Unit 1 Pathology
Text B
Inflammation
Definition and Nature of Inflammation
1 When living tissues are injured, a series of changes, which may last for hours, days or weeks, occurs in and around the area of injury. This response to injury is known as inflammation, the term being derived from the Latin inflammare meaning to burn.
2 The injury is abnormal but the body’s reaction, inflammation, is a normal, if complex, physiological reaction—the only one possible in the circumstances of that particular injury. This reactive nature of inflammation was first recognized by John Hunter (1794), who, after his studies of war wounds, conclude: “Inflammation is itself not to be considered as a disease, but as a salutary operation consequent either to some violence or some disease”.
3 Many different types of injury may evoke inflammation. They may be classified as follows:
1)Physical agents, such as excessive heating or cooling, ultra-violet or ionizing
radiation or mechanical trauma.
2)Chemical substances, including toxins from various bacteria.
3)Hypersensitivity reactions. The reaction of antibody or of sensitized lymphocytes
with bacterial or other antigens may, by the mechanism of hypersensitivity release substances which cause an inflammatory response.
4)Microbial infections are a very important cause of inflammation.
Micro-organisms may injure tissue in several ways—by release of exo- or endo- toxins①, by hypersensitivity mechanisms or by intracellular multiplication followed by cell death as seen in many viral infections.
5)Necrosis of tissue from almost any cause leads to release of substances which
induce inflammation in adjacent living tissues.
4 The reaction in the first few hours after injury is stereotyped and widely different kinds of injury cause a similar initial response—the acute inflammatory reaction. The inflammatory nature of a lesion is usually indicated by the suffix –itis. Thus inflammation of the appendix is appendicitis, of the liver hepatitis and so on. There are occasional historical exceptions. Inflammation of the lung is traditionally pneumonia, not pneumonitis②, and of the pleura pleurisy not pleuritis③. The term acute and chronic refer to the duration of the response. Acute inflammation lasts for ①refers to exotoxin (refers to a toxin that is secreted by microorganisms into the surrounding medium) or endotoxin (a toxin that is confined inside the microorganisms and is released only when the microorganisms are broken down or die)
②means the inflammation of the lungs (NB: when we refer to inflammation of the lungs, we often use “pneumonia” instead of “pneumonitis”)
③NB: “pleura” is used more often to refer to the thin serous membrane around the lungs and inner walls of the chest than “pleuritis”.
days or a few weeks; chronic inflammation persists for weeks, months or even years.
5 The inflammatory response is usually beneficial, indeed it is essential in combating most infections and in limiting the harmful effects of many toxic agents. However it is not always of benefit. There are many situations when destruction of tissue or other untoward effects are due not to the damaging agent but to one or other aspect of the body’s response to injury. For example in acute inflammation of the larynx there may be sufficient inflammatory swelling to obstruct the airway and cause death from asphyxia. In both the Arhus reaction④and the local response to the bites of certain ticks, necrosis of tissue is caused by substances liberated from polymorph nuclear leucocytes which accumulate at the site of injury as part of the inflammatory response: such necrosis does not occur in animals deprived of blood leucocytes by prior treatment with bone marrow poisons such as nitrogen mustard. Inflammation is best considered not as a single process but as a collection of distinct processes, each of which may have evolved for defense against injury, but each of which has also potentially deleterious effects.
Acute Inflammation
6 This is the immediate and early response to an injurious agent and affects the vascular and connective tissues adjacent to the injured cells. There are three major components in the process of acute inflammation: increased blood flow (vasodilation), increased vascular permeability (exudation) and egress of white blood cells into the injured tissue (emigration). These three components are coordinated and interrelated by numerous chemical mediators produced or released at the site of injury. Mediators include histamine, bradykinin, complement and many other pharmacologically active substances. The emphasis here is on the morphological aspects of the inflammatory process visible to the pathologist rather than on the pharmacological and biochemical events.
7 Vasodilation. Vasodilation occurs directly after injury. The microvasculature at the site of jury becomes dilated and filled with blood (hyperaemia). Blood flow through the dilated microvasculature is initially rapid, but soon slows because a concomitant increase in vascular permeability and loss of plasma water raises the viscosity of the blood. In the slowly moving blood the pattern of flow changes. Red cells tend to clump in the centre of the vessel lumen and leucocytes assume a more peripheral position near the vessel wall. This margination of leucocytes is an important initial step in the emigration process. If flow becomes very slow, the blood may clot and form a thrombus.
8 Exudation. This is the increased passage of fluid and solutes, notably proteins, through the vessel wall. The mechanisms leading to increased vascular permeability are complex and incompletely understood. They include endothelial cell concentration or damage, the effects of mediators, local haemodynamic forces and the ④In immunology, the Arthus reaction is a type of local type III hypersensitivity reaction（过敏反应）. Type III hypersensitivity reactions are immune complex-mediated, and involve the deposition of antigen/antibody complexes mainly in the vascular walls, serosa（膜，浆膜）(pleura（胸膜）, pericardium（心包膜）, synovium （滑膜）), and glomeruli（血管小球）.
osmotic effects of proteins escaping into interstitial tissue. The leak of proteins is roughly in proportion to their molecular size. Albumin is in the greatest amount, but if vascular permeability is extensive, large amounts fibrinogen may leak out. Exudation is an important local defence mechanism. The increase in interstitial fluid dilutes toxins, and proteins such as globulins are effective in neutralising agents like bacteria. This increased fluid is sometimes called inflammatory oedema or simply oedema.
9 Emigration. Emigration of white blood cells, principally neutrophils and monocytes is also an important defence mechanism. These are phagocytic cells which engulf and digest foreign particulate matter such as bacteria and the debris of dead cells. The emigration of leucocytes is an active process which occurs in two stages. The cells stick to the endothelial surface (pavementing) and then actively migrate through the gaps between the endothelial cells and into the tissue spaces. The mechanism by which leucocytes stick to the endothelial cells in unknown. Emigration is an active amoeboid process and once outside the vessel, neutrophils can move as fast as 20 µm per minute. Monocytes, which differentiate into macrophages, move more slowly. Movement of leucocytes in tissue spaces is polarized in the general direction of the site of injury. This process, known as chemotaxis⑤, is mediated by various chemical attractants such as components of the complement, kinin and clotting system. Because neutrophils are in greater number in the circulating blood and because they move faster than macrophages, the first phase of cellular infiltration into damaged tissue is dominated by neutrophils. With the passage of time macrophage number increase and after 2 or 3 days macrophages outnumber neutrophils in most inflammations.
10 Variants. Whilst the major components of acute inflammation are present in all damaged tissue, the proportions vary according to the nature, duration and extent of injury and to the nature of the injured tissue itself. Qualifying terms may be used to specify the dominant features of the inflammation. For example, serous exudate refers to the fluid-filled blister after burn.
