第一章：A word can be defined as a fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free form; with a unity of sound and meaning, capable of performing a given syntactic function The development of English Vocabulary.
①Old English (OE) (449-1100)OE is chracterized by the frequent use of compounds. Some OE compounds involving alliteration have survived in Modern English.About 85% of OE words are no longer in use.②Middle English (1100-1500)ME is characterized by the strong influence of French following the Norman Conquest in 1066.（law and governmental administration）③Modern English (1500-the present)
The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes：A. marked progress of science and technology （software, hardware）B.socio-economic, political and cultural changes（credit card, fringe benefit, pressure cooker）C.influence of other cultures and languages（maotai, sputnik）classification of English words according to different criteria1. By origin：native words and loan words。Native words(Anglo-Saxon origin of OE) Loan words(borrowed from other language) features of basic word stock:1.National character2.Stability3.Word-forming ability4.Ability to form collocations. 2.By level of usage(1)Common words: stylistically neutral, appropriate in both formal and informal writing and speech(2)Literary words:chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, or in formal speeches.A. archaic words: They are sometimes employed in poetry, business letters, legal documents, religious speeches, and proses.B.poetical words（the deep (the sea), slumber (sleep)maiden( girl), etc.）(3) colloquial words：mainly used in spoken English, or in informal writing.(4) slang words（kick the bucket, top-notch teachers, buzz( telephone call)(5) technical words（psychoanalysis, interlanguage, discovery, assault and coversation）3. By notion Function words: determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries.Content words: nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
第二章：The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.
The classification of morpheme：1.free and bound morphemes： A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its own without a bound morpheme. A bound morpheme cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance. It must appear with at least one other morpheme.2. roots and affixes 1)roots: A root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. A. free roots：In English, many roots are free morphemes.B. bound roots：Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, especially from
Greek and Latin.2) affixes A. inflectional affixes: plurality, tense, comparative or superlative degree.B. derivational affixes (prefixes and suffixes)
第三章：1. Derivation(1)prefixes：Prefixes can be classified into the following categories by their meaning.A. 表“方式”的前缀（mis.co.mal）B. 表“态度”的前缀(anti.counter.pro.re)C. 表“程度”的前缀(super.under.over)D. 表“时间”的前缀(pre.post.ex.pre)E. 表“地点”的前缀(inter.trans.super.over.sub)F. 表“否定”的前缀(un.in)G. 表“大小”的前缀(mini.maxi)(2)suffixes(1) -ee:加于动词后，表示受事者或施事者(2) -eer: 由其构成的名词有时含有贬义，表达作者或说话人对某人的蔑视态度(3）-er: 由其构成的新词在现代英语中显得生动活泼，带有浓厚的口语色彩(4) -ism(5) -wise: (in terms of, so far as... is concerned)在......方面，就......来说
2.Conversion is a word-formation process whereby a word of a certain word-class is shift into a word of another word-class without the addition of an affix. It is also called zero –derivation.Types of conversion1.①N to V conversionA. to put in/on N 把.......放入.......使.......处于.......
B. to give N, to provide with N 给予，提供
C. to deprive of N 去掉
D. to ......with N 用......来做
E. to be/act as N with respect to像......那样
F. to make/change... into N 使......成为......，把.......改变为......
G. to send/go by N
H. to spend the period of time denoted by N②Adj to https://www.doczj.com/doc/85348167.html,ually this type of verb means "to make/become...adj.”Some adjectives can only be converted into transitive verbs.③adv. to V（to up. To down）④conjunction to V（to but）2.①V to N这一类词常与动词have, take, give, make等词搭配使用形成一个短语2)表示行动的结果（a find, a catch, a cough, etc. ）3) 原动词表示一种行动或行为，转化为名词后表示行为的主体，如：（a bore, a cheat, a sneak, a coach, a good kick）②A to N(1) Partial conversionA. 表示一种类的概念，指具有某种特点的一类人，不指个别人。B. 以-s, -sh, -se, -ch结尾表示民族概念的形容词转化为名词，与定冠词连用，指整个民族C.表示抽象概念，指具有某种特点的东西 D.最高级形容词转化为名词，其中一些词用在固定词组或英语习语词组中。E. 过去分词构成的形容词转化为名词。这类词前面加定冠词，不指一般人，而指特定的人。(2) Complete conversion
