11
41. What is the distinction between langue and parole? Why did Saussure make such a distinction?
42. What are the differences between sentence meaning and utterance meaning? And give examples to illustrate them.
10
41. Explain syntactic movement, NP-movement and WH-movement with examples.
42. Explain the term “euphemism”with examples. Describe the use of euphemisms in social communication. What will result in euphemistic clichés?
09
41. In some dialects of English, the word “ask” is pronounced [?ks], and children’s speech shows
a number of cases of sound movement, for example, “aminal” for “animal”. Now explain
sound movement by giving examples. State the difference between sound movement and sound addition by examples.
42. Describe the distinctive features of Black English in its syntactic system by using examples.
08
41.To what extent can we say that language is culturally transmitted? Explain with examples. Does animal communication have the same feature of cultural transmission?
42. According to John Austin’s new model, please illustrate the three speech acts a speaker might be performing simultaneously when speaking.
07
41.Do you think that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meanings of its components? Support your argument with examples.
42.Which maxim does B’s utterance in the following conversation violate? Does the violation give rise to conversational implicature? If it does, what is the implicature?
[A is talking with B about a film they have seen.]
A: The film was good. Don’t you think so?
B: The music was nice.
06
41.Discuss any FOUR of the features of human language that distinguish it from animal
communication system.
42.What is bilingualism? What is a bilingual community? What does it mean that most bilingual
communities have one thing in common?
05
41. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word, and modify the meaning of a stem, but usually do
not change the part of speech of the original word. Do you think it is true? Support your
answer with examples.
42. What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle? Please give examples to show how
the flouting of these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature (Give at least two examples, each flouting a different maxim).
05 01
41. Under what conditions will two sounds be assigned to the same phoneme?
42. For the following sentence, draw a tree diagram to reveal its underlying structure.
The girl ate the orange.
43. Study the passage taken from Shakespeare’s HAMLET below carefully and identify every difference in expression between Elizabethan and Modern English that is evident.
King: Where is Polonius?
Hamlet: In heaven, Send thither to see.
If your messenger find him not there,
seek him i’the other place yourself.
But indeed, if you find him not within
this month, you shall nose him as you
go up the stairs into the lobby.
04
41. The phonological features that occur above the level of individual sounds are called
suprasegmental features. Discuss the main suprasegmental features, illustrating with examples how they function in the distinction of meaning.
42. Explain and give examples to show in what way componential analysis is similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features.
03
41. Explain sociological triggers for language change by giving a typical example in the history of English.
42. Explain briefly the four main individual learner factors that affect a learner’s acquisition of a second language.
0241.Explain with examples the three notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, and also how they are related.
42.Explain what is sense and what is reference with examples.
01
41.In addition to revealing a linear order, a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, and consequently is believed to
most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.
For example, the phrase " the old men and women" may have two interpretations,
i.e.the adjective "old”may modify the noun "men", or the following two nouns "men and
women".Linear order analysis cannot tell this difference, so it is ambiguous.Whereas,the
constituent or tree diagrams analysis can make this difference clear.So,we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure analysis.
NP NP
NP NP NP NP
The old men and the women the old men and the old women
42.From the perspective of psycholinguistic analysis,language use in terms of
perception,comprehension and production follows a certain pattern which involves the coordination of various language centers.
When we speak,words are drawn from Wernicke's area and transferred to Broca's area, which determines the details of their form and pronunciation.The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area which controls the vocal tract to physically articulate the words.
When we hear something and try to comprehend it,t he stimulus from the auditory cortex is transmitted to Wernicke's area,where it is then interpreted.
When we perceive a visual image,a message is sent to the angular gyrus,where it is converted into a visual pattern.
