Developing drugs from traditional medicinal plants
Over three quarters of the world's population relies mainly on plants and plant extracts for health care .Approximately one third of the prescription drugs in the US contain plant components, and more than 120 important prescription drugs are derived from plants. Most of these drugs were developed because of their use in traditional medicine. Economically, this represents $8000-10,000M of annual consumer spending. Recent World Health Organization (WHO) studies indicate that over 30 per cent of the world's plant species have at one time or another been used for medicinal purposes. Of the 250,000 higher plant species on Earth, more than 80,000 species are medicinal. Although traditional medicine is widespread throughout the world , it is an integral part of each individual culture. Its practice is based mainly on traditional beliefs handed down from generation to generation for hundreds or even thousands of years. Unfortunately, much of this ancient knowledge and many valuable plants are being lost at an alarming rate. The scientific study of traditional medicines and the systematic preservation of medicinal plants are thus of great importance.
For quite a long time, the only way to use plant medicines was either direct application or the use of crude plant extracts. With the development of organic chemistry at the beginning of this century, extraction and fractionation techniques improved significantly. It became possible to isolate and identify many of the active chemicals from plants. In the 1940s, advances in chemical synthesis enabled the synthesis of many plant components and their derivatives. In western countries, it was thought that chemical synthesis of drugs would be more effective and economical than isolation from natural sources. Indeed, this is true in many cases. However, in many other cases, synthetic analogues are not as effective as their natural counterparts. In addition, some synthetic drugs cost many times more than natural ones. Inspired by these realisations, coupled with the fact that many drugs with complex structures may be totally impossible to synthesise, there is now a resurgent trend of returning to natural resources for drug development
Important prescription drugs from plants
Ephedrine is the oldest and most classic example of a prescription drug developed from a traditional medicinal plant. It is derived from Ma Huang , a leafless shrub. Used to relieve asthma and hay fever in China for over 5000 years, it was introduced into western medicine in 1924 by Chen and Schmidt. Ephedrine is an alkaloid closely related to adrenaline, the major product of the adrenal gland. Pharmacologically, Ephedrine is used
extensively to stimulate increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system. It is used as a pressor agent to counteract hypotension associated with anaesthesia, and as a nasal decongestant. The drug action of this medicine is based both on its direct effect on [alpha] and [beta] adrenergic receptors and on the release of endogenous noradrenaline.
Digitalis is one of the most frequently used medications in the treatment of heart failure and arrhythmia. It increases the contractility of the heart muscle and modifies vascular resistance. It also slows conduction through the atrioventricular node in the heart, making it useful in the treatment of atrial fibrillation and other rapid heart rhythms.
Digitalis is found in the leaves and seeds of Digitalis purpurea and Digitalis lanata, commonly known as the foxglove plant. Foxglove has been used in traditional medicine in many parts of the world - by African natives as arrow poisons, by the ancient Egyptians as heart medicine, and by the Romans as a diuretic, heart tonic, emetic and rat poison. The Chinese, who found this ingredient not only in plants but also in the dry skin and venom of the common toad, used it for centuries as a cardiac drug. In the western world, the foxglove was first mentioned in 1250 in the writing of a physician, Walsh, and it was described botanically in the 1500s.
Digitalis is a glycoside containing an aglycone, or genin, linked to between one and four sugar molecules. The pharmacological activity resides in the aglycone, whereas the sugar residues affect the solubility and potency of the drug. The aglycone is structurally related to bile acids, sterols, sex hormones and adrenocortical hormones.
d-Tubocurarine and its derivatives are the most frequently used drugs in operating rooms to provide muscle relaxation and prevent muscle spasm. These agents interrupt the transmission of the nerve impulse at the skeletal neuromuscular junction. Curare, the common name for South American arrow poisons, has a long and interesting history. It has been used for centuries by Indians along the Amazon and Orinoco rivers for hunting. It causes paralysis of the skeletal muscles of animals and finally results in death. The methods of curare preparation were a secret entrusted only to tribal doctors. Soon after their discovery of the American continent, European explorers became interested in curare. In the late 16th century, samples of native preparations were brought to Europe for investigation. Curare, an alkaloid (see Figure), was found in various species of Strychnos and certain species of Chondrodendron. The first use of curare for muscle relaxation was reported in 1942 by Griffith and Johnson. This drug offers optimal muscular relaxation without the use
of high doses of anaesthetics. It thus emerged as the chief drug for use in tracheal intubation and during surgery.
