“编辑”，找到“查找”，然后点开输入你要查询的词汇就可以查询了。 A AAIMS（An Analytical Information Management System）分析信息管理系统 Abacus 算盘 Access security 存取安全 Access time 存取时间 Active 有源的 Ada programming language Ada 程序设计语言 Adapter 适配器 Adapter card 转接卡 Add-on 外接式附件 Address 地址 ADSL(Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) 非对称数字客户线路 After-image record 残留影像记录 Algorithm 算法 Alpha testing ɑ测试 3 Alteration switch 变换开关 ALU(Arithmetic/Logic Unit)运算器 Amplitude 幅度 Analog data 模拟数据 Analog cellular 模拟移动电话 Analog signal 模拟信号 Analysis block 分析块 Animation 动画制作 ANSL(American National Standards Label)美国国家标准标号 Answerback memory 应答存储器 Anti-noise coding 反噪声编码 Antivirus software 反病毒软件 APL(A Programming Language) APL 语言 Application development cycle 应用开发周期 Application program 应用程序 4 Application software 应用软件 Arithmetic operation 算术运算 ARP(Automatic Receive Program)自动接受程序 Artificial network 仿真网络 ASCII(American standard Code for Information Interchange)美国信息交 换用标准代码 Assembler 汇编程序 Assembly language 汇编语言 Asynchronous 异步的管理信息系统中英文翻译资料
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