外文文献翻译:原文+译文
原文
The study on fund operation and risk management of mergers and acquisitions
Haslem A
Abstract
International mergers and acquisitions fund first appeared in the United States, and then spread to Europe and Japan. Now M&A has developed into a mature market, the mainstream form of private equity funds. As of January 2012, global mergers and acquisitions fund capital reserves of $367 billion, total private equity fund capital reserve ratio of 40%, 2.3 times for venture capital fund capital reserves. From brokers involved in mergers and acquisitions fund Angle, this paper introduce the basic operation mode of the buy-out funds, focusing on pricing mechanism has carried on the analysis and research, also note the M&A risks, combined with the current problems in mergers and acquisitions related policy Suggestions are put forward. Keywords: M&A fund, operation form, M&A risk
1 Introduction
Acquisition refers to a company achieved a certain degree of control over other companies through property rights transactions, in order to achieve certain economic objectives of economic behavior. Under the background of economic transformation, through mergers and acquisitions to develop emerging industry is of great significance to the development of the company. One is to realize the quick access to enterprise growth, break through the barriers to enter the best choice of the emerging industries. It is to help industry consolidation, perfecting the product layout, produce scale effect and synergistic effect, improve the efficiency of management, and realize the strategic development goal. Three is the enterprise to choose high quality targets, complementary advantages, at the same time to obtain investment returns. According to the Angle of industry division, can be divided into three types: one is horizontal mergers and acquisitions: refers to the same belongs to an industry or trade, production and sales of similar products of enterprises between the purchase behavior. Its aim is to eliminate competition, expand market share, increase the acquisition of
the company's monopoly power or to form scale effect. Generally occur in the competition between enterprises, is one of the most often used in corporate mergers and acquisitions, the most direct impact on industry development. The second is the longitudinal mergers and acquisitions: refers to the process of production or business links between closely related company acquisitions. Basic features are the market as a whole range of vertical integration. Take place between the upstream and downstream of the same industry, between suppliers and customers, mainly concentrated in the iron and steel, oil dependence on raw materials such as larger energy and basic industries. Three is mixed M&A: also called compound acquisition, refers to the production and business operations unrelated to each other between the product or service company acquisitions. Basic characteristics is occurred in the merger between enterprises of different industries, mainly in order to spread risk, diversification is an important method, for the enterprise to enter other industries provides a powerful and convenient, low-risk way, mainly in the stronger in the enterprise.
2 The status of M&A fund
Over the past few years private equity funds by taking a stake in the Pre ‐lucrative IPOs, so growth funds is still the mainstream. However, as the Pre ‐ IPO investment increased competition, pre-IPO investment and the secondary market spreads gradually narrowed, growth fund returns will gradually decline. Buy-out fund just belong to the early stage, its development lag reason is that mergers and acquisitions fund for corporate control has the certain difficulty, supporting financing channel is narrow, and exit channel not free, such as professional manager market to mature, and mergers and acquisitions fund operation is more complex, less capable management team. In recent years, however, with the rapid development of economy, the increased number of scale enterprise, and the majority of the industry have excess capacity and transition of vicious competition, mergers and acquisitions increased demand quickly, and private entrepreneurs also faces the problem of change and renewal and the possibility of controlling owners increase, state-owned enterprises are facing the critical moment of industrial upgrading and transformation, integration through the industry leading industry become an important choice. At the same time,
with the increasingly mature of investment and financing channels and capital market increasingly market-oriented, form a complete set of channels of financing channels and exit problems resolved step, the ranks of professional managers also gradually growing, mergers and acquisitions fund market environment is gradually mature. The increasing competition of the project and the rate of return is reduced, makes the dominant status of shrinking space of growth funds. Therefore, mergers and acquisitions fund will occupy the mainstream position, and through the combination of different financing products, promote mergers and acquisitions to further improve capital market environment, promote the product diversification, by adjusting the enterprise structure optimization of the existing market allocation of resources. Buyout funds has become the mainstream, is its actively look for in a financial or management dilemma or point of large and medium-sized companies, large scale and complex structure, these companies will be involved in the process of acquisition is the overall amount of capital scale and specialization of transaction structure design. Acquisition process operation complexity was also significantly higher than that of growth fund or risk investment, high barriers to entry, and mergers and acquisitions fund long-term yields similar to venture capital, but not higher than the risk coefficient of risk investment, also has great appeal to investors. And mergers and acquisitions fund of a single investment scale, obtain the absolute return is bigger, so the investors profit scale is larger. At the same time, buyout funds usually consist of relatively large, experienced private equity fund management companies, institutional investors for its relatively high recognition. In mature markets, the financing channel is smooth, with a certain income or profit growth companies have access to a variety of financing market environment. So mature markets private equity fund market pattern is usually embodied in: the rapid growth of venture capital to assist start-ups, mergers and acquisitions fund supporting large and medium-sized enterprises to upgrade transformation, the space of growth funds are compressed very small.