Vinblastine and vincristine (see Figure) are two of the most potent antitumour drugs. They are obtained from Catharanthus roseus, commonly known as the rosy periwinkle. This plant, indigenous to Madagascar, is also cultivated in India, Israel and the US. It was originally examined for clinical use because of its traditional use in treating diabetis. The leaves and roots of this plant contain more than 100 alkaloids. Fractionation of these extracts yields four active alkaloids: vinblastine, vincristine, vinleurosine and vinresidine. These alkaloids are asymmetric dimeric compounds referred to as vinca alkaloids, but of these, only vinblastine and vincristine are clinically important antitumour agents.[9] These two alkaloids are cell-cycle specific agents that block mitosis (cell division). Vincristine sulphate is used to treat acute leukaemia in children and lymphocytic leukaemia. It is also effective against Wilm's tumour, neuroblastoma. rhabdomyosarcoma (tumour of voluntary or striped muscle cells), reticulum cells sarcoma and Hodgkin's disease. Vinblastine sulphate is used in the treatment of Hodgkin's disease, lymphosarcoma, choriocarcinoma, neuroblastoma, carcinoma of breast, lung and other organs, and in acute and chronic leukaemia
Emerging plant medicines
Artemisinin is the most recent anti-malaria drug developed from
plant-based traditional medicine. It is isolated from the leaves and flowers of Artemisia annua L. (Compositae), commonly known as the sweet wormwood, a cousin of tarragon. Indigenous to China, the extract of this plant is traditionally known as the qinghao. It has been used to treat malaria in China for over 2000 years. Its active component, artemisinin, was first isolated in the 1970s by Chinese scientists. Unlike quinine and chloroquine, this compound is non-toxic, rapid in effect, and safe for pregnant women. Furthermore, it is effective against
chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria and in patients with cerebral malaria. It kills the parasites directly so parasitaemia is quickly controlled. This work was confirmed by the WHO in Africa and other parts of Southeast Asia.
Artemisinin is an endoperoxide of the sesquiterpene lactone. The structure of this compound is too complex to be synthesised effectively. Artemisia is also found in many parts of the US, abudantly along the Potomac River in Washington DC, but the drug content of these varieties is only about half that of the Chinese variety. Currently, the WHO and the US are jointly engaged in the cultivation of Chinese Artemisia for
worldwide use. The recent development offers renewed hope for using traditional medicine to provide new drugs for future medicines
从传统发展药品药用的植物
在世界上有四分之三的人口主要依靠植物和植物提取物的保健作用。大约三分之一的处方药物在美国含有植物成分,超过个重要的处方药都源自植物。大多数这类的药物都被开发,因为他们使用的传统中药。从经济上来说,这代表了$ 8000 - 10000米的年度消费者消费。最近世界卫生组织(WHO)的研究显示,超过世界上30%的植物物种在同一时间或另一种被用于药用的目的。250000年的高等植物物种在地球上,超过80000种,药用。虽然传统医药是普遍的整个世界,它是不可分割的一部分,每一个个体文化。它的实践是主要基于传统信仰世世代代相传为数百甚至数千年之久。不幸的是,许多这样的古代知识和许多珍贵的植物正在丧失的速度快得令人担忧。传统的药物的科学研究和系统保护药用植物是如此的重要性