全国 2018 年 1 月自学考试现代语言学试题 课程代码： 00830 I . Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. ( 2%×10=20% ) 1. The language behavior of particular persons on particular occasions is determined by many other factors over and above their linguistic ______. () A. system B. structure C. competence D. performance 2. When we pronounce the long vowels [i:] or [u:], our ______, which is a bony structure at the end of the windpipe, is in a state of tension. () A. larynx B. hard palate C. glottis D. vocal cords 3. The word “ manuscript ” is a two-morpheme cluster which contains ______. () A. two roots B. a root and a prefix C. a root and a suffix D. a root and a free morpheme 4. The grammatical knowledge is represented through Phrase Structure Rules,which state explicitly all and only the possible combinations of the ______ of a language, for example, in English, NP→ ( Det ) (Adj) N (PP) (S).) A. phrases B. clauses C. sentences D. constituents 5. The view that the meaning of a linguistic form is defined as the“ situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer ” was proposed by ______. () A. Plato B. Ogden and Richards C. John Firth D. Bloomfield 6. According to John Austin's theory of speech act, a(n) ______ act is the change brought about by the utterance. () 1
一、填空题:（每空1 分，本大题共10 分） 1. （）语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，它是语言学 走上独立发展道路的标志。 2. 人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制（ 掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。 3. 进入20世纪以后，语言研究的主流由历史比较语言学转为 （）。 4. 俄语属于印欧语系的（ 5. 一个音位包含的不同音素或者具体表现出来的音素叫做 （）。 6. 语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是（ 7. 现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于（）字 母。 8. 言外之意之所以能够被理解是因为（）起了补充说明的 作用。 9. 方言在社会完全分化的情况下，有可能发展成（? ）?； 在社会高度统一的情况下，会逐渐被共同语消磨直到同化。 10. 南京方言的“兰”、“南”不分，从音位变体的角度来说，[n ]和[l]是 属于（）变体。 二、单项选择题: 码填在题干上的括号内。（每小题1 分，本大题共15 分）
1. 在二十世纪，对哲学、人类学、心理学、社会学等学科产生重大影响 的语言学流派是（） A.历史比较语言学 B.心理语言学 C.结构主义语言学 D.社会语言学 2. “人有人言，兽有兽语”中的“言”属于（） A.语言 B.言语 C.言语行为 D.言语作品 3. “我爱家乡”中“爱”和“家乡”（） A.是聚合关系。 B.是组合关系。 C.既是聚合关系又是组合关系。 D. 4. 一种语言中数量最少的是 A.音素 B.音位 C.语素 D.音节 5. 英语的man—→men采用的语法手段是 A. 屈折变化 B.变换重音的位置 C. 变化中缀 D.异根 6. 在汉语普通话中没有意义区别功能的声学特征是（） A.音高 B.音强 C.音长 D.音质 7. [ε]的发音特征是 A.舌面前高不圆唇 B.舌面后高不圆唇 C.舌面前半高不圆唇 D.舌面前半低不圆唇 8. 构成“语言、身体”这两个词的语素的类型（） A.都是成词语素 B.都是不成词语素 C.“语”和“言”是成词语素，“身”和“体”是不成词语素 D.“语”和“言”是不成词语素，“身”和“体” 9. 广义地说，汉语动词词尾“着”、“了”、“过”属于语法范畴中的 （）
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义 一、常考题型 1.填空 2.单项选择 3.判断正误 4.解释词语并举例说明 对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明 5.回答问题 做题要求：用英文进行答题。 二、各章节学习要点 Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论） 1.What is linguistics? 1.1 Definition （语言学的定义） P.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general. 1.2 The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴） P.2—4 The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas. Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支： 1）phonetics（语音学） 2)phonology （音系学） 3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学） The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.