11 Sequelae. Acute inflammation is the first step in a dynamic response to injury. The sequelae depend on the nature and extent of injury. Resolution means the complete restoration of normal conditions after the cause of the acute inflammation is removed. This occurs when there is minimal cell death and tissue damage, rapid elimination of the causal agent, and local condition favouring the removal fluid and debris by lymphatics and by phagocytosis.
Source：彭杰青编译，《英汉对照医学读物—病理学》，上海科学技术出版社；P162-196
Words: 1203
⑤趋向性（taxis）是一生物（或细胞）天生的行为反应，指其对一指向性刺激（由特定方向给的刺激），会有趋进（正趋向性）或远离（负趋向性）刺激源的动作。如果这种反应与化学物质的浓度（可以是引诱剂或驱除剂）有关，就叫做趋药性（chemotaxis）。
Words and Expressions
physiological reaction 生理反应
microbial infection 微生物感染
acute [ə'kjuːt]adj.having or experiencing a rapid onset and short but severe course （疾病）急性的
appendix [ə'pendɪks] n. a vestigial process that extends from the lower end of the
cecum and that resembles a small pouch阑尾
appendicitis [ə,pendɪ'saɪtɪs] n.inflammation of the vermiform appendix阑尾炎pleura ['plʊrə] n.the thin serous membrane around the lungs and inner walls of the chest 胸膜，肋膜
pleurisy ['plʊərɪsɪ] n. inflammation of the pleura of the lungs (especially the parietal
layer) 胸膜炎，肋膜炎
larynx ['lærɪŋks] n.a cartilaginous structure at the top of the trachea; contains elastic vocal cords that are the source of the vocal tone in speech喉（包
括声带）
airway ['eəweɪ] n.the passages through which air enters and leaves the body（肺的）气道
asphyxia [æs'fɪksɪə] n.a condition in which insufficient or no oxygen and carbon
dioxide are exchanged on a ventilatory basis窒息[亦作
asphyxy]
polymorph ['pɒlɪ,mɔ:f] n.an organism that can assume more than one adult form as in
the castes of ants or termites多形态生物；分叶核白细胞nuclear ['njuːklɪə] adj. of or relating to or constituting the nucleus of a cell细胞核的nitrogen mustard氮芥
blood flow 血流
vasodilation [,veɪzəʊdaɪ'leɪʃən] n. dilation of blood vessels (especially the arteries) 血
管舒张
mediator ['miːdɪeɪtə] n. a mediating agent in a physical, chemical, or biological
process介质
histamine ['hɪstəmi:n] n.amine formed from histidine that stimulates gastric secretions
and dilates blood vessels; released by the human immune
system during allergic reactions组胺
bradykinin [,brædɪ'kaɪnɪn] n. 缓激肽
pharmacologically [,fɑ:məkə'lɒʤɪkəlɪ] adv. with regard to pharmacology药物地；药
理地
pharmacological [,fɑ:məkə'lɒʤɪkəl] adj. of or relating to pharmacology药理学的pathologist [pə'ɵɒləʤɪst] n. a doctor who specializes in medical diagnosis病理学家microvasculature [,maɪkrəʊ'væskjʊləʧə] n. 微脉管系统
hyperaemia [,haɪpə'ri:mɪə] n.increased blood in an organ or other body part充血lumen ['lju:mɪn] n.a cavity or passage in a tubular organ（管）腔
thrombus ['ɵrɒmbəs] n.a blood clot formed within a blood vessel and remaining
attached to its place of origin 血栓（复数形式是thrombi
['ɵrɒmbaɪ]）
solute ['sɒlju:t] n.the dissolved substance in a solution（细胞内的）溶质
vessel wall 血管壁
endothelial [,endəʊ'ɵi:lɪəl]adj. of or relating to or located in the endothelium内皮的endothelial cell 内皮细胞
haemodynamic [,hi:məʊdaɪ'næmɪk] adj. 血液动力的；血液动力学的
interstitial [,ɪntə(ː)'stɪʃəl] adj.of or relating to interstices（细胞）组织间隙的；间质
的
interstitial tissue 间质组织
albumin ['ælbjʊmɪn] n.a simple water-soluble protein found in many animal tissues
and liquids白蛋白，清蛋白[亦作albumen]
interstitial fluid 间隙液体；间质液
globulin ['glɒbjʊlɪn] n.a family of proteins found in blood and milk and muscle and in
plant seed球蛋白
oedema [ɪ'di:mə]n.swelling from excessive accumulation of serous fluid in tissue水肿[亦作edema]
neutrophil ['nju:trəfɪl] adj. the chief phagocytic leukocyte; stains with either basic or
acid dyes嗜中性的n. 嗜中性白血球，中性白细胞[亦
作neutrophile]
monocyte ['mɒnəʊsaɪt] n.a type of granular leukocyte that functions in the ingestion
of bacteria单核细胞；单核白血球
phagocytic [,fægə'sɪtɪk] adj. capable of functioning as a phagocyte噬菌作用的；食菌
细胞的
phagocytic cell 吞噬细胞
particulate [pə'tɪkjʊlɪt] adj. a small discrete mass of solid or liquid matter that remains
individually dispersed in gas or liquid emissions (usually
considered to be an atmospheric pollutant) 微粒的；颗粒
的；粒子状的
particulate matter 微粒物质；悬浮微粒
macrophage ['mækrəʊfeɪʤ] n.a large phagocyte巨噬细胞
tissue space 组织间隙
chemical attractant 化学吸引剂
complement 补体成分
kinin ['kaɪnɪn] n.any of a class of plant hormones that promote cell division and delay the senescence of leaves激肽
clotting system 凝固系统
serous ['sɪərəs] adj. of or producing or containing serum浆液状的，（含）浆液的blister ['blɪstə] n.(pathology) an elevation of the skin filled with serous fluid（皮肤上的）疱，水疱，脓疱；水肿
sequela [sɪ'kwiːlə] n. any abnormality following or resulting from a disease or injury
or treatment后遗症，续发症（复数形式是sequelae
['sɪ'kwi:lɪ] ）
resolution [,rezə'ljuːʃən] n. the subsidence of swelling or other signs of inflammation
(especially in a lung)（炎症、热度等的）消退lymphatic [,lɪm'fætɪk] adj. of or relating to or produced by lymph淋巴的；淋巴管
phagocytosis [,fægəsaɪ'təʊsɪs] n.process in which phagocytes engulf and digest
microorganisms and cellular debris; an important
defense against infection嗜菌作用；吞噬作用
Comprehension Exercises
Exercise 1 Multiple Choices
Directions: Choose the best answer to each of the following questions.