3. N to A.英语中的名词可以直接用作定语修饰另一个名词，既不需要加形容词词尾，也不需要任何格的变化，这样的定语就是名词定语.
3. Compounding or composition is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more words to form a new unit, a compound word. Classification of compounds1. Noun compounds(1)a+n（hard disk, easy chair, deadline)(2) n+n（mousemat, Dream Team, information highway, etc.)（3) adv+n（after-effect, overburden）(4) gerund+n（chewing gum, reading lamp）
(5）present participle+n（ruling class, floating bridge(6) v+n（swearword, driveway）(7) n+v（nightfall, toothpick, watersupply, snowfall）(8) v+adv(show-off, put-off)(9）adv+v(downfall, upset, upstart)2. adjective compounds (1) 由状语转化而成的复合形容词（an off-the cuff opinion(临时想起的一点意见）(2）短语动词（a stand-up collar (竖领）(3）动词不定式（take-home pay(扣除税后的实得工资）a cross-border raid(越界袭击）(4）定语从句压缩（a difficult-to-operate machine）3. verb compounds
第四章：Acronymy: Initialism词首字母缩略词and Acronyms首字母缩略词Initialisms(首字母缩略词）Initialism is a type of shortening, using the first letters of words to form a proper name a technical term, or a phrase.（BBC(British Broadcasting Corporation), VIP(Very Important Person)
Three types of initialisms1.The letters represent full words: （CIA=Central Intelligence Agency ofthe U.S）2.The letters represent elements in a compound or just part of a word:（ID=Identification(card)3. A letter represents the complete form of the first word, while the second word is in full form.(V-Day=Victory Day)Acronyms:are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scientific term,etc.(SAM=surface-to-air missile
SALT=Strategic Arms Limitation Talks)Rapid growth of acronyms and initialisms :space-saving and time-saving devices
Clipping: 1. Back clippings:(ad=advertisement;
gas=gasoline )2.Front clippings:(chute=parachute;)3.Frontand back clippings:（flu=influenza;fridge=refrigerator） 4. Phrase clippings:（pub=public house;pop= popular music）
Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in it full form or both of which are not in their full forms.1. First part of the first word+the last part of the second word:（botel (boat+hotel):汽艇游客旅馆）2. First part of the first word+ First part of the second word:（psywar (psychological+warfare):心理战）3. Whole form of the first word +last part part of the second word:（viedophone (viedo+telephone))4. First part of the first word+ Whole form of the second word:（helipad (helicopter +pad)
从文体色彩来看，拼缀词可分为以下三大类：1.俚语或临时语2.科技用语3. 报刊用语
Back-formation is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language. Words From Proper Names From names of peopleFrom names of placesFrom trdemarksFrom literature
第五章：Word Meaning and Semantic Features
1. Conventionality and Motivation1.1 Conventionality归略法：Most English words are conventioal, arbitrary symbols; consequently, there is no intrinsic relation between the sound-symbol and its sense.1.2 Motivation有理据的：Motivation refers to the connection between word-symbol and its sense.①Phonetic motivation: Words motivated phonetically are called echoic words or onomatopoeic
words,whosepronounciation suggests the meaning.They show a close relationship of sound to sense.（miaow of a cat; roar of a lion; quack of a duck）②Morphological motivation:When a word is morphologically motivated, a direct connection can be observed between the morphemic structure of the word and its meaning. （anticancer, kilometer, etc.）③Semantic motivation: It refers to motivation based on semantic factors. It is a kind of mental association.
隐喻：在20世纪的绝大部分的时间里，隐喻被认为是语义演变的主要因素。相似性是构成隐喻的基础，是词义得以演变的依据the eye of a needle(针眼）the eye of a potato(土豆的芽眼）相似性包括外观相似、功能相似、褒贬相似、心理相似等。
隐喻的分类（1）结构隐喻：一个概念通过隐喻的方式系统地用另一个概念表达出来，两个概念具有结构上的相似性（2）方位隐喻：方位隐喻是指参照空间方位而构建的一系列隐喻概念。（3）本体隐喻：用关于物体的概念或概念结构来认识和理解我们的经验，如可将抽象的概念喻说成具体的物体，可使后者的有关特征映射到前者上去。（4）容器隐喻：将本体（不是容器的事物，如大地、视野、事件、行动、状态、心境等）视为一种容器（5）拟人隐喻：将事体视为具有人性。
转喻：转喻基于邻近联想突显性（salience)一件事情、一个物体或一个概念有很多属性，而人的认知往往更多地注意到其最突出、最容易记忆和理解的属性，即突显属性。语境依赖性
2.Main types of word meaning2.1 grammatical meaning语法意义指词中表示语法概念或关系的那部分意义，如词的词性、名词的单复数、动词的时态。
2.2Lexical meaning①denotative meaning/conceptual meaning/cognitive meaningIt is the central factor in linguistic communication.The denotative meaning of a word is its definition given in a dictionary. It is that aspect of lexical meaning which makes communication possible.②Connotative meaning refers to the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind ③Compared with conceptual meaning, connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable, that is, it may vary according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. 2.3 Social or stylistic meaning：One of the consequences of the way in which English has developed over the past 1,500 years has been the emergence of
different styles. This has been partly due to the influx of new words from other languages such as Latin and French and partly to the variety of social needs which English has had to fulfill. 2.4. Affective meaning2.5. Reflexive meaning：R eflexive meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. 2.6.collocative meaning：The associations a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic contextare called collocative meanings. 2.7.Thematic meaning i：mainly a matter of choice between alternative grammatical constructions.