3 The major functions of M&A fund
In operation, mergers and acquisitions funds generally belong to holding funds, but sometimes buy-out funds can also be an equity funds, play a different role in
mergers and acquisitions.
3.1 Providing the funds needed for the merger, acquisition and reorganization
Main types of projects including but not limited to: based on laws and regulations, on time, the main body of the policy limit, need to mergers and acquisitions fund to cross the bridge project. Payment shall be limited to cash, the cash after complete the capital operation such as recycled back to the project of related parties. Such projects have shorter time period, income is relatively stable, risk control, etc.
3.2 Assisting customer acquisition target enterprise
Main application field for actual mergers raise all the money is difficult in the short term, the funding gap part by buy-out funds to help solve, joint acquisition target enterprise, enterprise mergers and acquisitions fund participation mark. For the target project after the completion of the acquisition, produced by acquirers with actual project cash flow or other sources of cash flow fund holds a minority stake in the repurchase M&A. These projects have a certain risk, but may provide the equity pledge by requiring the actual acquirers (including the equity pledge, the acquirers of the target company equity pledge, etc), the pledge of movable property, real estate/mortgage, the third party risk control in the form of joint liability guarantee, etc.
3.3 Holding acquisition target enterprise directly
Enterprise M&A object mainly is the quality good target, after adjusting for industrial integration, management structure can quickly improve value, in the future through the whole/money selling and listed spin-off. The difficulty lies in its own funds footprint is big, cycle is relatively long, management pressure, and have a certain risk. Buyout funds for all kinds of restructuring projects to provide the funds required for the cash option, absorption merger of listed companies often need to have financial strength of a third party to provide cash option. Buy-out funds can be the option of the disclosing party, as cash acquisition of dissent shareholders, when conditions are ripe again by major shareholders repurchase of listed companies, to get premium (a better quality of the listed company, also can hold for a long time).Cash option can be provided to all shareholders, can also provide to vote at shareholder's
meetings for the shareholders.
4 Brokerage M&A fund operation model
One is as sponsor by brokers direct investment company, set up wholly owned or controlled by the fund management co., LTD., the fund management company as the general partners in combination with other investment funds of the partnership, limited partners jointly set up M&A and responsible for mergers and acquisitions after the buyout funds set up fund management and operations, general partners bear unlimited joint and several liability for the debts of buy-out funds. The advantages of limited partnership is professional management autonomy, can realize the investor the perfect combination of capital investment skill and professional managers, profit distribution and flexible avoid double pay taxes.Second, the partner meeting for mergers and acquisitions fund all the partners of the organization, partner meeting can be classified into regular meetings and interim meetings. Annually convene a meeting regularly, its content for the communication information and general partners limited partners to report investment situation. Interim meeting mainly discuss specific major matters of the partnership agreement. Three is the general partner shall establish a commission investment decisions, responsible for the final decision of equity investment business investment items, including investment in the buy-out funds, buy, sell and transfer matters to make a decision. Generally can also set the advisory committee, whose members are held by a representative of the general partner invited a limited partner. Responsibilities mainly include the potential conflicts of interest or investment matters more than investment restrictions, valuation issues and associated business