1)Which of the following statements is NOT true about the nature of inflammation?
A)When living tissues are injured, a series of changes, which may last for hours,
days or weeks, occurs in and around the area of injury. This response to
injury is known as inflammation.
B)Inflammation, is a normal physiological reaction—the only one possible in
the circumstances of that particular injury.
C)Inflammation is a salutary operation consequent either to some violence or
some disease.
D)Inflammation is considered as a disease characterized by pain and swelling
and redness and heat.
2)The text mentioned five types of injury may evoke inflammation. Which is the
important one?
A)Physical agents
B)Chemical substances
C)Microbial infections
D)Hypersensitivity reactions and necrosis of tissue
3)Which of the following statements is true?
A)The reaction in the first few hours after injury is stereotyped and widely
different kinds of injury cause different initial responses—the acute
inflammatory reaction and the chronic inflammatory reaction.
B)The inflammatory response is usually beneficial, indeed it is essential in
combating most infections and in limiting the harmful effects of many toxic
agents.
C)Chronic inflammation lasts for days or a few weeks; acute inflammation
persists for weeks, months or even years.
D)In Arhus reaction there may be sufficient inflammatory swelling to obstruct
the airway and cause death from asphyxia.
4)Which is NOT one of the three major components in the process of acute
inflammation?
A)Immigration.
B)Exudation.
C)Emigration.
D)Vasodilation.
5)Which of the following statements is NOT true about acute inflammation?
A)The microvasculature at the site of jury becomes dilated and filled with blood
(hyperaemia).
B)Leucocytes tend to clump in the centre of the vessel lumen and leucocytes
assume a more peripheral position near the vessel wall.
C)The mechanisms leading to increased vascular permeability include
endothelial cell concentration or damage, the effects of mediators, local
haemodynamic forces and the osmotic effects of proteins escaping into
interstitial tissue.
D)Emigration of white blood cells, principally neutrophils and monocytes is
also an important defence mechanism. Because these are phagocytic cells
which engulf and digest foreign particulate matter such as bacteria and the
debris of dead cells.
Key:
D-C-B-A-B
Exercise 2 Cloze
Directions: Fill in the blanks with appropriate words to complete the following paragraphs
When ⑴⑵are injured, a series of changes occur around the area of injury. This ⑶to injury is known as inflammation. Inflammation is a complex reaction to injurious agents such as ⑷and damaged, usually necrosis, cells that consists of vascular responses, migration and activation of leukocytes, and systemic reactions. The unique feature of the inflammatory process is the reaction of blood vessels, leading to the accumulation of fluid and ⑸in extravascular tissues. The inflammatory response is closely intertwined with the process of repair. Inflammation is a fundamentally a ⑹response, the ultimate goal of which is to rid the organism of both the initial cause of cell injury (e.g. microbes, toxins) and the consequences of such injury (e.g. necrotic cells and tissues). Without inflammation, infections would go unchecked, wounds would never heal, and injury organs might remain permanent festering sores. The inflammatory response consists of two main components, a vascular reaction and a ⑺reaction which are mediated by chemical factors derived from plasma protein or cells.
Inflammation is divided into ⑻and ⑼patterns. Acute Inflammation is rapid in onset (seconds or minutes) and is of relatively short duration, lasting for minutes, several hours or a few days. Its main characteristics are ⑽of fluid and plasma proteins (edema) and the ⑾of leukocytes, predominantly neutrophils. Chronic inflammation is of longer duration and is associated histologically with the presence of lymphocytes and macrophages, the proliferation of blood vessels, fibrosis, and tissue necrosis. Many factors modify the course and morphologic appearance of both acute and chronic inflammation.
Key:
⑴living ⑵tissues ⑶response ⑷microbes ⑸leukocytes ⑹protective ⑺cellular ⑻acute ⑼chronic ⑽exudation ⑾emigration
Vocabulary Exercises
Enhance your command of medical words
Exercise 1 Word-matching
Directions: Choose the definitions in the right column to match the words in the left
column.
Key:
b-c-a-d-f-e
Exercise 2 Translation
Directions: Complete the sentences by translating into English the Chinese given in
brackets, using the medical words from the text.
1) Does （阑尾炎） need an operation to treat?
2) What Chinese traditional medicine （对咽喉有好处）?
3) （早产、出生窒息和感染） cause most newborn deaths.
4) （它有助于防止血管舒张）and to inhibit inflammation and the
release of proteases （蛋白酶）.
5) （组织胺测试）can stimulate the airway enough to cause violent
coughing.
6) The kallikrein system （血管舒缓素系统）, which （产生有效的引
起血管舒张的缓激肽）, is beginning to be studied.
7) White cells fight infection in the body. （中性粒细胞是其中的一
种） that fights infection.
8) We observed that ultraviolet radiation can result in （使白细胞的吞
噬功能增强）.
9) How to take care of slight （血栓病人） ?
Key ：
1) appendicitis
2) has profit to larynx
1) vasodilation 2) oedema 3) acute 4) intracellular 5) airway 6) asphyxia a ) having a sudden onset, sharp rise, and short course b) widening of the lumen of blood vessels c) an abnormal infiltration and excess accumulation of serous fluid in connective tissue or in a serous cavity d) existing, occurring, or functioning within a cell e) a lack of oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide in the body that results in unconsciousness and often death and is usually caused by interruption of breathing or inadequate oxygen supply f) a passage for a current of air (as in a mine or to the lungs)
3)Preterm birth, birth asphyxia and infections
4)It helps to prevent vasodilation
5)The histamine test
6)produces the potent vasodilator bradykinin
7)Neutrophil is one type of white cell
8)the enhancement of leukocytic phagocytic function.
9)thrombus patient
Translation of the sentences
1)阑尾炎需要手术治疗吗？
2)什么中药对咽喉有好处？
3)早产、出生窒息和感染是新生儿死亡的主要原因。
4)它有助于防止血管舒张和抑制炎症反应，并释放蛋白酶。
5)组织胺测试可以刺激呼吸道引起剧咳。
6)有人正在研究能产生有效的引起血管扩张的缓激肽的血管舒缓素系统。
7)白细胞可以对抗体内感染，中性粒细胞即为其中的一种。
8)我们观察到紫外线照射能使白细胞的吞噬功能增强。
9)怎样照顾症状轻微的血栓病人？
Enhance your command of general words
Exercise 1 Blank-filling
Directions: Choose words from the box to complete the sentences. Change the word form when necessary.
1)Her comment protests from the shocked listeners.
2)Debris the road.
3)All things are and interact on each other.
4)The monkey engulfed the food whole.
5)The suicides in area are incidental coincidence.