3.文化差异：文化差异往往和不可译性联系起来，主要表现在带有文化含义的语项翻译上。英汉两种语言所体现出来的文化异同表现在多个方面，但主要集中在概念意义和联想意义上，可粗略归类为等额对应、差额对应和文化空缺。
(1)等额对应，是指甲文化语境下的某一表达形式在另一语言文化背景下能找到现成的表达形式。（入乡随俗When in Rome, do as the Romans do）(2)差额对应指英汉两种语言都拥有某一文化概念，但两种概念在文化语义层面并不完全对应。(母亲望子成龙The mother longs to see her son become a dragon.)
4.英汉文化差异的表现(1)动物的联想意义(狗急跳墙A cornered beast will do something desperate)(2)颜色的联想意义(红包red envelope红娘matchmaker)
第六章：1.Polysemy：When a word has two or more meanings that are related conceptually or historically, it is said to be polysemous or polysemic.Polysemy is also an essential feature of language’s economy and efficiency. 1.1Two approaches to polysemy：One is
diachronic, the other is synchronic. 1.2 Processes leading to polysemy A. Concatenation B.Radiation
2.语境是帮助译者确定多义词词义的最有效的途径。我们在此主要探讨两种语境，即话题语境和搭配语境在翻译实践中确定多义词词义的作用。1.话题语境：话题指话语所涉及的主题或内容common一词在法律领域与其他词搭配完全丧失了“普通的；共有的”等含义。（common assurance 物权证书）2.搭配语境：搭配语境指的是句子成分内部词与词的搭配使用
3. Homonymy. Types of homonyms:①Perfect homonyms: words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning.②Homophones: words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning. ③Homographs: words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning.
4. The stylistic value of polysemy and homonymy :Context plays a very important role in the hearer’s interpretation of words of these two types.Polysemic and homonymous words are stylistically useful to achieve humour or irony, or to heighten dramatic effect.
第七章：1. Synonymy：There are also words that sound different but have the same meaning. Such words are called synonyms, and the sense relation of “sameness of meaning” is called synonymy. Two kinds of synonyms①Complete (perfect) synonyms：are very rare. Examples are spirants and fricatives in phonetics, word-formation and word-building in lexicology.
②Relative synonyms：differ from complete synonyms in the following respects:(1) In degree of a given quality or in (2) In affective and stylistic meaning(3) In collocation and distribution
2.Antonymy：Words that are opposite in meaning are often called antonyms. And the oppositeness of meaning is called antonymy.Types of Antonyms（1）Contraries(相对性反义词)Contraries display a type of semantic contrast, illustrated by such pairs as rich and poor, heavy and light, etc.2. Complementaries (Contradictories)(互补反义词) Complementaries represent a type of binary semantic contrast. In a complementary pair the contrast between the two terms is absolute, that is they are in such a relationship that “ the assertion of one of the items implies the denial of the other: an entity can not be both at once.”
3. Conversives (反向或逆反反义词)
Antonyms classified on the basis of morphological structure1. Root antonyms：Words like love-hate, up-down are root antonyms for they are words with different roots.2. Derivational antonyms：Words with the same roots having negative affixes. Some relevant points about antonyms1. Marked and unmarked members：Antonyms often do not have equal status with respect to markedness. In
certain pairs of gradable antonyms, one word is marked and the other unmarked.2. Some words without antonyms3. Different antonyms under different circumstances：1) Different circumstances give rise to different antonyms:2) Different contexts bring about different antonyms3)Some words with different collocations have different antonyms4. Lexical antonyms vs. syntactic negation：Lexical antonymy is often stronger than syntactic negation (using not).
Hyponymy：We know that the English words red, white, blue, etc. are “colour” terms, that is, they have the featureindicating a category to which they all belong.
Semantic(Lexical) field s
第八章：Two types of context1.Linguistic context语言语境(1) Lexical context refers to the lexical items combined with a given polysemous word.(2) Grammatical context.In grammatical context, the syntactic structure of the context determines various individual meanings of a polysemous word
(3) Verbal context.The verbal context, in its broad sense, may cover an entire passage, or even an entire book, and in some cases even the entire social or cultural setting.
2.Extra-linguistic context (Context of situation)非语言语境(1) The actual speech situation in which a word occurs(2) The entire cultural background against which a word, or an utterance or a speech event has to be set.