matters to discuss and make recommendations to the general partner. Fourth, mergers and acquisitions fund entrust a commercial bank as mergers and acquisitions fund custodian, the basic responsibility for mergers and acquisitions of cash implementation in the fund account keeping. Mergers and acquisitions funds all cash assets, manage according to the provisions of the partnership agreement, including the deposit bank, buying bonds and other fixed-income security products etc. Buyout funds generally total amount will be made to the same portfolio companies in excess of 30% of the mergers and acquisitions fund total amount subscribed capital
investment. Buyout funds generally shall not invest in real estate shall not be engaged in guarantee business and may not be on the secondary market for short-term price difference for the purpose of buying and selling shares. Five is according to the characteristics of the current M&A market, combined with the brokerage industry talent reserves, tend to focus on financial and business services, consumer and agricultural, manufacturing and technology, energy and materials in areas such as investment opportunities, culture and media. Through controlling acquisition, consolidation investment and other laws and regulations permit the investment in the form of investment, business restructuring to the target company and improve, improve enterprise value, eventually to listing, equity transfer, private placement, the original shareholders to buy back a variety of ways, such as exit to obtain investment returns. Six is mergers and acquisitions fund investment management operation, generally according to the concept of market-oriented operation, establish a professional and efficient investment decision-making system and scientific process, performance and risk management, promote the market mechanism to improve the efficiency of the allocation of resources and quality, to create a return on investment for investors. Mergers and acquisitions fund is based on the value of the invested enterprise value-added investment value of appreciation. Mergers and acquisitions fund work closely with the invested enterprise management team, for the enterprise to provide value-added services, including: the implementation of enterprise long-term value promotion plan. The acquirer's management is to achieve the interests of the community, through the design of incentive mechanism to solve the problem of agent. Produce synergies with the management, balance short-term results and long-term development strategy, asset integration promote enterprise value, the integration of these assets include: splitting and sale of inefficient assets and departments, withdraw the low return on investment, reduce and control costs, reduce bureaucracy, simplify the management mechanism, adjustment of capital structure, reduce the cost of capital, improve the company reputation, etc. M&A fund according to the different patterns of investment strategy, for the enterprises to implement different levels of control and influence, take control of the enterprise including, or joining the board of directors,
participation in enterprises in the aspects of finance, personnel, strategic decision making; Close supervision enterprise financial situation, help enterprises to introduce capital and the partner, extend new market opportunities.
文献出处：Haslem A. The study on fund operation and risk management of mergers and acquisitions [J]. Economic Journal, 2016, 3(2): 18-28.
译文
并购基金运作及风险管理研究
摘要
国际并购基金最早出现在美国，随后扩展到欧洲以及日本。目前并购基金已经发展成为成熟市场私募股权基金的主流形式。截至2012 年 1 月，全球并购基金资本储备为3670 亿美元，占全部私募股权基金资本储备比例达到40%，为风险投资基金资本储备的 2.3 倍。本文从券商参与并购基金角度，介绍了并购基金的基本运作模式，重点对定价机制进行了分析与研究，还特别提示了并购交易存在的风险，并结合目前在并购交易中存在的问题提出了相关政策建议。
关键词：并购基金，运作形式，并购风险
1 引言
收购指一个公司通过产权交易取得其他公司一定程度的控制权，以实现一定经济目标的经济行为。在经济转型的背景下，通过并购开拓新兴产业对公司的发展具有重要意义。一是实现企业成长的快速通道，突破行业壁垒进入新兴行业的最佳选择；二是有助于产业整合、完善产品布局，产生规模效应和协同效应，提高经营效率，实现战略发展目标；三是企业选择优质的并购标的，可优势互补，同时获取投资收益。按行业角度划分，可分为三类：一是横向并购：指同属于一个产业或行业，生产或销售同类产品的企业之间发生的收购行为。其目的在于消除竞争，扩大市场份额，增加收购公司的垄断实力或形成规模效应。一般发生在竞争企业间，是在企业并购中运用最多的一种方式，对行业发展影响最为直接。二是纵向并购：指生产过程或经营环节紧密相关的公司之间的收购行为。基本特征是市场整体范围内的纵向一体化，发生在同一产业的上下游之间，供应商和客
户之间，主要集中在钢铁、石油等对原材料依赖较大的能源与基础工业。三是混合并购：又叫复合收购，指生产和经营彼此没有关联的产品或服务的公司之间的收购行为。基本特征是发生在不同行业企业之间的并购，主要为了分散风险，多元化的一个重要方法，为企业进入其他行业提供了有力、便捷，低风险的途径，主要发生在实力较强的企业中。