6)Wealthy women often get as care-free spendthrifts, leaving their
husbands to pay the bills and worry about the costs.
7)The difference lies in the and intensity of the symptoms.
8)They are shown on channels that attract audiences with different
expectations.
9)His pupils are fully , it may be fear or anger.
10)Nylon has a high to water vapor.
Key:
1)evoked
2)obstructed
3)interrelated
4)engulfed
5)adjacent
6)stereotyped
7)duration
8)distinctive
9)dilated
Translation of the sentences
1)她的评论让听众震惊并引起了他们的抗议。
2)垃圾堵塞了道路。
3)一切事物都是互相联系又互相作用的。
4)这只猴子囫囵吞下食物。
5)邻近区域内的自杀是偶然的巧合。
6)人们对富婆的固定成见常常是：她们是不负责任的挥霍者，让自己的丈夫埋
单、为花费操心。
7)区别在于症状的持续时间和强烈程度。
8)在不同频道上演的不同节目，吸引有不同期待的不同观众。
9)瞳孔扩张可能是因为愤怒或害怕。
Sentence Translation
Directions: Translate the following sentences from the text into Chinese.
1)The injury is abnormal but the body’s reaction, inflammation, is a normal, if
complex, physiological reaction—the only one possible in the circumstances of that particular injury.
2)The reaction of antibody or of sensitized lymphocytes with bacterial or other
antigens may, by the mechanism of hypersensitivity release substances which cause an inflammatory response.
3)Micro-organisms may injure tissue in several ways—by release of exo- or endo-
toxins, by hypersensitivity mechanisms or by intracellular multiplication followed by cell death as seen in many viral infections.
4)The reaction in the first few hours after injury is stereotyped and widely different
kinds of injury cause a similar initial response—the acute inflammatory reaction.
5)The inflammatory response is usually beneficial, indeed it is essential in
combating most infections and in limiting the harmful effects of many toxic agents.
6)Inflammation is best considered not as a single process but as a collection of
distinct processes, each of which may have evolved for defense against injury, but each of which has also potentially deleterious effects.
7)There are three major components in the process of acute inflammation: increased
blood flow (vasodilation), increased vascular permeability (exudation) and egress of white blood cells into the injured tissue (emigration).
Key:
1)损伤是异常的，而机体的反应（炎症）则是正常的生理反应，即使比较复杂，
仍然是在特殊情况下唯一可能的反应。
2)抗体或致淋巴细胞与细菌性或其它的抗原所发生的反应，可通过过敏机制释
放出引起炎症反应的物质。
3)微生物可通过几种方式损伤组织—释放外毒素或内毒素、过敏机制或先在细
胞内繁殖，然后导致细胞死亡，后者见于许多病毒感染时。
4)损伤后最初几个小时内的反应时有规律的，因此各种不同的损伤都可引起相
同的早期反应—急性炎症反应。
5)炎症反应常常是有益的，在对抗大多数感染及限制许多毒性因子的有害影响
中，炎症的反应的确是不可缺少的。
6)最好不要把炎症看做一个单一的过程，而应把它视为一系列不同的过程，每
一个过程有抗损害的防御作用，但也潜在着有害的影响。
7)急性炎症过程有三大组成部分：血流增快（血管扩张）、血管通透性增高（渗
出）及白细胞外出到受损组织内（白细胞游出）。
生物医学英文文献导读 摘要： 一、生物医学英文文献的重要性 1.了解国际研究动态 2.掌握前沿技术和方法 3.提升自身研究水平 二、如何有效阅读生物医学英文文献 1.提高英语水平 2.熟悉专业词汇 3.掌握文献结构 4.利用辅助工具 三、生物医学英文文献的写作技巧 1.明确研究目标 2.严谨的实验设计 3.清晰的数据分析 4.遵循学术规范 四、提升生物医学英文文献阅读能力的建议 1.多读多练 2.参加学术交流活动 3.寻求专业人士的指导 正文：
生物医学英文文献导读 一、生物医学英文文献的重要性 生物医学英文文献是了解国际研究动态、掌握前沿技术和方法以及提升自身研究水平的重要途径。通过阅读这些文献，我们可以及时了解全球生物医学领域的最新研究进展，为自己的研究工作提供有益的借鉴和启示。 二、如何有效阅读生物医学英文文献 1.提高英语水平：阅读生物医学英文文献需要一定的英语基础。我们可以通过参加英语培训班、自学英语教材等方式提高自己的英语水平。 2.熟悉专业词汇：生物医学领域有很多专业词汇，熟悉这些词汇有助于我们更好地理解文献内容。我们可以查阅专业词典或参加相关培训课程来掌握这些词汇。 3.掌握文献结构：生物医学英文文献通常有一定的结构，如摘要、引言、方法、结果、讨论等部分。了解这些结构有助于我们更快地找到所需信息。 4.利用辅助工具：现在有很多辅助阅读工具，如谷歌翻译、CNKI 等，可以帮助我们更好地理解文献内容。 三、生物医学英文文献的写作技巧 1.明确研究目标：在撰写生物医学英文文献时，首先要明确研究目标，以便为后续的实验和分析提供方向。 2.严谨的实验设计：实验设计是生物医学研究的关键。我们需要确保实验设计严谨，遵循科学方法，以获得可靠的结果。 3.清晰的数据分析：数据分析是生物医学英文文献的重要组成部分。我们需要以清晰、准确的方式呈现实验结果，以便读者理解。
医学英文参考文献引用格式 医学研究中，参考文献的引用是非常重要的一环。正确的引用格式能够提高文章的可读性和可信度，同时也是对其他研究者的尊重和致谢。以下是医学英文参考文献引用格式的示例： 1. 期刊文章 作者姓名. 文章标题. 期刊名. 年份;卷号(期号):页码. 例如： Smith AB, Jones CD. The effects of exercise on mental health. J Psychol. 2016;143(6):555-560. 2. 书籍章节 作者姓名. 章节标题. 编者姓名（若有）. 书名. 出版地：出版社，出版年份：页码. 例如： Brown JD. Coping with stress. In: Smith MA, ed. Handbook of Stress Management. New York: Springer Publishing Company; 2015:65-82. 3. 学位论文 作者姓名. 论文标题. [学位论文]. 学校名称，年份. 例如： Johnson EF. The impact of exercise on cardiovascular health. [dissertation]. University of California, Los Angeles; 2017. 4. 会议论文
作者姓名. 论文标题. 会议名. 会议地点，会议年份. 例如： Lee YS, Kim MJ. Effects of alcohol on cognitive function. Paper presented at: The 5th International Conference on Alcohol and Health; Paris, France; 2018. 在引用参考文献时，还要注意以下几点： 1. 引用时，应该列出所有作者的姓名。 2. 如果一个期刊有多个版本，应该注明具体版本号。 3. 在引用书籍章节时，应该列出书籍的编辑者。 4. 如果引用的学位论文还没有发表，应该注明是“未发表”或“即将发表”。 5. 在引用会议论文时，应该注明具体的会议名称、地点和时间。 准确的参考文献引用格式是医学研究不可或缺的一部分，它能够展现出研究者的专业素养和严谨态度。