The vital role of context indetermination of word meaning1. Eliminating ambiguities：Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or a group of sentences with more than one possible interpretation or meaning2. Conveying emotional overtone3.Indicating referents and the range of the meaning of a word1.
Suggested ways for the correct comprehension of word meaning1.The use of an up-to-date and adequate monolingual dictionary2. A good knowledge of the culture of the English-speaking people3.Development of the ability to determine the meaning of a word from its context
第九章：Causes of changes in word meaning Historical cause Social cause Foreign influences Linguistic cause Psychological cause词义演变三动因①客观动因：客观世界每一个引起人们注意的变化都会及时地反映到词义中。②主观动因：语言的使用者是人，人的主观世界如思想观念和心理感情等的变化必然导致词义演变。③语言动因：词义的演变跟语言本身的发展也有关。由于语言接触，出现借词的大量涌入，使原有词的词义发生演变。
Four tendencies in semantic changeRestriction of meaning (specialization)
1.词义的缩小（specialization or narrowing）指词从原先表达外延较宽
的概念缩小到外延较狭窄的概念。（1）从泛指到特指：meat原指“各种食物”，在sweetmeat（甜食）, greenmeat（蔬菜）（2）从抽象到具体：room一词从前的意义是“空间”、“地方”（3）从普通名词到专有名词. prophet(预言者，先知）写成the Prophet时，伊斯兰教徒都知道是指穆罕默德；（4)从一般词语到术语。许多科学术语都来自一般词语。recovery(恢复），
2.Extension of meaning (generalization)词义的扩大指从原先表达外延较狭窄的概念扩大到外延较宽的概念，其结果是新义大于旧义，旧义包含在新义之中。（1）从特指到泛指
bird (幼鸟-----鸟）（2）从具体到抽象grasp的原义是用手“抓牢，握紧”，指的是具体的动作。（3）从术语到一般词语bullish(股市看涨的)源自股市的“牛市的”、“行情看涨的”（4）从专有名词到普通名词sandwitch(三明治，夹肉面包）来自桑德威奇伯爵四世（the fourth Earl of Sandwitch)。
3.Degeneration of meaning (pejoration)指词从原表示“中性义或褒义”转为表示“贬义”。
4. Elevation of meaning (amelioration)从表示“贬义或中性的意义”转为表示“褒义”。
Iconicity （象似性）The idea that language is fundamentally arbitrary, and that there is no resemblance between the signs of language and the thoughts they stand for, is one of the oldest commonly held views in linguistic thought.1.Iconicity of order 顺序象似性 2.Iconicity of distance 距离象似性3.Iconicity of complexity复杂象似性4.Iconnicity of Markedness(标记象似性)
第十章：English Idioms 1.习语的本质是概念性的。2）习语意义有认知机制。Language is a system—elements in it are not arranged and combined randomly, but according to some rules and principles. https://www.doczj.com/doc/85348167.html,nguage isarbitrary—means that the sound image or the form of a word and the meaning or concept the word stands for bear no intrinsic https://www.doczj.com/doc/85348167.html,nguage is vocal—the primary medium for all language is sound. https://www.doczj.com/doc/85348167.html,nguage is used for human communication—it is human-specific, very different from systems of animal communication. Functions of language The primary function of language is to transmit information and to convey commands, feelings and emotions. That is, language is a tool of communication. 1. Phatic function/communion：Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and hearer. https://www.doczj.com/doc/85348167.html,rmative function：Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. 3. Interrogative function：Language is used to ask for information from others.
4.Expressive function (emotive function)：Language is used to reveal the speaker’s attitudes and feelings.
5.Evocative function：Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers.
6.Performative function：Language is used to do things or to
perform acts.7. metalingual function：It
language itself. means that we can use language to talk
11 C h a p t e r 1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （he definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 p ol ysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 semantic-loans 借义词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点
a t i m e a n d A l l t h 《英语词汇学》教学大纲 一、课程名称：英语词汇学 二、课程类别：英语专业限选课 三、教学时数与学分：本课程为34学时, 总学分为2分四、开课时间：本课程安排在第6学期进行五、教学对象：英语专业一年级学生六、教学目的： 通过学习，学生能够了解英语词汇学的基本理论知识，并能用所学的知识去独立思考、分析问题和解决问题。 七、教学内容： 教师授课与学生自学相结合。学生需在教师的指导下阅读有关词汇学书籍。检查学生的阅读质量主要采取由学生复述阅读内容，并对阅读内容中的思想和观点作出个人的评价。教师重点讲解学生在阅读中所遇到的重点和难点。 学生完成基础词汇学理论的学习后，应根据所学词汇学理论知识，在教师的指导下设计、完成自己的学期论文。 Chapter I A General Survey of English Vocabulary Chapter II Morphological Structure of English Words Chapter III Word-Formation (I)Chapter IV Word-Formation (II) Chapter V Word Meaning and Semantic Features Chapter VI Polysemy and Homonymy Chapter VII Sense Relations Between Words Chapter VIII Meaning and Context Chapter IX Changes in Word Meaning Chapter X English Idioms Chapter XI American English Chapter XII English Dictionaries and How to Use Them 八、时间安排：本学期6－13周进行课程的讲授，14周组织学生复习，15周考试。详见下表。 周次日期 星期/节次 讲授内容 备注 第一周月 日 第二周第三周第四周第五周第六周 10.1310.13周五.3.4周五.7.8General survey of English vocabulary; morphological structure of English words 第七周10.20周五.3.4Word-formation(I)第八周 10.2710.27 周五.3.4周五.7.8 Word-formation(II)
1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （ alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional . A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 1.3 sound and form ： 1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from Latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 (Functional words do not have notions of their own and their main function is to express the relation between notions, words, etc.)