04年10月自考现代语言学试题(1) 课程代码：00830 ⅰ.directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter a,b,c or d in the brackets.(2%×10=20%) uses the term ( ) to refer to the actual realization of a language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication. a. langue b. competence c. parole d. performance terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds share the feature of ( ). a. palatal b. alveolar c. bilabial d. dental generative grammar was introduced by ( ) in 1957. a. l. bloomfield b. f. saussure c. n. chomsky a. k. halliday languages are viewed to vary according to ( ) set on ug principles to particular values. a. adjacent condition b. parameters c. case condition d. case requirement
全国2018年10月自学考试现代语言学试题 课程代码：00830 I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20% ) 1. The purpose of Chomsky’s definition is to focus attention on the purely ______ properties of language, and these properties can be studied from a mathematically precise point of view. （）A. lexical B. grammatical C. semantic D. structural 2. We refer to the limited range of sounds as the phonic medium of language and individual sounds within that range as ______.（） A. vowels B. consonants C. sounds D. speech sounds 3. A(n) ______ refers to the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. （） A. root B. stem C. affix D. morpheme 4. All sentences in all languages can be represented by constituent structure trees, and all have syntactic rules that determine the linear order of words and their ______ structure. （）A. linear B. hierarchical C. constituent D. syntactic 5. In semantic analysis of a sentence, a(n) ______ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element in a sentence. （） A. argument B. subject C. object D. predicate 6. Speaker A: Can you answer the telephone? Speaker B: I’m in the bath. Speaker B is violating the maxim of ______.（） 1
《语言学概论》练习1参考答案 （导言、第一章、第二章） 一、填空 1、语言学的三大发源地是中国、印度和希腊－罗马。 2、现代语言学的标志性著作是瑞士语言学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》。 3、印度最早的经典所使用的语言是梵语。 4、文字、音韵、训诂是中国“小学”的主要研究内容。 5、语言的功能包括社会功能和思维功能。 6、语言的社会功能包括信息传递功能和人际互动功能。 7、儿童语言习得一般经过独词句阶段和双词句阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。 8、说出的话语句子是无限的，但无限多的句子都是由有限的词和规则组装起来的。 9、符号包括形式和意义两个方面，二者不可分离。 10、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是语言符号的基本性质。 11、心理现实是存在于客观现实和语言符号之间的人脑中的信息存在状态。 12、语言系统二层性的一大特点是形式层的最小单位一定大大少于符号层的最小单位。 13、组合关系和聚合关系是语言系统中的两种根本关系。 14、动物无法掌握人类的语言，从生理基础看是不具有发达的大脑和灵活的发音器官。 二、问答题。 1、为什么说语言学是自然科学和人文科学的桥梁？ 从语言学发展的历史来看，语言学首先深受哲学、逻辑学等历史悠久的人文学科思想方法的影响，后来语言学摆脱对传统人文学科的附庸地位成为独立的学科后，受到许多自然科学研究的影响。比如，19世纪，历史比较语言学的语言观念和研究方法深受生物学的影响；20世纪初的语言结构思想与科学的整体论思想密切相关；生成语言学受数学、逻辑学影响；等等。与此同时，其他学科也开始从语言学理论中汲取有益的思想观念。20世纪的社会学、人类学、文学批评等都深受结构主义语言学的影响。 从19世纪后期开始，现代语言学的研究理念在很大程度上接受了物理学等自然科学的方法论原则，一些学者甚至提出语言学是一门自然科学。但另一方面，语言学又从未割断与传统人文学科的联系。语言学的这一特点在很大程度上源于语言现象的独特性。语言既具有社会属性，又是人类天赋的能力，既是贮存人类已有文明的宝库，又是人类新的精神创造的依托。语言是联系人类主观世界和外在客观世界的中介，是认识人类自身和外在世界的必要途径。所以说，语言学在科学体系中的地位是独特的，它是自然科学和人文科学的桥梁。语言学需要并正在成为一门领先的科学。 2、如何看待语言学研究的意义和价值？ （1）满足文化传承和文化交流的需求； （2）语言研究协同其他学科研究一起，在社会生活中发挥作用； （3）语言学研究为国家语文政策的制定提供支持。 3、语言功能的生理基础是什么，有哪些体现？ 大脑是人体最复杂的器官，是人的各种行为的指挥中枢，也是人类语言思维能力的生理基础。人的大脑有左右两个半球，左半球控制着语言功能及相关的计数、分类、推理等功能。
全国2002年10月高等教育自学考试 语言学概论试题 课程代码：00541 第一部分选择题 一、单项选择题(本大题共26小题，每小题1分，共26分)在每小题列出的四个选 项中只有一个选项是符合题目要求，请将正确选项前的字母填在题后的括号内。 1.关于口语和书面语的关系，下列说明不正确的一项是( ) A.任何一种语言总是先有口语，后有书面语 B.书面语是第一性的，口语是第二性的 C.在一个只有口语而没有书面语的社会中，社会交际存在着较大的局限 D.书面语是经过加工、提炼和发展了的口语的书面形式 2.区分“语言”和“言语”的主要目的是( ) A.明确语言学的研究对象 B.更好地研究书面语 C.强调在社会环境中研究语言 D.强调研究言语的个人特色 3.二十世纪语言学在索绪尔语言理论的影响下，集中主要精力研究的是( ) A.语言的历史演变 B.语言和民族的关系 C.语言和社会的关系 D.语言系统本身的内在规律 4.对人类语言而言，声音四要素中作用最重要的一个是( ) A.音高 B.音强 C.音长 D.音质