在相当长的一段时间,唯一的方式来使用药物或者被直接应用植物或使用天然植物提取物。有机化学的发展,本世纪初,提取和分离技术有显著的提高。就可以孤立,还能鉴别出很多植物的活性化学物质。在1940年代,先进的化学合成使许多植物成分的合成及其衍生物。在西方国家,人们认为化学合成药物更有效和经济比孤立从自然资源中。事实上,这是真实的,在许多情况下。然而,在很多其他的情况下,合成类似物是效果不如他们自然的同行。此外,一些合成药物成本的次数比自然的本性。这
些realisations灵感,加上这一事实,就是许多药物可能完全不可能实现复杂结构的增加,现在有一个复苏的趋势回归自然资源的有效药物
麻黄素是最古老和最典型的发展从一个传统的处方药药用植物。它是源自于马黄,一个光秃秃的灌木。用于减轻哮喘、花粉热在中国5000多年,它被引进西医在1924年由陈和施密特。麻黄素密切相关,是一种生物碱的肾上腺素、主要产物的肾上腺。药物、麻黄素是广泛地用来刺激的活动增加交感神经系统。它被用作升压剂,以抵消低血压麻醉相关,并作为一个鼻充血。这药药物作用的基础是对其直接影响都[α]和[β]肾上腺素受体和释放内源性去甲肾上腺素
洋地黄是其中一个最常用的药物治疗心力衰竭和心律失常。它增加了的心肌收缩血管阻力和修改。它也减慢传导通过传导节点的心,使它有用的治疗房颤和其他快速心律
发现洋地黄叶片和种子的生理指标和洋地黄purpurea洋地黄,俗称毛地黄的植物。毛地黄已经应用于中药在世界上许多地方- - -如箭般地非洲土著毒药,古埃及人称为心内科,罗马人作为利尿、心脏主音,emetic 和毒鼠药。中国,他们发现这不仅在植物成分,而且在乾燥肌肤并使毒液常见的蛤蟆,用它数百年来作为一个心脏药物。在西方世界,这是第一次提到1250年毛地黄的书写方式中,一位医生,沃尔什探长,从植物学角度,介绍了在1500年代
洋地黄苷素是一种含有或genin与1 ~ 4糖分子。药理活性存在于素,而糖溶解残留影响和效力的毒品。素相关的结构胆酸、甾醇、性激素和肾上腺皮质激素
d-Tubocurarine及其衍生物是最常用药物在手术室提供放松肌肉,防
止肌肉痉挛。这些药物中断的传输的骷髅神经冲动在神经肌肉接头。Curare,通用名称为南美洲箭毒药,具有悠久的历史。它已经被使用了几个世纪由印度人亚马孙河和奥里诺科河河来打猎。它引起骨骼肌瘫痪的动物,最后的命令就会招致死亡。方法制备中curare秘密只交托给部落的医生。不久他们发现了美洲大陆,欧洲探险家curare感兴趣。16th
世纪后期,样品准备被带到欧洲本土的调查。Curare,一个生物碱(见图),被发现在不同种类的Strychnos和某些种类的Chondrodendron。在第一次使用的curare放松肌肉被报道和约翰逊在1942年由格里菲思。这种药物提供了最佳肌肉放松不使用高剂量的麻醉。因此成为首席药物用于气管插管和手术。
长春新碱、长春新碱(见图)是两种最有力的抗肿瘤药物。他们得到了roseus Catharanthus,俗称玫瑰色的玉黍螺色。这种植物,产于马达加斯加,也是培养在印度,以色列和美国。它最初是应用于临床检测因其在治疗diabetis传统应用。树叶和根的植物含有超过100生物碱。这些提取分离生物碱产量四活跃:长春新碱、长春新碱、vinleurosine和vinresidine。这些生物碱化合物都不对称dimeric称为vinca生物碱,但其中,只有长春新碱、长春新碱是临床上发生重要的抗肿瘤药物。[9]这两种生物碱是cell-cycle特定药物阻止有丝分裂(即细胞分裂)。长春
新碱硫酸盐是用来治疗急性白血病的儿童和淋巴细胞白血病。它也能有效的对抗Wilm肿瘤、神经母细胞瘤。横纹肌肉瘤(肿瘤细胞自愿或横纹肌),网状组织细胞肉瘤和霍奇金病的疾病。长春新碱硫酸盐是用于治疗霍奇金淋巴瘤lymphosarcoma、绒毛膜癌、神经母细胞瘤,癌,乳腺癌、肺癌和其他器官,在急性和慢性白血病
青蒿素是最近发展起来的植物抗疟疾药物的传统中药。这是孤立的叶子和花在蒿吴红銮(菊科)响应,俗称甜茵蔯,龙蒿的表兄。产于中国的传统提取这种植物是众所周知的qinghao。它一直被用作治疗疟疾在中国2000多年。其活性成分、青蒿素,首先被孤立在1970年代,中国的科学家。不像奎宁和氯喹,该化合物具有无毒、快速有效、安全为怀孕的妇女。此外,它是有效对抗chloroquine-resistant疟原虫疟疾病人和脑疟疾。所以它会杀死寄生虫parasitaemia直接快速控制。这项工作是证实了在非洲和其他东南亚的部分地区
青蒿素是一种endoperoxide为了的内酯。这种化合物的结构是非常复杂的正反两方面更有效。艾也存在许多地区的美国,abudantly沿波多马克河在华盛顿哥伦比亚特区,但是药物含量只有大约一半的这些品种中国的变化。目前,世界卫生组织和美国共同从事中国青蒿栽培的占有率。最近的发展提供了新的希望用传统医药为新药提供未来的药品
Unit 1 Production of Drugs About 5000 antibiotics have already been isolated from microorganisms，but of these only somewhat fewer than 100 are in therapeutic use. It must be remembered，however，that many derivatives have been modified by partial synthesis for therapeutic use;some 50，000 agents have been semisynthetically obtained from户lactams alone in the last decade. Fermentations are carried out in stainless steel fermentors with volumes up to 400 m3. To avoid contamination of the microorganisms with phages etc. the whole process has to be performed under sterile conditions. Since the more important fermentations occur exclusively under aerobic conditions a good supply of oxygen or air(sterile)is needed. Carbon dioxide sources include carbohydrates，e. g. molasses，saccharides，and glucose. Additionally the microorganisms must be supplied in the growth medium with nitrogen-containing compounds such as ammonium sulfate，ammonia，or urea，as well as with inorganic phosphates. Furthermore，constant optimal pH and temperature are required. In the case of penicillin G，the fermentation is finished after 200 hours，and the cell mass is separated by filtration. The desired active agents are isolated from the filtrate by absorption or extraction processes. The cell mass，if not the desired product，can be further used as an animal feedstuff owing to its high protein content. 