Compounding is a process of word formation by which two independent words are put together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called compound Blending is a process of word formation by which a word is created by combining parts of other words. Words formed in this way are called blends. From morphological viewpoints, there are four types of blending: Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the words. Initialisms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as lettersEEC: European Economic Community Acronyms are words formed by the initial letters of words and pronounced as words:OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Export Countries According to Leonard Bloomfield’s point of view, a word is a minimum free form, that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation. There are two types of linguistic forms: one is the bound form, the other is the free form. A bound form is one which cannot occur on its own as a separate word, e.g. the various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc. A free form is one which can occur as a separate word. For example, the word lovely contains the free form love and the suffix –ly. The suffix –ly in the word lovely, of course, i s not a free for m, because it cannot stand by itself. So we call it a bound form. A word is a minimum free form The morpheme can be considered as the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 1)Morphemes are commonly classified into two forms according to their character: one is free form, and the other is bound form. 2)Free morphemes自由词素are morphemes which can occur as separate words. That is to say, a free morpheme can stand alone as a word. 3)Bound morphemes粘着词素are morphemes which cannot stand alone as words. They are mainly affixes. That is to say, a bound morpheme is one that must appear with at least one other morpheme, bound or free in a word. 4)2) Morphemes may be classified into two categories according to their lexical and grammatical relationships: 5)lexical morphemes and grammatical morphemesLexical morphemes are morphemes used for the construction of new words as in compound words Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as plurality or past tense There are three types of words according to morphology:Simple words,Compound words,Complex words Conversion Conversion is a main type of word-formation assigning the base to a different word
英语教学大纲对词汇量的要求 2000年版《九年义务教育全日制初级中学英语教学大纲（实验修订版）》对词汇量的要求是800个，另外要求400-500个认读词汇，合计1200-1300词。 2000年版《全日制高级中学英语教学大纲（实验修订版）》对词汇量的要求是1200个，另外要求750个认读词汇，合计1950词。 根据大学英语教学大纲项目组1996-1997年对大学新生词 汇量的调查，重点大学新生的词汇量约1800-2200，边远民族地区学校新生的词汇量约1400-1600。 据此，新修订的《大学英语教学大纲》把词汇量的起点定为：一级1800词，预备级1200词；四级应达到的词汇量累计4200词，六级应达到的词汇量累计5500词，六级后应达到的词汇量累计6500词。 国内英语教学大纲对词汇量的要求 自20世纪初，清政府实行“新政”，设立新学堂，英语教学就进入了中学课程。1911年民国成立后，中学英语教学得到了发展，并逐步颁布了相应的课程标准。 解放后为规范中学英语教学，教育部制订了相应的课程或大纲。这些英语教学标准或大纲中对词汇量的要求随着时间的推移
和各种各样的原因也不断在变化。这些数字上的变化详见下面的几个表。解放前大学中没有现在的这种大学英语（原称公共英语）性质的课程。故表二无解放前大学英语教学大纲的要求。 表一: 中学教学大纲对词汇量的要求
表二: 大学英语教学大纲对词汇量的要求
表三: 中国英语专业教学大纲词汇量的要求
国外和港台地区对词汇量的研究或要求 对于英语本族语使用者究竟需要多大的词汇量，至今人们也无法给出一个确切的数字。 有学者认为如果阅读一般题材的读物和报刊需要30000词，但这不包括专业技术杂志，如果要包括专业技术杂志则所需词汇量要大得多（Allen，1983）。 Goulden认为英语为母语的20岁的大学生的词汇量为20000词族（word families），如果以每个词族平均有三个派生词，则其词汇量为60000词。5岁上学的儿童的词汇量为4000-5000词族，即约词，并以每年1000词族增加（Read, 2000）。 也有研究表明，美国中学毕业生的词汇量平均为47000词，而大学生大约认识58000词（章扬恕，1990）。由此我们可以基本认定，作为有文化的英语本族语者，其词汇量大约为60000词。而一般英语本族语使用者在日常生活和工作中的词汇量显然不 会需要这么大。根据统计，英美人在表达时大约使用3000-10000词。Thorndike编写的Te acher’s Word Book收词20000词，分为20级，每级1,000词（章扬恕，1990）。 那么对于以英语为外语或第二语言的学习者来说，应掌握多少英语单词才是合适的呢对此国外的语言教育学家也做了大量 的研究。West编写的A General Service List of English Words 收录核心词2000词，如果加上其中的派生词则达到约6000词。
第一章word 1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 第三章formation 1 1. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. 2. Allomorph --- Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are know as allomorphs. 3. Free morphemes (Free root) --- They are morphemes which are independent of other morphemes. 4. Bound Morphemes --- They are morphemes which cannot occur as separate words. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. 7. Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are known as inflectional morphemes. 8. Derivational affixes --- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word. 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12. Stem --- a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 第四章formation 2 1. Affixation --- affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. 2. Prefixation --- is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Suffixation--- is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. 3. Compounding（Compositon）-- is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. 4. Conversion-- is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 5. Blending-- is the formation of new words by combined by parts of two words or a word plus a plus a part of another word. 6. Clipping- is the formation of new words by shortening a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remain instead.