2 并购基金现状
过去几年私募股权基金可通过参股Pre‐IPO 项目获得丰厚回报，因此成长型基金仍是主流。然而，随着Pre‐IPO 投资竞争加剧，上市前投资和二级市场价差逐渐缩小，成长型基金丰厚回报必然逐渐下降。并购基金刚刚属于起步阶段，其发展滞后的原因在于：并购基金获取企业控制权有一定难度、配套融资渠道窄、以及退出渠道不畅、职业经理人市场有待成熟等，加之并购基金的运作比较复杂，有能力的管理团队较少。然而近几年，随着经济的快速发展，成规模企业数目增多，而多数行业又存在产能过剩和过渡恶性竞争的情况，并购需求增加很快，而民营企业家也面临更迭换代的问题，控股权易主的可能性增加，国有企业则面临产业升级和转型的关键时刻，通过行业龙头进行产业整合成为重要选择。同时，随着投融资渠道的日益成熟和资本市场的日益市场化，配套融资渠道和退出渠道等问题步得到解决，职业经理人队伍也逐步壮大，并购基金的市场环境逐渐成熟。而项目竞争的日益激烈和回报率降低，会使目前占主流地位的成长型基金的空间逐渐缩小。因此，并购基金将占据主流地位，并通过对不同融资产品的组合运用，推动并购资金配套市场环境的进一步改善，促进产品多元化，通过调整企业结构优化现有市场的资源配置。并购基金之所以会成为主流，在于其主动寻找处于财务或管理困境或者转折期的大中型公司，这些公司规模较大、交易结构复杂，收购过程中会涉及相当规模的资金量和专业化的交易结构设计。收购过程的操作复杂度也显著高于成长型基金或风险投资，具有较高的进入门槛，而且并购基金的长期收益率与风险资本相近，但风险系数却不高于风险投资，对投资人也具有较大的吸引力。加上并购基金的单一投资规模较大，所获取的绝对收益较大，因此投资人获得利润规模也较大。同时，并购基金通常由相对大型的、有经验的私募股权基金管理公司运作，机构投资人对其认可度相对较高。在成熟市场中，融资渠道较通畅，有一定收入或者利润的成长型企业（完整译文请到百度文库）具
文献出处：Bedard J C, Hoitash R, et al. The development of the enterprise risk management theory [J]. Contemporary Accounting Research, 2014, 30(4): 64-95. （声明：本译文归百度文库所有，完整译文请到百度文库。） 原文 The development of the enterprise risk management theory Bedard J C, Hoitash R Abstract Enterprise risk management as an important field of risk management disciplines, in more than 50 years of development process of the implementation of dispersing from multiple areas of research to the integration of comprehensive risk management framework evolution, the theory of risk management and internal audit and control theory are two major theoretical sources of risk management theory has experienced from the traditional risk management, financial volatility to the development of the enterprise risk management, risk management and internal audit and control theory went through the internal accounting control and internal control integrated framework to the evolution of enterprise risk management, the development of the theory of the above two points to the direction of the enterprise risk management, finally realizes the integration development, enterprise risk management theory to become an important part of enterprise management is indispensable. Keywords: enterprise risk management, internal audit the internal control 1 The first theory source, evolution of the theory of risk management "Risk management" as a kind of operation and management idea, has a long history: thousands of years ago in the west have "don't put all eggs in one basket" the proverb, the ancient Chinese famous "product valley hunger" allusions and "yicang ("
本科毕业论文（设计） 外文翻译 Financial Risk Management Although financial risk has increased significantly in recent years, risk and risk management are not contemporary issues. The result of increasingly global markets is that risk may originate with events thousands of miles away that have nothing to do with the domestic market. Information is available instantaneously, which means that change, and subsequent market reactions, occur very quickly. The economic climate and markets can be affected very quickly by changes in exchange rates, interest rates, and commodity prices. Counterparties can rapidly become problematic. As a result, it is important to ensure financial risks are identified and managed appropriately. Preparation is a key component of risk management. What Is Risk? Risk provides the basis for opportunity. The terms risk and exposure have subtle differences in their meaning. Risk refers to the probability of loss, while exposure is the possibility of loss, although they are often used interchangeably. Risk arises as a result of exposure. Exposure to financial markets affects most organizations, either directly or indirectly. When an organization has financial market exposure, there is a possibility of loss but also an opportunity for gain or profit. Financial market exposure may provide strategic or competitive benefits. Risk is the likelihood of losses resulting from events such as changes in market prices. Events with a low probability of occurring, but that may result in a high loss, are particularly troublesome because they are often not anticipated. Put another way, risk is the probable variability of returns. Since it is not always possible or desirable to eliminate risk, understanding it is an important step in determining how to manage it.