关于5000抗生素已经分离出的微生物，但其中只有不到100有些治疗使用。必须记住，但是，许多衍生工具已被用于治疗使用部分合成修改;约50,000剂已被semisynthetically取得户内酰胺在过去十年孤独。发酵都是在不锈钢发酵罐出来的量高达400立方米。为了避免与噬菌体等微生物污染的全过程都必须在无菌条件下进行。由于更重要的发酵只发生在有氧条件下的氧气或空气好电源（无菌）是必要的。二氧化碳的来源包括碳水化合物，大肠杆菌克糖蜜，糖和葡萄糖。另外必须提供的微生物在与含氮如硫酸铵，氨水或尿素化合物生长介质，以及与无机磷酸盐。此外，不断最适pH和温度是必需的。在青霉素G的情况下，发酵完成200小时后，细胞的质量是由过滤分离。所需的活性剂是隔离的滤液吸收或提取工艺。大规模的细胞，如果不理想的产品，可进一步用作动物，由于其蛋白质含量高的饲料。 By modern recombinant techniques microorganisms have been obtained which also allow production of peptides which were not encoded in the original genes. Modified E. coli bacteria make it thus possible to produce A- and B- chains of human insulin or proinsulin analogs. The disulfide bridges are formed selectively after isolation，and the final purification is effected by chromatographic procedures. In this way human insulin is obtained totally independently from any pancreatic material taken from animals. Other important peptides，hormones，and enzymes，such as human growth hormone (HGH)，neuroactive peptides，somatostatin，interferons，tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)，lymphokines，calcium regulators like calmodulin，protein vaccines，as well as monoclonal antibodies used as diagnostics，are synthesized in this way. 利用现代微生物重组技术已获得这也让其中不是在原来的基因编码多肽的生产。改性大肠杆菌从而使可能产生A型和B -人胰岛素或胰岛素原类似物链。二硫键形成的选择性分离后，最终由色谱净化工序的影响。通过这种方式获得的人类胰岛素完全独立采取任何从动物胰腺材料。 其他重要肽，激素和酶，如人类生长激素（hGH），神经活性肽，生长抑素，干扰素，组织型纤溶酶原激活物（tPA），淋巴因子，如钙调节钙调蛋白，蛋白疫苗，以及作为诊断用单克隆抗体是合成了这种方式。 The enzymes or enzymatic systems which are present in a single microorganism can be used for directed stereospecific and regiospecific chemical reactions. This principle is especially useful in steroid chemistry. Here we may refer only to the microbiological 11-a- hydro xylation of progesterone to 11-a-hydroxyprogesterone，a key product used in the synthesis of cortisone. Isolated enzymes are important today not only because of the technical importance of the enzymatic saccharification of starch，and the isomerization of glucose to fructose，They are also significant in the countless test procedures used in diagnosing illness，and in enzymatic analysis which is used in the monitoring of therapy. A number of enzymes are themselves used as active ingredients. Thus preparations containing proteases (e. g. chymotrypsin，pepsin，and trypsin)，amylases and lipases，mostly in combination with synthetic antacids，promote digestion. Streptokinase and urokinase are important in thrombolytics，and asparaginase is used as a cytostatic agent in the treatment of leukemia. 这些酶或微生物在一个单一的酶系统，目前可用于立体定向和regiospecific化学反应。这个原则是有用的，尤其是在化学类固醇。在这里，我们只能引用的微生物十一水电黄体酮xylation至11人羟，一个关键的产品在可的松合成。隔离酶是重要的，不仅因为淀粉的酶法糖化技术重要性的今天，和葡萄糖异构果糖，他们也都在无数次试验在诊断疾病所用的程序显着，在酶的分析，在使用监测治疗。 数量的酶本身作为活性成分。因此，含有蛋白酶制剂（如糜蛋白酶，胃蛋白酶和胰蛋白酶），淀粉酶和脂肪酶的合成主要是在与抗酸药相结合，促进消化。链激酶和尿激酶溶栓是重要的，是天冬酰胺酶在治疗白血病细胞生长剂。 Finally mention must be made of the important use of enzymes as `biocatalysts’in chemical reactions where their