《英语词汇学》教学大纲 课程名称：英语词汇学 课程编号： 课程类型、学时数及学分：专业必修课，第7期，32学时，2学分 教材名称及作者、出版社、出版时间及书号：《现代英语词汇学概论》张韵斐著，北京师范大学出版社，2004，ISBN: 978-7-303-00143-9 本大纲制定时间：2013年11月 本大纲审定人： 一、课程性质、目的和任务 本课程属于专业限选课，授课对象为本科专业高年级学生。本课程的教学目的在于帮助学生系统地总结英语词汇知识, 从而更科学地学习英语词汇,运用词汇学中所学到的基本知识和理论来分析和理解英语词汇, 正确地使用英语词汇。其次，本课程还有助于培养学生在英语学习中对所观察到的语言现象加以分析和总结的技能和习惯，从而培养学生语言的理解、欣赏和分析能力。 二、课程教学的基本要求 本课程的教学要求是通过学习现代英语词汇学的基础理论，使学生了解词的来源、词的形态、词的构成方式、词的语义特征、各种词汇之间的相互关系和变化、词的联想与搭配等内容，观察美语和英语词汇的区别，掌握常用词汇知识在语言实践中的运用方法与技能，鼓励学生积极参与课堂讨论。 课程的重点：词的构成方式，语义特征，语义变化，词汇衔接和语篇连贯。 课程的难点：词汇衔接和语篇连贯。 三、课程教学基本内容和学时分配 本课程总的学时为32学时。每课为2-4个课时完成。教学内容如下： Chapter 1 A General Survey of English vocabulary 1.The development of English vocabulary 2.Classifications of English words according to different criteria 本章节讲授重点： What is the definition of English words? What are the three phases of English vocabulary? How can we classify English vocabulary? Chapter 2 Morphological Structure of English words
考研英语词汇复习笔记 翻硕复习的一大重头戏就是词汇，而词汇量是巨大的，必须要有日常的积累和复习，并且掌握科学的记忆方法，才能最有效地积累词予匚量。下面是关于英语词汇的学习笔记，以供大家参考。(1) 1. bereave :使某人丧失(尤指亲属)bereave Sb Of Sb an accident WhiCh bereaved Him Of his Wife 使他丧失妻子的事古攵the bereaved husband 死了妻子的男人 the bereaved丧失亲人的人 bereavement(n):丧亲之痛，丧失亲人 deprive : take Sth away from sb;PreVent Sb from enjoying Or USing Sth剥夺sb/sth的sth;阻止某人 享有或使用Sth deprive sb/sth Of Sth deprive Of OneS CiVil rights剥夺某人的公民权deprivation(n):剥夺;贫困;被剥夺的事物WideSPreaCl deprivation 普遍贫困 MiSSing the HOIiday WaS a great deprivatiOrL错失假日是极大的损失。 deprived(adj):贫困的，穷苦的deprived ChildhOOd 贫苦的童年
2. abdomen : Part Of the body below the CheSt and CliaPhragm,cOntaining the stomach.腹部 abdominal(adj)腹部的an abdominal OPeratiOn 月复咅8手术belly : (口)front Of the HUman body from the WaiSt to the groin;belly 肚子，胃 With an empty belly 空着肚子 in the belly Of a ShiP 在船腹里 belly OUt(动词用法):鼓涨,凸出The Wind bellied OUt the SaiIS 3. c onSeCrate : devote sth/sb to Or reserve sth/sb for a SPeCial (esp religious) PUrPOSe 扌巴sth/sb 献给 sth/sb 做某种(尤其宗教)用途COnSeCrate sth/sb to Sth COnSeCrate OneS Iife to the SerViCe Of GOd,to the relief Of SUffering献身于为神服务(解除世人痛苦)的事业 devote : give OneS time z energy to sth/sb; dedicate 为某人付出，向某人奉献，献身于devote Oneself/sth to sb/sth devoted(adj):热爱的，非常忠实的Z全心全意的a devoted SOn
Types of meaning Types of lexical changes 1.Elevation:词义升格 Definition: words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant. For example: nice: ignorant---foolish---delightful, pleasant Marshal: a keeper of horses---a high ranking army officer So elevation refers that the meaning of word changes from the neutral/negative to positive. 