医学英文参考文献引用格式 在医学领域中，引用参考文献是非常重要的一部分。正确的引用格式可以帮助读者理解您的研究来源和支持，同时也能够提高您的研究可信度。以下是医学英文参考文献引用格式的基本要求和准则： 1. 期刊文章：作者姓氏和名字缩写。文章标题。期刊名称缩写。发表年份; 卷号(期号):页码。 例如：Hwang E, et al. The effects of acupuncture on high-risk patients with chronic gastritis. J Altern Complement Med. 2016;22(12):967-973. 2. 书籍：作者姓氏和名字缩写。书名。版本。出版地：出版者; 出版年份。 例如：Roberts LW, Louie AK, Sabath LD. Ethics in Psychiatry: A Review. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 2013. 3. 网络资源：作者姓氏和名字缩写。文章标题。网站名称。发表年份。访问日期。可用网址。 例如：World Health Organization. WHO Director-General's speech to high-level pledging event for the humanitarian crisis in Yemen. World Health Organization. 2018. Accessed November 20, 2019. https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/2018/high-level-pledging-ev ent-yemen/en/
医学英语文献选读部分文章全文翻译 Unit1 Text B 定义和自然的炎症反应 当生活组织都受伤了,一系列的变更,这可能会持续几个小时,几天或几周内,发生在和伤病的周围。这个反应损伤被称为炎症,术语源自拉丁语inflammare意义燃烧. 这受伤异常但身体的反应,炎症,是很正常的,如果复杂的、生理的反应——唯一一个可能的情况下的特殊损伤。炎症反应的性质是首先被约翰亨特(1794),他在研究战伤后,得出结论:infammation本身是不应被视为一种疾病,但从而有利于机体要么暴力或一些疾病”。 许多不同类型的损伤可能引发炎症。他们可分为如下: (1)物理因素如过度加热或冷却,紫外线和电离辐射或机械创伤。 (2)化学物质,包括各种细菌毒素。 (3)过敏反应。反应的抗体或敏感的淋巴细胞和细菌或其他抗原可以释放物质的机制导致过敏炎症反应. (4)微生物感染中是一个非常重要的原因的炎症反应。微生物在几个方面可能会伤害到组织——的释放将外——或者endo -毒素,通过超敏反应机制或细胞内乘法紧随其后的是细胞死亡中看到许多病毒感染。 (5)坏死的组织几乎任何原因导致释放物质诱发炎症在邻近的生活组织。 (6)反应在受伤后的头几个小时,一般印象和广泛不同的损伤缺陷引起simlilar最初反应-急性炎症反应。炎性病变的性质通常是suffixitis所表示的。因此发炎的阑尾是阑尾炎,肝肝炎等。偶尔会有一些异常历史。肺部炎症传统上是肺炎,而不是肺炎以及不pleuritis胸膜炎的胸膜。急性和慢性的术语指响应的时间。急性炎症持续几天或几周;慢性炎症持续数周、数月甚至数年。 炎性反应通常是有益的,事实上它是根本的在对抗大多数感染和限制的有害影响的许多有毒因子。但是,事情并非总是有利的。在许多情况下破坏的组织或其他意料之外的效果是由于不破坏代理,但一个或其他方面的受伤的身体反应。例如在急性炎症喉部可能有足够的炎性肿胀来阻止气道,导致死亡的窒息。在阿尔都反应和当地应对某些蜱虫叮咬,坏死的组织是由于物质的解放polymorphonuclear白细胞的累积损伤的部位的炎症反应的一部分:这种坏死并没有出现在动物的血液白细胞剥夺由之前的治疗与骨髓毒药如氮芥。炎症是最好的考虑而不是作为一个单一进程,但作为一个集合不同的过程,每个可能已经进化为抵御伤病的困扰,但每一个都有也可能产生有害的影响。 急性炎症 这是直接的和早期应对危害性的代理和影响血管和结缔组织毗邻受伤的细胞。有三个主要组件急性炎症的过程:血流量增加(血管)增加血管通透性(渗出物)和出口处的白血细胞变成受伤的组织(移民)。这三个组件是由无数化学发挥调停协调生产或释放损伤的部位。介质包括组胺,bradykinin、补充和许多其他药物活性物质。这里强调的是形态学方面的炎症过程可见的病理学家而不是药理和生化活动。 血管舒张。血管损伤后发生直接。在现场的微血管扩张和陪审团的变成满了血(至少)。血流的微血管扩张最初是很快的,但是很快放缓,因为伴随增加血管通透性和损失的等离子体水的粘度提高血液。在缓缓移动的血流量变化的模式。红细胞倾向于簇集在中央的一个白细胞的血管腔扮演一个外围血管壁附近的位置。这是一个重要的靠边白细胞的初始步骤在移民过程。如果流程变得非常缓慢,则血液凝块和血栓。 渗出物。这是通过一个溶质增加液体,尤其是蛋白质,通过血管壁。这个机制使得增加
Unit One Text A： Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal 1.Perhaps the most enduring --- certainly the most quoted --- tradition in the history of medicine is the Hippocratic Oath. Named after the famous Greek physician Hippocrates, this oath was written as a guideline for the medical ethics of doctors. Although the exact words have changed over time, the general content is the same - an oath to respect those who have imparted their knowledge upon the science of medicine, and respect to the patients as well as the promise to treat them to the best of the physicians' ability. 或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著 名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确 的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人， 尊重病人，尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。 Who was Hippocrates, and Did he Write the Oath? 2.For a man considered by many to be the 'Father of Medicine', little is known about Hippocrates of Cos. He lived circa 460-380 BC, and was the contemporary of Socrates as well as a practising physician. He was certainly held to be the most famous physician and teacher of medicine in his time. Over 60 treatises of medicine, called the Hippocratic Corpus have been attributed to him; however, these treatises had conflicting contents and were written some time between 510 and 300 BC, and therefore could not all have been written by him. 作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380 年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和 医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中 有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手. 3.The Oath was named after Hippocrates, certainly, although its penmanship is still in question. According to authorities in medical history, the contents of the oath suggest that it was penned during the 4th Century BC, which makes it possible that Hippocrates had himself written it. Anyway, regardless of whether or not Hippocrates himself had written the Hippocratic Oath, the contents of the oath reflect his views on medical ethics. 这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的，虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。根据医学历史权威的看 法，这个宣言的内容是在公元前四世纪起草的，这使希波克拉底自己起草这个宣言成为可能。 无论如何，不管是否是希波克拉底自己起草的（希波克拉底宣言），这个宣言的内容都反映 了他在医学伦理上的看法。 From Medical Ideal to Standard Ethics Guidelines 4.The Hippocratic Oath was not very well received when it was first penned, being a representation of only a minor segment of Greek opinion at the time. However, by
医学英语文献阅读二上海交通大学课后题答案 1、Mary _______ Math. [单选题] * A. is good at(正确答案) B. do well in C. is good for D. is good with 2、The language school started a new（）to help young learners with reading and writing. [单选题] * A. course(正确答案) B. design C. event D. progress 3、The bookstore is far away. You’d better _______ the subway. [单选题] * A. sit B. take(正确答案) C. miss D. get