第一课 土木工程学土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。他们建造供水和废水处理厂，设计空气净化器和其他设备以最小化甚至消除由工业加工、焚化及其他产烟生产活动引起的空气污染。他们也采用建造特殊倾倒地点或使用有毒有害物中和剂的措施来控制有毒有害废弃物。此外，工程师还对垃圾掩埋进行设计和管理以预防其对周围环境造成污染。
PART 3 INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY Unit 11 Tablets (The Pharmaceutical Tablets Dosage Form) Role in Therapy The oral route of drug administration is the most important method of administering drugs for systemic effects. Except in cases of Insulin therapy，the parenteral route is not routinely used for self-administration of medications. The topical route of administration has only recently been employed to deliver drugs to the body for systemic effects，with two classes of marketed products: Nitroglycerin硝酸甘油酯for the treatment of angina心绞痛and scopolamine莨菪胺for the treatment of motion sickness晕动病，指晕车、晕船等. Other drugs are certain to follow，but the topical route of administration is limited in its ability to allow effective drug absorption for systemic drug action. The parenteral route of administration is important in treating medical emergencies in which a subject is comatose昏迷的or cannot swallow，and in providing various types of maintenance therapy for hospitalized patients. Nevertheless，it is probable that at least 90 % of all drugs used to produce systemic effects are administered投药，给药by the oral route. When a new drug is discovered，one of the first questions a pharmaceutical company asks is whether or not drug can be effectively administered for its intended effect by the oral route. If it cannot，the drug is primarily relegated to被降级到administration in a hospital setting or physician's office. If patient self- administration cannot be achieved，the sales of the drug constitute only a small fraction of what the market would be otherwise. Of drugs that are administered orally，solid oral dosage forms represent the preferred class of product. The reasons for this preference are as follows. Tablets and capsules represent unit dosage forms in which one usual dose of the drug has been accurately placed. By comparison相比之下，liquid oral dosage forms，such as syrups，suspensions，emulsions，solutions，and elixirs，are usually designed to contain one dose of medication in 5 to 30 ml. The patient is then asked to measure his or her own medication using a teaspoon， 第三部分工业药剂学 第11单元药片(医药的片剂剂型) 在治疗中的作用 口服给药途径是通过给药获得全身作用效果中最重要的方法。除了胰岛素疗法之外，肠外给药途径通常不用于（病人的）自主性用药。而局部给药途径则是在最近才被用来把药物送到体内从而产生全身作用。这种途径有两种上市产品：用于治疗心绞痛的硝酸甘油酯和用于治疗晕动病的莨菪胺。今后肯定还会有其他的药物相继出现，但是局部给药的途径在有效的药物吸收从而获得全身性药物作用方面仍有其局限性。在病人处于昏迷状态或病人不能吞咽的医疗急救处理中，肠外给药途径是很重要的，同时它也给住院的病人提供了各种不同类型的维持疗法。然而，可能至少有90%的被用于产生全身作用的药物是通过口服的途径给药的。当一种新的药物被研发出来的时候，制药公司问的第一个问题就是这种药物能否有效地通过口服给药途径来达到预期的效果。如果不能，那么这种药物就要被降级到医院或者医生的办公室里。如果病人的自主用药不能实现，那么（这种）药物的销量就会是能实现病人的自主用药的药物销量的很少一部分。在所有通过口服来给药的药物当中，固体口服制剂是（人们）偏爱的产品种类。其原因如下：药片和胶囊代表着单元剂量的形式，其中通常已经放置好了一个剂量的药物。相应地，液体口服制剂，比如说糖浆、悬浮液、乳剂、溶液和酏剂，则通常被设计成在5-30 ml （液体中）包含一个剂量的药物。病人会被要求用茶匙、调羹或其他测量装置来衡量他自己的用药量。病人自己用药时这种剂量测量方法，其误差范围通常