2.Old English:It refers to the English starting from 450 to 1100 AD. The old English is made up of different sources of languages spoken then –that of Anglo-Saxons, that of Celts, and that of Jutes, with a lot of Latin elements used for common peopl e’s life. 3.Bound morpheme: It is the smallest unit of grammar, a unit which cannot occur as separate words. They have no independent semantic meaning; instead, they have: Attached meaning E.g. un-kind, hope-ful Grammatical meaning E.g. cat-s, slow-ly, walk-ing, call-ed For an exact example, in the word “careful”, care is free morpheme, “-ful” is a bound morpheme. 4.Hyponymy: Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion, or to say, the relationship between general lexical items and specific lexical items. That is to say, when X is a kind of Y, the lower term X is the“hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. For example, “fiction”is the superordinate of “novel”, “novelette”and “short story”, which are the hyponyms of “fiction”. Knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness, exactness, and concreteness in expression.
论述题 一、一般词汇与基本词汇的关系 基本词汇和一般词汇都有各自特点，因此，它们是语言词汇中两个完全不同的部分。但是，基本词汇和一般词汇又有非常密切的联系，它们相互依存，共同发展，都是语言词汇中不可缺少的部分。 第一，基本词汇是语言的基础，它也是一般词汇形成的基础，一般词汇中的大多数词都是在基本词汇基础上形成的。 第二，一般词汇反映社会的发展是非常敏感的，它几乎经常存在不吨的变动之中，因此，语言词汇中的新成分往往首先出现在一般词汇中，然后个别成分再进入基本词汇中，促成基本词 汇的发展。从这一角度讲，一般词汇又可以充当基本词汇发展的源泉。 第三，基本词汇和一般词汇中的个别成分又是可以互相转换，在词汇发展的过程中，随着社会交际需要的改变，某些基本词转化成一般词，而某些一般词也能转化为基本词汇，如过去的 基本词“鬼、窝窝头”等，现在已成了一般词，又如过去的一般词“党”，现在已经由一 般词转化成基本词，成为“共产党”的简称。 总之，基本词汇和一般词汇就是在这样相互依存不断转化的关系中间共同发展和丰富起来。它们的发展又形成整个词汇的形成。 二、词义发展的概况 1、新词的增加。语言是随着社会的发展而发展的，在这发展过程当中，词汇又是最敏感的部分， 因此，社会上的一切都会在词汇中有所反映，这就促成了语言中新词的不断增加。 2、双音词的增多。随着汉语的发展，词汇中的双音词逐渐增多起来，由单音向双音发展，是汉语 词汇发展的一种必然现象。因为随着社会的发展，交际的需求越来越纷繁复杂，需要表示的事物越来越多，有限的单音节形式就必然造成语言中同音词的大量出现。因而给人们的交际带来许多不便，汉语词的双音化就此发展起来。 3、实词虚化现象的发展。主要表现在两个方面：一方面是由实词类变为虚词类，如“因”原为 “原因”，而后发展为“因为”，充当连词使用；另一方面，是由可以充当词根词素的实词虚化成了附加词素，如“了”原为“了结”虚化成了“好了”。“了结”是实词，后来虚化成了词尾词素，读为“le”附在动词后面，表示完成体的语法意义，如“看了”、“做了”。 4、造词和构词方面的发展。汉语造词和构词的情况发展到今天已有了很大的变化，不但造词方法 已多样化，而且构词的方式也更加丰富和精密了。如新词语的创制、汉语的造词法和构词法也是不断丰富和发展的。 5、同义词、多义词和抽象词语的发展。同义词组的不断出现，多义词和抽象词语的不断增多，都 是人们认识能力发展的结果，同时，这些现象也标志着语言极大词汇的丰富和完善。其中汉语词汇中很早就存在着同义词现象，多义词的发展是语言词汇发展的必然趋势之一。抽象词语的发展不但取决于人们认识的发展，而且和社会科学文化的发展也分不开。 6、词义的发展。词义的发展是词汇发展的一个重要方面。词义的发展可以从很多方面促成整个词 汇系统的变化和发展。 7、旧要素的消亡。词汇的发展和变化不但表现为新要素的不断发展和增加，同时也表现在旧要素 的消亡。一般表现为旧词的消亡、义项的消亡和词素的消亡。汉语词汇的发展纷繁复杂，我们在认识和分析词汇的发展时，不能只看由简趋繁的一面，也应同时注意由繁趋简的发展现象。 只有这样，才能更好的认识、更正确的理解词汇的发展。 三、词汇的系统性(P13) 1、词的结构的系统性。词的结构由共性，这个共性可以概括为类型，如并列、表述、偏正、支 配等等。每一类型都联系一大批词。绝大多数词都可以归入少数几个结构类型中。由此可以 看出，词杂I结构上是很有规则地联系在一起的，表现出词的组织结构的系统性。 2、词义关系的系统性。一般认为，从词的意义关系来说，词可以构成层次关系词群和非层次关 系词群。层次关系有上下位关系（如：植物—树木—柳树）、整体部分关系（如：手—手掌 —手心）、亲属关系（如：祖父—父亲—儿子）、等级关系（如：军长—师长—团长）等。 非层次关系词群的成员一般都是同位关系，同位关系中词义叠合或大部分叠合的词就是同义