5.下列各组中，都是前元音的一组是( ) 6.下列各组辅音中，发音部位相同的一组是( ) A.[p,k] B.[n,b] C.[ts,s] D.[d,f] 7.语音不同于一般声音的本质属性是( ) A.物理属性 B.社会属性 C.生理属性 D.心理属性 8.常用语汇和非常用语汇主要是从下列哪个角度区分出来的( ) A.词的使用场合 B.词的专业特色 C.词的使用频率 D.词的历史来源 9.汉语经常用四字格表示而且使用最多的熟语形式是( ) A.成语 B.谚语 C.惯用语 D.歇后语 10.“最小的有意义的能独立使用的语言单位”是( ) A.语素 B.词 C.词组 D.字 11.英语动词“唱”的原形是sing，过去时形式是sang，这在语法手段的词形变化中叫作( ) A.附加 B.屈折 C.异根 D.零形式 12.英语句子“我看电视”有时写作I watch TV，有时写作I watched TV。其中动词 “watch(看)”的词形变化反映了语法上哪一种谓词属性范畴( )
全国2013年1月自学考试现代语言学试题 课程代码：00830 请考生按规定用笔将所有试题的答案涂、写在答题纸上。 选择题部分 注意事项： 1.答题前，考生务必将自己的考试课程名称、姓名、准考证号用黑色字迹的签字笔或钢笔填写在答题纸规定的位置上。 2.每小题选出答案后，用2B铅笔把答题纸上对应题目的答案标号涂黑。如需改动，用橡皮擦干净后，再选涂其他答案标号。不能答在试题卷上。 Ⅰ. Directions： Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and blacken the corresponding letter A, B, C or D on the ANSWER SHEET. (2%×10=20%) 1. Which of the following does NOT account for the fact that modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken form of language? A. Speech precedes writing. B. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form. C. People were encouraged to imitate the “best authors” for language usage. D. The spoken is used for a wider range of purposes than the written. 2. In terms of manner of articulation, the English consonants ［s］and ［z］are classified as ______. A. liquids B. affricates C. stops D. fricatives 3. Which of the following words has four morphemes? A. Undoubtedly. B. Instrument. C. Astonishing. D. Thermometer. 4. The word very in the phrase “very curious of the answer” is a ______ in terms of X-bar schema. A. specifier B. head 1 全国2013年1月自学考试现代语言学试题
自学考试《现代语言学》模拟试题及答案2017 2017 年自学备考正在开展中，考生们要扎扎实实地复习，一步一步地前进，以下是搜索整理的一份《现代语言学》模拟试题及答案，供参考练习，希望对大家有所帮助!想 了解更多相关信息请持续关注我们! I .Multiple Choice Directions:Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A,B,C or D in the brackets.(2% x 10=20%) 1. The pair of words “lend”and “borrow”are ___.( ) A. gradable opposites B.relational opposites C.co-hyponyms D.synonyms 2. The discovery of Indo-European language family began with the work of the British scholar .( ) A. Jacob Grimm B.Rasmus Rask C.Franz Bopp D.Sir William Jones 3. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as __.( ) A.unusual B.something to be feared C.abnormal D.natural 4. __produce fast and fluent speech with good intonation and pronunciation but the content of their speech ranges from mildly inappropriate to complete nonsense,often as unintelligible.( ) A.Broca's aphasic B.The linguistic deprivation C.The damage on the angular gyrus D.Wernicke's aphasic 5.Some Southern learners of English in China tend to say “night ” as “light ”.This shows: .( ) A. They cannot pronounce/n/ B. Interlangue interference because there is notthe sound /n/in their mother tongue C. The teachers do not have a good teaching method D. They do not like to pronounce nasal sounds 6. A word with several meanings is called __word.( ) A.a polysemous B.a synonymous C.an abnormal D.a multiple 7. The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn't it? ” is __.( ) https://www.doczj.com/doc/c414002378.html,rmative B.phatic C.directive D.performative