第一课土木工程学 土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。 贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。 结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。 水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。 岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。 环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。
土木工程专业英语课文原 文及对照翻译 Newly compiled on November 23, 2020
Civil Engineering Civil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities. 土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。 Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities. 土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。 The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Smeaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineering has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader 土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。 Scope. Because it is so broad, civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties. Depending on the type of project, the skills of many kinds of civil engineer specialists may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who locate utility placement—water, sewer, and power lines. Geotechnical specialists perform soil experiments to determine if the earth can bear the weight of the project. Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area: the potential for air and
Take the road of sustainable development civil engineering Abstract: Civil Engineering is the oldest in human history "technical science" as a system of industrial activity, the essence of civil engineering production process, is a technical process Civil engineering is the construction of various facilities in science and technology, collectively, both refer to the construction of the object, that is built on the ground, underground, water facilities, a variety of projects, but also refers to the application of materials, equipment and carried out survey and design , construction, maintenance, repair and other technology. As an important basis for discipline, civil engineering has its important attributes: a comprehensive, social, practical, technical and economic and artistic unity. With the progress of human society and development, civil engineering has already evolved into large-scale comprehensive subject, and has many branches, such as: construction, railroad engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, specialty engineering structures, water supply and drainage projects, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environmental engineering and other disciplines. There are six professional civil engineering: architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, built environment and equipment engineering, water supply and drainage works and road and bridge projects. Civil engineering is a form of human activity. Human beings pursued it to change the natural environment for their own benefit. Buildings, transportations, facilities, infrastructures are all included in civil engineering. The development of civil engineering has a long history. Our seniors had left a lot of great constructions to us. For example, Zhao Zhou Bridge is the representative of