工程项目风险管理案例分析 风险管理的重点是成本、进度、质量、健康/安全/环 境（HSE）和资源供应等风险。 一、工程概况：指在施工程项目的基本情况,其主要内容包括:建设单位、单位、单位、施工单位、工 程地点、工程总、施工条件、开竣工日期、面积、 形式等。（自己写写就OK） 二、不确定分析（看着加吧） （1）费用不确定：在工程还未完工之前，该工程所花费的具体数额是不能确定的。 （2）进度不确定：工程完工之前，需要多长的工期因为众多因素的不确定而无法确定。 （3）质量不确定：我们只能尽量保证工程质量符号标准，而无法确定工程在未完工之前的质量。 （4）水文地质不确定：在勘察和实际所面临的水文地质等可能因为时间的改变而改变，无法准确定位。 （5）工程收益不确定：收益总是改变的，且具体数额不可能提前预知。 （6）移民拆迁等不确定 三、风险清单（看着加吧） （1）不可抗力：不能预见、不能避免和不能克服的
客观情况 （2）资源供应：包括人力资源、财力资源、物质资源和技术信息资源。 （3）法规变更：新的规范、规定。 （4）行政风险：新的行政命令。 （5）利率风险：利率变化使工程的实际收益与预期收益或实际成本与预期成本发生背离，使其实际收益低于预期收益，或实际成本高于预期成本，从而使工程遭受损失的可能性。 （6）通胀风险：投资行为所面临的系统风险，指因通货膨胀引起货币贬值造成资产价值和劳动收益缩水的风险。 （7）技术风险：是指伴随着科学技术的发展、生产方式的改变而产生的威胁人们生产与生活的风险。技术风险可依据工程项目风险定义进行等级区分。通常分为低、中、高风险三个等级。 低风险是指可辨识且可监控其对项目目标影响的风险；中等风险是指可辨识的，对工程系统的技术性能、费用或进度将产生较大影响的风险，这类风险发生的可能性相当高，是有条件接受的事件，需要对其进行严密监控。高风险是指发生的可能性很高，不可接受的事件，其
文献出处: Comell B., Financial risk control of Mergers and Acquisitions [J]. International Review of Business Research Papers, 2014, 7(2): 57-69. 原文 Financial risk control of Mergers and Acquisitions Comell Abstract M&A plays a significant part in capital operation activities. M&A is not only important way for capital expansion, but also effective method for resource allocation optimization. In the world around, many firms gained high growth and great achievement through M&A transactions. The cases include: the merger between German company Daimler-Benz and U.S. company Chrysler, Wal-Mart’s acquisition for British company ADSA, Exxon’s merger with Mobil and so on. Keywords: Enterprise mergers and acquisitions; Risk identification; Risk control 1 Risk in enterprise mergers and acquisitions May encounter in the process of merger and acquisition risk: financial risk, asset risk, labor risk, market risk, cultural risk, macro policy risk and risk of laws and regulations, etc. 1. 1 Financial risk Refers to the authenticity of corporate financial statements by M&A and M&A enterprises in financing and operating performance after the possible risks. Financial statements is to evaluate and determine the trading price in acquisition of important basis, its authenticity is very important to the whole deal. False statements beautify the financial and operating conditions of the target enterprise, and even the failing companies packing perfectly. Whether the financial statements of the listed companies or unlisted companies generally exists a certain degree of moisture, financial reporting risk reality In addition, the enterprise because of mergers and acquisitions may face risks, such as shortage of funds, a decline in margins has adverse effects on the development of enterprises.