高等学校英语专业英语教学大纲 为了规范全国高等学校英语专业的英语教学，特制订本教学大纲。本大纲所作的各项规定，对全国各类高等学校的英语专业均有指导作用，也是组织教学、编写教材和检查与评估教学质量的依据。 一、培养目标 高等学校英语专业培养具有扎实的英语语言基础和广博的文化知识并能熟练地运用英语在外事、教育、经贸、文化、科技、军事等部门从事翻译、教学、管理、研究等工作的复合型英语人才。 21世纪是一个国际化的知识经济时代。我们所面临的挑战决定了21世纪我国高等学校英语专业人才的培养目标和规格：这些人才应具有扎实的基本功、宽广的知识面、一定的相关专业知识、较强的能力和较高的素质。也就是要在打好扎实的英语语言基本功和牢固掌握英语专业知识的前提下，拓宽人文学科知识和科技知识，掌握与毕业后所从事的工作有关的专业基础知识，注重培养获取知识的能力、独立思考的能力的创新的能力，提高思想道德素质、文化素质和心理素质。 二、课程设置 英语本科专业学制为4年。根据英语专业教学规律，一般将4年的教学过程分为两个阶段，即：基础阶段（一年级和二年级）和高年级阶段（三年级和四年级）。基础阶段的主要教学任务是传授英语基础知识，对学生进行全面的、严格的基本技能训练，培养学生实际运用语言的能力、良好的学风和正确的学习方法，为进入高年级打下扎实的专业基础。高年级阶段的主要教学任务是继续打好语言基本功，学习英语专业知识和相关心业知识，进一步扩大知识面，增强对文化差异的敏感性，提高综合运用英语进行交际的能力。在两个教学阶段中课程的安排可以有所侧重，但应将4年的教学过程视为一个整体，自始至终注意打好英语语言基本功。 英语专业课程分为英语专业技能、英语专业知识和相关专业知识三种类型，一般均应以英语为教学语言。三种类型的课程如下： （1）英语专业技能课程：指综合训练课程和各种英语技能的单项训练课程，如：基础英语、听力、口语、阅读、写作、口译、笔译等课程。 （2）英语专业知识课程：指英语语言、文学、文化方面的课程，如：英语语言学、英语词汇学、英语语法学、英语
英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇” 2010.1.11济南1.Word --- A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic funtion. 2. Morpheme --- A morpheme is the minimal significant element in the composition of words. 3. Free morphemes or Content morphemes (Free root)--- They are morphemes that may constitute words by themselves : cat, walk. 4. Bound Morphemes or Grammatical morphemes--- They are morphemes that must appear with at least one other morpheme, either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing. 5. Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example: it conveys the meaning of "say or speak" as a Latin root, but not as a word. With the prefix pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict meaning "tell beforehand". 6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or funtion. 7. Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus known as inflectional morphemes. There is the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, desks. 8. Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes--- Derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 9. Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before the word, such as, pre+war. 10. Suffixes --- suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for instance, blood+y. Derivational morphemes/ derivational affixes --- A process of forming new words by the addition of a word element. Such as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already existing word. Prefixation ---- is the formation of new words by adding prefix or combing form to the base. (It modify the lexical meaning of the base) Suffixation--- is the formation of a new word by adding a suffix or combing form to the base and usually changing the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish (noun- adjective) 11. Roo t --- A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 12.Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one content morpheme only and cannot be analysed into parts are called opaque words, such as axe, glove. 13. Transparent Words--Words that consist of more than one morphemes and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words: workable(work+able), door-man(door+man).