our Chinese civil engineering masterpieces. It has a history of more than 1300 years and is still service at present. Civil engineering has been so rapid development of the period. A lot of new bridges have been constructed, and many greater plans are under discussion. China is a large county. And she is still well developing. However, civil engineers will be facing more complex problems. We should pay attention to the growing population and a lot of deteriorating infrastructures. We should prepare for the possibility of natural disasters. To meet grow needs in the
P54-专业英语作业 1. Drug Development is a very complex process requiring a great deal of coordination and communication between a wide range of different functional groups. 中文翻译:药物开发是一个十分复杂的过程，需要在广泛的不同功能性团队之间进行大量的协调与沟通。 2. It is expensive, particularly in the later phases of clinical development, where studies involve hundreds of patients 这个过程（药物开发）这是昂贵的，特别是在临床开发的后期阶段，其中涉及到对数百名患者的研究。 3. It is currently estimated that the development of a new drug costs about $230million and takes somewhere between7and10years form initiation of preclinical development to first marketing. 目前估计,一种新药的开发成本约为2.3亿美元,并且从启动临床前的开发阶段到首次上市，需要花费7到10年 4. Drug development is a high-risk business; although the rate is increasing, only about one out of every ten new chemical entities studied in human beings for the first time will ever become a product. 药物开发是一个高风险的业务，尽管比率在不断上升，但是在完成了首次在人体研究中的每十个新化学实体中，大约只有一个能成为产品。 5.原文：As a drug candidate progresses through development the risks
第一单元 课文 土木工程前言 或许，工程师对于人类文明形成所做出的贡献多于其他专业人才群体。在各个社会中，工程师的作用就是发展技术应用以满足实际需要。例如，应用电力系统向城市供电，应用水轮驱动水碾，应用人造心脏延长生命，等。向我们提供水、燃料、电力的系统，交通网络系统，通讯系统，以及带来其他方便的系统是工程技术应用的产物。尽管真正的工程师们在以上进步和人类幸福中所起的作用，但对他们所起作用的理解仍是不完全的。 工程是将知识转化为实际有效应用的技术，工程师则是在这样的转化中起关键作用的人。工程是服务人类的职业，人类环境是需要考虑的重要事项。通常，区分工程师和科学家一直存在困难，决定科学家的工作在哪里终止，工程师的工作从哪里开始也存在困难。 科学与工程中有联系的工作的基本区别在于它们的目的不同。科学家以发明为目的，而工程师坚持有效使用发明来满足人类的需要。例如，德国物理学家亨利奇·赫兹发现了无线电波，而古里耶尔莫·马克尼则利用无线电波发展了无线电信技术，这是一项工程奇迹。在相关科学家建立了核裂变的科学原理后，制造原子武器、建造核电厂的艰难工作则由电力、化学和机械工程师来完成。 土木工程是以向人类提供安全、舒适住所为目的的工程分支。住所是人类的基本需要之一，它由土木工程师负责提供。供水和灌溉系统的有效规划能增加一个国家的粮食产量。住所除了简单的掩蔽功能外，土木工程师还能将其建造来为居住者提供安宁、舒适的生活。世界上的工程奇迹——从塔形结构到今天的薄壳结构——都是土木工程发展的结果。道路、铁路、桥梁等交通网线是土木工程师的劳动果实，没有这样的交通网线，社会将不可能得到发展。 任何工程学科都是由各种专业分支构成的巨大领域，土木工程的主要专业分支如下： 1.结构工程 结构工程是土木工程的最重要专业分支，结构的建造需要有效的规划、设计和施工方法，以实现完整的建造目的。一般地，结构工程建造包含五个步骤： ●定位，并合理排列结构构件，形成确定的形式，以实现最佳的使用功能。 ●决定作用于结构上不同力的大小、方向和性质。 ●结构分析，弄清受上述作用力的结构构件的行为特征。 ●结构设计，以保证不同载荷作用下的结构稳定性。 ●结构施工，采用精心选择的材料，由熟练工人完成。 2.岩土工程 为了实现建筑于地面结构的有效功能，必须知道土的特征。岩土工程给出土的基本知识体系，这一分支涉及以下方面： ●土——“土力学”下的材料——的性质和行为特征。 ●结构、机器等基础的不同类型及其稳定性。 岩土工程也涉及基础的分析、设计和施工。 3.流体力学、水力学和水力机械
制药工程专业英语纸卷 一、Put the following into English.(20’) 生物碱中间体萃取胰岛素衍生物苯胺处方慢性的多肽配基 二、Put the following into Chinese.(20’) Hormone steroid penicillin metabolite chemotherapy in vitro affinity prescription chronic polypeptide 三、List drugs that are derived from traditional medicinal plants.(不少 于5个,10’) 四、Translation.(50’) 1.Artemisinin is an endoperoxide of the sesquiterpene lactone. The structure of this compound is too complex to be synthesised effectively. Artemisia is also found in many parts of the US, abundantly along the Potomac River in Washington DC, but the drug content of these varieties is only about half that of the Chinese variety. 2.This does not mean, however, that natural products or other agents are less important. They can serve as valuable lead structures, and they are frequently needed as starting materials or as intermediates for important synthetic products.