4、I repeated my question several times. [单选题] * A. 到达 B. 惊奇 C. 重复(正确答案) D. 返回 5、____ father is a worker. [单选题] * A.Mike's and Mary's B. Mike and Mary's(正确答案) C. Mike's and Mary D. Mike and Marys' 6、The students in that university are not fewer than（）in our university. [单选题] * A. the one B. that C. them D. those(正确答案) 7、--Mom, I will not eat fast food this year. Believe me.--If you make a _______, you must keep it. [单选题] *
介导性shRNA能抑制肺癌细胞中livin沉默基因的表达从而促进SGC-7901细胞凋亡 背景—由于肿瘤细胞抑制凋亡增殖,特定凋亡的抑制因素会对于发展新的治疗策略提供一个合理途径。Livin是一种凋亡抑制蛋白家族成员，在多种恶性肿瘤的表达中具有意义。但是, 在有关胃癌方面没有可利用的数据。在本研究中,我们发现livin基因在人类胃癌中的表达并调查了介导的shRNA能抑制肺癌细胞中livin沉默基因的表达，从而促进SGC-7901细胞凋亡。 方法—mRNA及蛋白质livin基因的表达用逆转录聚合酶链反应技术及西方吸干化验进行了分析。小干扰RNA真核表达载体具体到livin基因采用基因重组、测序核酸。然后用Lipofectamin2000转染进入SGC-7901细胞。逆转录聚合酶链反应技术和西方吸干化验用来验证的livin基因在SGC-7901细胞中使沉默基因生效。所得到的稳定的复制品用G418来筛选。细胞凋亡用应用流式细胞仪(FCM)来评估。细胞生长状态和5-FU的50%抑制浓度(IC50)和顺铂都由MTT比色法来决定。 结果—livin mRNA和蛋白质的表达检测40例中有19例(47.5%)有胃癌和SGC-7901细胞。没有livin基因表达的是在肿瘤邻近组织和良性胃溃疡病灶。相关发现在livin基因的表达和肿瘤的微小分化和淋巴结转移一样(P < 0.05)。4个小干扰RNA真核表达矢量具体到基因重组的livin基因建立。其中之一,能有效地减少livin基因的表达,抑制基因不少于70%(P < 0.01)。重组的质粒被提取和转染到胃癌细胞。G418筛选所得到的稳定的复制品被放大讲究。当livin基因沉默,胃癌细胞的生殖活动明显低于对照组(P < 0.05)。研究还表明,IC50上的5-Fu 和顺铂在胃癌细胞的治疗上是通过shRNA减少以及刺激这些细胞(5-Fu proapoptotic和顺铂)(P < 0.01)。 结论—livin基因在胃癌中的过分表达与肿瘤分化与淋巴结转移建立联系,建议了治疗胃癌病例分子预后因素之一。ShRNA可以抑制在SGC-7901细胞中的livin基因表达,诱导细胞凋亡。Livin可以作为治疗胃癌凋亡的新目标。 1．介绍 胃癌是世界上最常见的恶性肿瘤之一。大多数患者被诊断为这个疾病的阶段,在最佳时间的机会错失了手术治愈。尽管有很大改善,但处于晚期胃癌的化疗患者的总体存活率仍然很低。癌症细胞化疗耐抗性可能导致手术失败。在耐药的原因中,抑制细胞凋亡的过程会起重要作用。癌细胞常有抗凋亡增长的特征[1],介导其增加的阻力不同来刺激的细胞凋亡,如DNA损伤、缺氧、营养损失[2、3]。此外, 在临床实践中细胞凋亡抵抗被认为是肿瘤手术失败的主要原因,因此许多化疗药物和/或放射线疗法都是通过诱导凋亡肿瘤死亡实现的[4]。
英文文献翻译 第1 篇 Effects of sevoflurane on dopamine, glutamate and aspartate release in an vitro model of cerebral ischaemia 七氟醚对离体脑缺血模型多巴胺、谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放的影响 兴奋性氨基酸和多巴胺的释放在脑缺血后神经损伤中起重要作用。在当前的研究中，采用离体脑缺血模型观察七氟醚对大鼠皮质纹状体脑片中多巴胺、谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放量的影响。脑片以34℃人工脑脊液灌流，缺血发作以去除氧气和降低葡萄糖浓度（从4mmol/l至2mmol/l）≤30分钟模拟。多巴胺释放量用伏特法原位监测，灌流样本中的谷氨酸和天冬氨酸浓度用带有荧光检测的高效液相色谱法测定。脑片释放的神经递质在有或无4%七氟醚下测定。对照组脑片诱导缺血后，平均延迟166s（n=5）后细胞外多巴胺浓度达最大77.0μmol/l。缺血期4%七氟醚降低多巴胺释放速率，（对照组和七氟醚处理组脑片分别是6.9μmol/l/s 和4.73μmol/l/s，p<0.05），没有影响它的起始或量。兴奋性氨基酸的释放更缓慢。每个脑片基础（缺血前）谷氨酸和天冬氨酸是94.8nmol/l和69.3nmol/l，没有明显被七氟醚减少。缺血大大地增加了谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放量（最大值分别是对照组的244%和489%）。然而，4%七氟醚明显减少缺血诱导的谷氨酸和天冬氨酸释放量。总结，七氟醚的神经保护作用与其可以减少缺血引起的兴奋性氨基酸的释放有关，较小程度上与多巴胺也有关。
第2篇The Influence of Mitochondrial K ATP-Channels in the Cardioprotection of Proconditioning and Postconditioning by Sevoflurane in the Rat In Vivo 线粒体K ATP通道在离体大鼠七氟醚预处理和后处理中心肌保护作用中的影响 挥发性麻醉药引起心肌预处理并也能在给予再灌注的开始保护心脏——一种实践目前被称为后处理。我们观察了线粒体K ATP通道在单独预处理和后处理中七氟醚诱导心肌保护的作用，且是否两者存在协同作用。大鼠冠状动脉阻断25分钟后再灌注120分钟。梗死面积采用三苯基四唑染色检测，采用如下方案：1）预处理（S-Pre，n=10，2个周期5分钟七氟醚处理（1MAC），然后冲洗10分钟）；2）七氟醚后处理（在再灌注开始给予1MAC七氟醚2分钟；S-Post，n=10）；3)缺血前后处理（S-Pre+S-Post,n=10）。在5-羟基癸酸盐（一种特定的mK ATP通道阻滞剂（S-Pre+S-Post+5HD，S-Pre+5HD；n=10；S-Post+5HD;n=9））中重复方案1-3。9只大鼠作为未处理对照或单独使用5HD（5HD，n=10）。与对照组（49%±11%，两者p<0.05）相比S-Pre（危险区面积的23%±13%，nean±SD）和S-post（18%±5%）都减小了梗死面积。与单独在缺血前或后处理相比S-Pre+S-Post组更大的减小了梗死面积。5HD 在三组七氟醚处理组都抵消了保护作用（S-Pre+5HD,35%±12%;S-Post+5HD,44%±12%;S-Pre+S-Post+5HD,46%±14%），但是单独给予对梗死面积没有作用（41%±13%）。七氟醚预处理和后处理保护心肌缺血再灌注损伤。预处理与后处理联合提供相加的心肌保护，且至少部分地是由m K ATP通道调节的。
医学英语文献选读2 Unit4课后习题答案 1、 What attitude have great thinkers taken toward the human body? A、 they have been curious about its functions and actions. B、they have been satisfied with the little knowledge known to man. C、 they have shared the same belief with average persons. D、they have regarded knowledge of the human body as taboos. 2、The second paragraph implies that_____. A、all people basically take the same approach to the study of the body. B、 all approaches toward the study of body are scientific. C、 a valid study of the body requires a sound knowledge of anatomy and physiology. D、anatomy and physiology are all we need to know to understand the body. 3、The studies of the cell probably do not include___.