文献出处：Borkar S, Koranne S. Study of Service Quality Management in Hotel Industry [J]. Pacific Business Review International, 2014, 6(9): 21-25. 原文 Study of Service Quality Management in Hotel Industry Borkar; Sameer Abstract It is an attempt to understand the role of quality improvement process in hospitality industry and effectiveness in making it sustainable business enterprise. It is a survey of the presently adopted quality management tools which are making the hotels operations better focused and reliable and meet the customer expectations. Descriptive research design is used to know the parameters of service quality management in hospitality industry. Exploratory research design is undertaken to dig out the service quality management practices and its effectiveness. Data analysis is done and presented; hypothesis is tested against the collected data. Since the industry continuously tries to improve upon their services to meet the levels of customer satisfaction; Study presents tools for continuous improvement process and how it benefits all the stake holders. It can be inferred from the study that the hotel implement continuous improvement process and quality management tools to remain competitive in the market. The study involves hotels of highly competitive market with limited number of respondents. This limits the study to hotel industry and has scope of including other hospitality service providers as well. Keywords:Customer Satisfaction, Perception, Performance Measurement, Continuous, Improvement Process. Introduction It has brought paradigm shifts in the operations of hospitality industry. The overall perspective of the industry is changed due to introduction of new techniques
ERP项目实施成功因素和风险管理 参考国外的一些文献资料，一个成功的ERP项目，往往要花费数年时间，数千万美元得以完成。再回头看国内，随着ERP怀疑论的抬头，价格战的兴起，ERP作为一种软件供应商的产品，却有走下神坛趋势。就连ERP界的首领SAP 也推出了Business One产品，价格低于十万。不过，即便ERP软件能做到免费，或如IBM推崇的按需收费的境界，从整个企业实施的角度，考虑到人员、培训、维护、业务重组、二次开发、三次、n次开发，其费用应该也在数百万乃至千万人民币的规模。这对于国内企业而言，已是不小的数目了。 但是，还是有不少企业怀着美丽的梦想，踏上ERP实施的艰辛之旅。其中又有不少项目以失败告终。而对于那些最后的幸存者，是否就可以还戟入仓，饮酒高歌呢？ 事实上，企业在成功实施ERP项目后，将面对较实施前更大的风险。在未来的五到十年中，是否有一个扎实的ERP风险管理机制将决定了企业是否能在最初的ERP投资中真正获益。 1998年Thomas H.Davenport在哈佛商务评论发表了名为《将企业放入企业系统》的文章(Putting the entERPrise into the entERPrise system)。该文系统地提出了企业系统，或称ERP系统给企业运作带来积极及消极的引响。同时也直接提出了未来企业必须面对的一个风险：将整个企业放入企业系统中的风险。 按照美国项目管理协会对风险的定义，“风险”是指对项目有利或不利的不确定因素。 项目是“为完成某一独特的产品或服务所做的一次性努力”，项目的“独特性”决定了项目不可能是以与以前完全相同的方式、由与以前完全相同的人来完成的，同时，项目所要创造的产品或服务，以及项目可能涉及的范围、时间及成本都不可能在项目开始时完全确定，因此，在项目进行过程中也相应会出现大量的不确定性，即项目风险。本文以下所提到的“风险”是指对项目“不利”的不确定因素。 对项目不利的风险存在于任何项目中，并往往会给项目的推进和项目的成功带来负面影响。风险一旦发生，它的影响是多方面的，如导致项目产品/服务的功能无法满足客户的需要、项目费用超出预算、项目计划拖延或被迫取消等，其最终体现为客户满意度的降低。因此，识别风险、评估风险并采取措施应对风险即风险管理对项目管理具有十分重要的意义。 风险管理的具体内容 项目风险管理主要分为以下几个步骤：风险识别、定性/定量风险分析、风险应对计划编制及风险监控。 1.风险识别 风险识别，是指识别并记录可能对项目造成不利影响的因素。由于项目处于不断发展变化的过程中，因此风险识别也贯穿于整个项目实施的全过程,而不仅仅是项目的开始阶段。风险识别不是一次性的工作，而需要更多系统的、横向的思维。几乎所有关于项目的计划与信息都可能作为风险识别的依据，如项目进度及成本计划、工作分解结构、项目组织结构、项目范围、类似项目的历史信息等。 需要注意的是，并非所有的风险都可以通过风险识别来进行管理。风险识别只能发现已知风险（如：已知项目组织中某一成员能力不能完全满足要求）或已知未知风险（known-unknown,即“事件名称已知”，如“客户方人员参与力度不足”）；而某些风险，由于项目的独特性，不可能在其发生前预知