现代语言学试题 题型举例 Ⅰ. Define the following terms, giving examples for illustration (20%; 5 terms ): 1.duality----- 2.free morpheme---- 3.phonology ------ 4.context------- 5.polysemy ------ Ⅱ. Indicate the following statements true or false (20%; 20 statements): ( )1. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. ( )2. Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sentence pattern of a language. ( )3. Phonemes are the smallest meaningful unit of language. ( )4. Modern linguists regard the written language as primary, not the spoken. ( )5. English is a typical tone language. Ⅲ. Fill each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given (20%; 20 blanks): 1. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the a_________ of that phoneme. 2. A linguistic study is d___________ if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is p___________ if it tries to lay down rules for correct behavior. 3. Competence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of his l____________, while p____________ is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. 4. The two subtypes of affixes are p____________ and s_____________. 5. The description of a language at some point in time is a s______________ study. 6. P_______________ can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 7. The notion of c______________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.
一、名词解释 1．音位：具体语言或方言里具有区别词的语音形式作用的最小语音单位。 2．音位变体：（处于互补关系中的各个音素无区别形式和辨义作用，可以被看成一个音位。）这种处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看成同一个音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同变异形式，叫音位变体。 3．语法规则的递归性：语法的组合结构一层套一层，所以同样的结构规则尽可以重复使用而不致造成结构上的混乱。同样的结构规则可以层层嵌套，借用数学的术语来说，这就是结构规则有递归性。 4．词义：由人们对现实现象的反映以及由此带来的人们对现实现象的主观评价，叫作词的词汇意义，简称词义。 5．语法范畴：就是语法意义的类，同一性质的语法意义进一步概括成类，因而称为“语法范畴”。 6．亲属语言：从同一种语言分化出来的几种独立的语言，彼此有同源关系，我们称它们为亲属语言。 7．双语现象：指被融合民族的成员一般会讲两种语言：本族语和在融合中占优势的那种语言。 8．词义转移：如果原来的词义表示某类现实现象，后来改变为表示另一类现实现象，这种演变就是词义的转移。 6．互补关系：音素之间的互补关系是指几个不同的音素各有自己的出现环境，它们从不在相同的语音环境中出现和互相替换。 7．语流音变：在连续的语流中（音位和音位组合的时候），某个音由于受邻近音的影响，或者由于说话时快慢、高低、强弱的不同，可能发生不同的变化。这种变化叫做语流音变。 8．语法意义：指词进入语法组合之后由语法结构所赋予的词义之外的意义。（指词在组合与聚合中所产生的关系意义。） 9．语言融合：指一种语言排挤和替代其他语言而成为不同民族的共同交际工具。 10．组合关系:语言符号与符号之间按照一定规律相互结合的关系就是语言的组合关系。这是语言符号的一种配排连贯的横向关系。 11．内部曲折：也叫语音交替，指通过词内部词根中的语音的变化构成语法形式，表示某种语法意义，这种手段就是内部曲折。 12．社会方言：各语言社团在全民语言的基础上产生各有自己特点的语言分支或语言变体，这就是社会方言。 13．聚合关系：在语言链条的某一环节上能够互相替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，他们自然地聚合成群。它们彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。 14．对立关系：音素之间的对立关系是指不同的音素可以出现在相同的语音环境里，它们的差别能区别词的语音形式和意义。 15．层次分析：在分析语言结构时，将语言结构的层次性考虑进来，并按其构造层次逐层进行分析，在分析时，指出每一层面的直接组成成分，这种分析叫“结构的层次分析”。 16．借词：也叫外来词，它指的是音与义都借自外语的词。 17．语法意义：指词进入语法组合之后由语法结构所赋予的词义之外的意义。（指词在组合与聚合中所产生的关系意义。） 18．书面语：是用文字记载下来的供看的语言，它在口语的基础上形成，使听说的语言符号系统变成“看”语言符号系统。
全国2006年10月高等教育自学考试 现代语言学试题 课程代码：0830 Ⅰ.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets.(2%×10=20%) 1．Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of（） A．all consonants B．vowels only C．all consonants and some vowels D．all vowels and some consonants 2．The negative prefix“ in-”in English, when added to the adjective “possible”, is actually pronounced/im/,and spelt as “im”. This is the result of the ______________rule at work. （） A．deletion B．assimilation C．phonetic D．sequential 3．The word “ecology” is a two-morpheme cluster that contains_______________.（）A．two roots B．a root and a suffix C．a root and a free morpheme D．a prefix and a root 4．When we move the adverbial phrase “every day” in the sentence “Every day, we study English” to the end of the sentence, we are now ______________ the phrase to the right.（）A．rewriting B．preposing C．postposing D．maintaining 5．Antonyms are divided into several kinds .Which of the following is NOT a kind of antonyms? （） A．complementary B．relational C．superordinate D．gradable 6．In terms of predication analysis , the utterance“ Is it going to snow this afternoon?” is a______________（） A．one-place predication B．two-place predication C．three-place predication D．no-place predication 7．In Old English, word order was freer because the case endings were rich. So in Old English, word orders included SVO, VSO, SOV and OSV. However, Modern English has a much weaker case system, so its sentences have to follow a basic word order of________________.