Developing drugs from traditional medicinal plants Over three quarters of the world's population relies mainly on plants and plant extracts for health care .Approximately one third of the prescription drugs in the US contain plant components, and more than 120 important prescription drugs are derived from plants. Most of these drugs were developed because of their use in traditional medicine. Economically, this represents $8000-10,000M of annual consumer spending. Recent World Health Organization (WHO) studies indicate that over 30 per cent of the world's plant species have at one time or another been used for medicinal purposes. Of the 250,000 higher plant species on Earth, more than 80,000 species are medicinal. Although traditional medicine is widespread throughout the world , it is an integral part of each individual culture. Its practice is based mainly on traditional beliefs handed down from generation to generation for hundreds or even thousands of years. Unfortunately, much of this ancient knowledge and many valuable plants are being lost at an alarming rate. The scientific study of traditional medicines and the systematic preservation of medicinal plants are thus of great importance. For quite a long time, the only way to use plant medicines was either direct application or the use of crude plant extracts. With the development of organic chemistry at the beginning of this century, extraction and fractionation techniques improved significantly. It became possible to isolate and identify many of the active chemicals from plants. In the 1940s, advances in chemical synthesis enabled the synthesis of many plant components and their derivatives. In western countries, it was thought that chemical synthesis of drugs would be more effective and economical than isolation from natural sources. Indeed, this is true in many cases. However, in many other cases, synthetic analogues are not as effective as their natural counterparts. In addition, some synthetic drugs cost many times more than natural ones. Inspired by these realisations, coupled with the fact that many drugs with complex structures may be totally impossible to synthesise, there is now a resurgent trend of returning to natural resources for drug development Important prescription drugs from plants Ephedrine is the oldest and most classic example of a prescription drug developed from a traditional medicinal plant. It is derived from Ma Huang , a leafless shrub. Used to relieve asthma and hay fever in China for over 5000 years, it was introduced into western medicine in 1924 by Chen and Schmidt. Ephedrine is an alkaloid closely related to adrenaline, the major product of the adrenal gland. Pharmacologically, Ephedrine is used