项目风险管理案例分析 1公司背景简介 河北H-A会计师事务所是河北省财政厅对国有大中型企业进行社会审计的试点所，承担省直大中型企业的审计工作。具有丰富工作经验，拥有一批具有丰富实践经验的注册会计师。 河北省某研究所是省直科研单位，现有50多位员工。在基于WINDOWS平台开发软件方面，具备较丰富的实战技能。河北H-A会计师事务所在审计工作中发现，很多企业都采用了会计电算化软件，对审计工作提出新的要求。社会审计工作的需要，对开发计算机辅助审计软件的愿望越来越强烈。所以就联合河北省某研究所进行联合开发 2实际项目分析 2.1项目介绍 该系统基于windows和sql server进行开发，开发工具是powerbulider。项目开发过程中，共生成程序源代码约数万行，项目开发的难度和源代码行数都比预计的要多。 计算机辅助审计软件具有工作底稿制作能力和查证功能；数据可传递，能自动生成和人工输入相结合，产生合并抵销分录；能自动产生勾稽无误的审计报告和会计报表附注；有灵活开放的系统，方便用户进行二次开发等特点。 2.2开发队伍的风险 开发团队维持在10人上下，事务所提供3人，开发单位6-7人，有一些人员只能部分时间工作，开发人员能够自始至终地参加整个项目的工作。开发人员的流动基本能保证工作的连续性。 2.3技术风险 数据结构复杂，关联比较多。需要创建新的算法或输入,输出技术；软件需要与其他软件产品的数据库系统接口；客户能确定所要求的功能是可行的。同时，由于当时审计软件在国内的应用尚处于起步阶段，开发人员普遍对该系统比较陌生，这也带来了相当的技术风险。 2.4客户相关风险 用户对自己真正的需求并不是十分明确，他们认为计算机是万能的，只要简单的说说自己想干什么就是把需求说明白了，而对业务的规则、工作流程却不愿多谈，也讲不清楚。有的用户日常工作繁忙，他们不愿意付出更多的时间和精力向分析人员讲解业务，这样加大分析人员的工作难度和工作量，也可能导致因业务需求不足而使系统风险加大。 2.5项目按时完成的风险 另外，这个项目也像许多其它软件项目一样，面临着竣工日期带来的巨大压力。 3实际的风险管理状况 凭借公司在以往的经验，在此软件项目的整个生命周期中，任何阶段都有可能有风险存在，WBS是完整表示项目，且伴随整个项目生命周期的项目要素，所以以WBS为基础进行风险管理，既可以方便地识别，标识相应的风险来源，又方便和项日其他工作一起，统一管理。 在软件项目中，各阶段主要工作简述如下：
企业并购文献综述总表 作者时间文章名字视角理论方法 实证 结论(应用) 样本期 限 数量所用模型 贺虹吕凡2008.01 对并购协同 效应含义及 计算方法的 认识 协同效应 的含义及 计算方法 规范我国并购协同效应的计 算可以从企业价值评估 和业绩评价的理论方法 着手，例如EVA、BSC、 DCF、股价收益评估、财 务数据等 朱宝宪吴亚君2004.09 企业协同效 应的计算 国内外协 同效应的 实证研究 中的计算 方法 规范协同效应的多种计算方 法发展较成熟的是在异 常累计基础上计算以及 从业绩改变角度着手衡 量，评价新模型和国内 的两种方法在计算的合 理性以及准确性上则需 要做进一步的探讨。 1
夏新平宋光耀1999.03 企业并购中 协同效应的 计算 内部、外部 计算模型 对协同效 应的计算 规范两种模型各有利弊，不 能忽视企业的市场价值 及交易成本，必须使用 正确的折现率和恰当的 考察时间点，排除非并 购因素对净增加现金流 和股票交易价格的影 响。另外，对并购前后 的市盈率的变化还有待 进一步的研究. 董运宝2006年并购的协同 效应分析并购协同 效应的概 念、内容 规范并购的协同效应包括 了经营、管理、财务、 无形资产及产业协同。 我国目前产业结构不合 理，公司治理结构不健 全，组织管理方式落后， 企业资本结构不合理， 这些问题都有待于在并 购中，通过发挥协同效 应的作用加以改善。 2
张秋生周琳2003.06 企业并购协 同效应的研 究与发展 国内外协 同效应理 论研究 规范研究协同效应的微观运 作机理，应用价值评估 的理论与方法量化，结 合我国企业并购的实际 情况，实证检验若干影 响协同效应实现的关键 因素。 方芳闫晓彤2002年中国上市公 司并购绩效 与思考 上市公司 财务和会 计数据 核心 竞争 理论 实证2000年 发生并 购公司 的1999 年-2001 年的财 务数据 80 横向并 购：46 纵向并 购：10 混合并 购：24 对每个样本3年选 取9个指标：每股 现金流量、每股收 益、资产负债率、 主营业务利润率、 净资产收益率、销 售净利润率、总资 产报酬率、流动比 率、速动比率。 将指标按并购前一 年、并购当年、并 购后一年分别做因 子分析 横向并购的绩效明显优 于纵向和混合并购。并 购作为提高企业竞争力 和产业整合手段正在发 挥着巨大的作用。但但 目前上市公司的并购过 程存在着很多问题 3