临床常见疾病医学英语文献阅读 Clinical common diseases, medical English literature reading Clinical common diseases refer to the frequently occurring diseases that often appear in clinical practice. These diseases usually have a high incidence rate and can cause severe health problems if not treated in time. As a result, it is essential for healthcare professionals to have a deep understanding of these diseases to provide effective treatment and care. One crucial aspect of acquiring a solid knowledge of clinical common diseases is medical English literature reading. Medical English literature is essential for updating and expanding knowledge, improving diagnostic and treatment skills, and pursuing professional development. To read medical English literature, one should be familiar with the medical terminology and basic principles of disease mechanisms. Reading medical English literature helps healthcare professionals improve diagnostic capabilities, as it allows them to recognize the characteristics and patterns of various diseases, differentiate between common diseases and less common ones, and confirm diagnoses. In addition, medical English literature helps healthcare professionals stay up-to-date with new research and advancements in the field. In this way, they can explore and implement new treatment methods, compare and evaluate different therapeutic options, and provide evidence-based, personalized treatments for patients.
英语医学文献 English Medical Literature Medical literature refers to scientific research articles, studies, and publications that focus on various aspects of medicine and related fields. English is the dominant language used for publishing medical literature internationally. Here are some examples of English medical literature: 1. Journal Articles: Medical researchers and professionals publish their findings in peer-reviewed medical journals. Examples of popular medical journals include The Lancet, New England Journal of Medicine, British Medical Journal (BMJ), and Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA). 2. Review Articles: Review articles provide a comprehensive overview of existing research on a specific medical topic. These articles analyze and summarize multiple primary research studies. They often discuss the state of knowledge, identify gaps, and suggest future directions for research. 3. Clinical Trials: Medical research involving human participants often publishes results in English. Clinical trial reports describe experimental
Unit 1 Pathology Text B Inflammation Definition and Nature of Inflammation 1 When living tissues are injured, a series of changes, which may last for hours, days or weeks, occurs in and around the area of injury. This response to injury is known as inflammation, the term being derived from the Latin inflammare meaning to burn. 2 The injury is abnormal but the body’s reaction, inflammation, is a normal, if complex, physiological reaction—the only one possible in the circumstances of that particular injury. This reactive nature of inflammation was first recognized by John Hunter (1794), who, after his studies of war wounds, conclude: “Inflammation is itself not to be considered as a disease, but as a salutary operation consequent either to some violence or some disease”. 3 Many different types of injury may evoke inflammation. They may be classified as follows: 1)Physical agents, such as excessive heating or cooling, ultra-violet or ionizing radiation or mechanical trauma. 2)Chemical substances, including toxins from various bacteria. 3)Hypersensitivity reactions. The reaction of antibody or of sensitized lymphocytes with bacterial or other antigens may, by the mechanism of hypersensitivity release substances which cause an inflammatory response. 4)Microbial infections are a very important cause of inflammation. Micro-organisms may injure tissue in several ways—by release of exo- or endo- toxins①, by hypersensitivity mechanisms or by intracellular multiplication followed by cell death as seen in many viral infections. 5)Necrosis of tissue from almost any cause leads to release of substances which induce inflammation in adjacent living tissues. 4 The reaction in the first few hours after injury is stereotyped and widely different kinds of injury cause a similar initial response—the acute inflammatory reaction. The inflammatory nature of a lesion is usually indicated by the suffix –itis. Thus inflammation of the appendix is appendicitis, of the liver hepatitis and so on. There are occasional historical exceptions. Inflammation of the lung is traditionally pneumonia, not pneumonitis②, and of the pleura pleurisy not pleuritis③. The term acute and chronic refer to the duration of the response. Acute inflammation lasts for ①refers to exotoxin (refers to a toxin that is secreted by microorganisms into the surrounding medium) or endotoxin (a toxin that is confined inside the microorganisms and is released only when the microorganisms are broken down or die) ②means the inflammation of the lungs (NB: when we refer to inflammation of the lungs, we often use “pneumonia” instead of “pneumonitis”) ③NB: “pleura” is used more often to refer to the thin serous membrane around the lungs and inner walls of the chest than “pleuritis”.