全国2010年10月自学考试现代语言学试题 I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C, or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20% ) 1. The purpose of Chomsky’s definition is to focus attention on the purely ______ properties of language, and these properties can be studied from a mathematically precise point of view. A. lexical B. grammatical C. semantic D. structural 2. We refer to the limited range of sounds as the phonic medium of language and individual sounds within that range as ______. A. vowels B. consonants C. sounds D. speech sounds 3. A(n) ______ refers to the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A. root B. stem C. affix D. morpheme 4. All sentences in all languages can be represented by constituent structure trees, and all have syntactic rules that determine the linear order of words and their ______ structure. A. linear B. hierarchical C. constituent D. syntactic 5. In semantic analysis of a sentence, a(n) ______ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element in a sentence. （） A. argument B. subject C. object D. predicate 6. Speaker A: Can you answer the telephone? Speaker B: I’m in the bath. Speaker B is violating the maxim of ______.（） A. quantity B. quality C. relation D. manner 7. New words may be formed from existing words by the removal of a suffix thought to be part of the old word. Such a process is called ______, e.g., caretake from caretaker. A. back-formation B. clipping C. blending D. abbreviating 8. It is insulting to a woman to be called a spinster, but it is not insulting to a man to be called a bachelor. There is nothing inherently ______ about the word spinster. The connotations reflect the sexist views society has about an unmarried woman as opposed to an unmarried man. A. important B. unusual C. pejorative D. commendatory 9. Human linguistic ability depends primarily on human ______. （） A. brain B. vocal cords C. tongue D. articulatory organs 10. In the ______ stage, children begin to produce longer utterances with more complex grammatical structures. （） A. prelinguistic B. one-word C. two-word D. multi-word Ⅱ. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. ( 1%×10=10% ) 11. D linguistics is the systematic description and elucidation of all linguistic changes through time. It studies the historical development of language over a period of time. For example, a study of the changes English has undergone since the time of Shakespeare would be a diachronic study. 12. The phonemes of a language cannot be strung together in any random order to form words. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other, in other words, there are s rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. 13. Morphology can be divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and d morphology. 14. Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. It is universally found that syntactic rules comprise a speaker’s system of i linguistic knowledge known as linguistic competence. 15. Pairs of words which exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the lexical items are called r opposites. 16. Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of m , but what distinguishes them is whether the context of use is considered.