医学英文摘要写作 How to write a medical English abstract 第一章概述 一、摘要的定义、用途、和长度 二、摘要的内容 三、摘要的类型 四、摘要的写作格式 五、摘要写作的注意事项 What is an abstract? An abstract is a brief summary of the most important points in a scientific paper. 摘要是作者研究过程、研究目的、研究方法和研究结果的简要陈述和概括。Purposes for Abstracts Abstracts typically serve five main goals: Help readers decide if they should read an entire article Help readers and researchers remember key findings on a topic Help readers understand a text by acting as a pre-reading outline of key points Index articles for quick recovery and cross-referencing Allow supervisors to review technical work without becoming bogged down in details 二、摘要的内容 Contents 1. Title 2. Name of the author 3. Unit of the author/address 4. Text of the abstract 5. Keywords 1）目的2）方法3）结果 4）结果的分析、比较、评价以及应用，提出的问题以及建议5）其他 三、摘要的类型 1. descriptive abstract ——描述性摘要 2. informative abstract——资料性摘要 3. descriptive-informative abstract——描述-资料性摘要 1. Non-structured abstract （非结构式摘要） 2. Structured abstract （结构式摘要） full-structured semi-structured 1.描述性摘要 Descriptive Abstract/ Indicative Abstract The descriptive abstracts tell what topics are taken up in the paper. They contain indicative information on purpose, scope, or methodology in the original documents, but mention little or nothing about details of results, conclusions or recommendations. The advantages of a descriptive abstract are that it is easy to write and is usually short; a serious disadvantage is that it contains little information. 一般只用两三句话概括论文或报道的主题，而不涉及具体的数据和结论，通常用于综述、会议报告等。 Samples of descriptive abstracts: 例一： 心得宁引起的胸膜纤维化 我们报道两例患者服用心得宁后继发胸膜纤维化 Pleural Fibrosis After Practolol Therapy We describe two patients who developed pleural fibrosis after treatment with practolol. 例二： 论原发性胃肠道淋巴瘤 本文综述了治疗原发性胃肠道淋巴瘤的主要经验，并就该病的临床、病理及治疗等问题进行了讨论。 Primary Lymphomas of the Gastrointestinal Tract An institutional experience with primary gastrointestinal lymphoma (PGL) is reviewed. The clinical, pathologic, and therapeutic aspects of PGL are discussed. 2.资料性（报道性）摘要 Informative Abstracts The informative abstracts give the gist, or essence, of a piece of writing: they include the most significant material in the original writing. It is the original document in miniature. Important information on purpose, scope and method of the research are included in this type of abstracts. They also contain key results, conclusions, or recommendations. The advantage of an informative abstracts is that it provides much more information than does a descriptive abstract. But it is usually longer than the descriptive type. 概括论文的主要信息，一般阐明研究的问题和关键的研究成果，其特点是全面、简要地概括论文的目的、方法、主要数据和结论。通常，阅读这种摘要可以部分取代阅读全文。 Malignant Hypertension and Cigarette Smoking The smoking habit of 48 patients with malignant hypertension was compared with that of 92 consecutive patients with non- malignant hypertension. Thirty-three of the patients with malignant and 34 of the patients with non-malignant hypertension were smokers when first diagnosed, the difference were considered separately. Results suggest that malignant hypertension is yet another disease related to cigarette smoking. Informative-Indicative Abstracts 以报道性文摘的形式表述一次文献中信息价值较高的部分，而以指示性文摘的形式表述其余部分的文摘。字数 200词左右为宜 Traditional Abstract 传统式摘要 IMRAD Introduction 引言 Materials and Methods 材料与方法 Results 结果 Discussion 讨论 全结构式摘要（Full-structured Abstract） 1974年4月，加拿大McMaster 大学医学中心的Dr R Brian Haynes首先提出建立临床研究论文的结构式摘要。 在 Dr Edward J Huth创导下，美国《内科学记事》（Annuals of Internal Medicine）在国际上率先采用了全结构式（full-structured）摘要。 1．目的（Objective）：说明论文要解决的问题 2．设计（Design）：说明研究的基本设计，包括的研究性质 3．地点（Setting）：说明进行研究的地点和研究机构的等级 4．对象（Patients, participants or subjects）：说明参加并完成研究的病人或受试者的性质、数量及挑选方法 5．处理（Interventions）：说明确切的治疗或处理方法 6．主要测定项目（Main outcome measures）：说明为评定研究结果而进行的主要测定项目 7．结果（Results）：说明主要客观结果 8 ．结论（Conclusion）：说明主要结论，包括直接临床应用意义与非结构式摘要相比，。 全结构式摘要观点更明确（more explicitness），信息量更大（more information），差错更少（fewer errors）. 但其缺点也是显而易见的，即繁琐、重复、篇幅过长, 而且不是所有研究都能按以上8个要素分类的。于是更多的杂志扬长避短，采用半结构式摘要（semi-structured）半结构式摘要(Semi-structured Abstract) 半结构式摘要也称为四要素摘要，包括： 目的（objective/purpose/aim）、 方法（methods）、 结果（results） 结论（conclusion） 目前国内许多杂志正从非结构式摘要向半结构式摘要过度。 Does smoking predispose to peptic ulcer relapse after eradication of Helicobacter pylori? Chan F.k.l. –Department of Medicine, Prince of Wales Hospital,.. Objective: To investigate whether smoking would increase ulcer recurrence after… Methods: A total of 287 patients with gastric ulcers … Results: Of the 83 smokers,3 had ulcer recurrence, Conclusions: Cigarette smoking did not increase the recurrence of peptic ulcers after eradication of H. Pylori. About the tense 1）目的部分：背景介绍：一般现在时或现在完成时目的说明：一般现在时/现在完成时，或一般过去时 2）材料、方法和结果部分：除指示性说明外，一律用一般过去时。过去完成时只用于说明研究前的情况或研究中某一点时间之前发生的情况. 3）结论部分：凡陈述研究的材料、方法和结果时，一律用过去时；分析结果或发现的原因时，或者提出结论性意见时，如果作者认为具有普遍意义，可用现在时；如果作者认为自己的分析或结论只限于本研究范围或者仅是一种可能性，则用一般过去时为好。 Length of Abstracts Keep abstracts of most papers and portions of monographs to fewer than 250 words, abstracts of shorter papers to fewer than 100 words, and those of reports and longer theses to fewer than 500 words. Rarely does an abstract exceed one page. Write most abstracts in a single paragraph, except those for long documents. 五、摘要写作的注意事项 1、要概括研究的要点 2、要尽可能简洁 3、要符合逻辑、重点突出 4、要结构合理，用完整句表述 5、要行文流畅 第二章标题（title） 一、标题二、副标题三、英、汉标题特点的比较 四、冠词的省略五、标题中常用名词的搭配 六、标题中常用介词的搭配七、几种常用的标题句式 一、标题 Title （一）名词性标题（二）完整句标题（三）疑问句 （一）名词性标题 标题一般由一个名词或若干并列的名词，加上必要的修饰语构成，一般没有谓语成分 Laboratory diagnosis of SARS