互利共赢的供应商质量控制 前言 近年来，随着对供应链的重视，供应商管理正逐渐成为企业和学术界的关注对象，IS0９000族标准以及QS 9０00标准都对供应商的管理提出了相应的要求，与供应商管理有关的研究成果正逐渐增多，一些软件巨头也推出了供应商关系管理的软件，但是在这些研究成果和应用软件中，涉及到的供应商质量控制的内容只是一些最基本的要求，而供应商质量控制恰恰是供应商管理的最基本、最重要的内容。另一方而，质量管理界对质量控制的研究取得了大量的成果，遗憾的是这些成果大多依然局限于企业的内部控制，仅仅研究从企业内部各环节如何改善产品的质量，而基于供应链的角度来研究质量控制的成果尚不多见。因此，系统地研究经济全球化形势下供应商质量控制的理论与方法，将有助于推动我国企业产品质量的快速提高和供应链竞争优势的形成与巩固。 1、质量与企业共存 质量一直是一个随着时代的变化而不断变化的概念,人们对质量的认识也往往因关注点不同而有所不同。如，早在1908年，通用汽车公司的工程师们在皇家汽车俱乐部会员们的面前拆解了3辆凯迪拉克轿车，并把这些零件混在一起,而后从中选择零件重新组装成车，然后驾车绝尘而去。这令在场的会员极为震惊，认为凯迪拉克车质量之高令人惊叹。显然在当时，汽车零件具有互换性是一种了不起的质量特性,这也是福特公司的Ｎ型车和T型车取得辉煌成功的重要原因.时至今日，即使农用三轮车的零部件也具有极高的互换性，零部件的标准化和互换性已经是理所当然的事情，不再是吸引顾客的重要质量特性.可见质量的内涵是不断变化的.那么究竟什么是质量呢？ （１)市场竟争就是企业间对“顾客”的争夺，在日益激烈的“顾客"争夺战中，质量、价格、交付（交付日期、方式和手段）和服务是企业常用的四个法宝，其中质量是根本，离开质量其他三项将变得毫无意义，因此可以说质量己成为市场竞争的焦点.它反映了产品是否能够反映顾客需求、能否满足顾客需求，从面决定了产品的市场前途。有鉴于此，质量己成为一项全球性运动,世界上所有优秀企业无一不把质量作为企业战略的关键内容，从战略的角度来规划质量。 （2）对于企业经营者来说,认识到质量对企业的重要意义只是经营企业的第一步,重要的是如何利用科学的方法来保证产品和服务的质量，使顾客满意，来保证过程和工作的质量来获互利共炭的供应商质量控制得良好的业绩。 众所周知,企业管理是社会生产力发展到一定程度的历史产物,质量管理作为企业管理的组成部分,同样也是社会发展的客观要求，特别是顾客处于主导地位的今天,要使顾客满意，就必须有过硬的产品质量和服务质量，这就要求企业积极推行先进的质量管理理论与方法，不断进行质量管理创新. ２、企业与供应商质量控制 随着生产社会化的不断发展，企业的生产活动分工越来越细,专业化程度越来越强，促使生产技术水平越来越高,产品质量得到大幅度改善。通常，某一产品不可能由一个企业从最初的原材料开始加工直至形成顾客最终使用的产品，往往是通过多个企业分工协作来完成.另外，先进生产方式的广泛应用,如准时生产、敏捷制造、零库存等，使企业与供应商的关系愈加紧密，企业与供应商的关系也由单纯的买卖关系向互利共底的合作关系演变。 ISO 900０族标准自1987年诞生以来受到了世界各国的一致追捧,全球约５0多万家企业通过ISO90０1质量管理体系认证足以说明这套管理标准在引领国际管理潮流方面的巨大成功。在备受企业欢迎的新版标准ＩSO9000：2０00中，互利的供应商关系被作为八项质量管理原则之一，充分体现了供应商关系管理在企业经营实践中的作用和价值。企业要贯彻这一原则,就必须
中英文对照外文翻译文献 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) 原文： Project Risk Analysis Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 About this compendium This course compendium is to be used in the course “Risikostyring is projector”. The focus will be on the following topics: ? R isk identification ? Risk structuring ? Risk modeling in the light of a time schedule and a cost model
? Risk follows up We will also discuss elements related to decision analysis where risk is involved, and use of life cycle cost and life cycle profit models. The course compendium comprises a large number of exercises, and it is recommended to do most of the exercises in order to get a good understanding of the topics and methods described. A separate MS Excel program, pRisk.xls has been developed in order to assist numerical calculations and to conduct Monte Carlo simulation. 1.2 Definitions Aleatory uncertainty Variation of quantities in a population. We sometimes use the word variability rather than aleatory uncertainty. Epistemic uncertainty Lack of knowledge about the “world”, and observable quantities in particular. Dependency The relation between the sequences of the activities in a project. Observable quantity A quantity expressing a state of the “world”, i.e. a quantity of the p hysical reality or nature, that is unknown at the time of the analysis but will, if the system being analyzed is actually implemented, take some value in the future, and possibly become known. Parameter We use the term parameter in two ways in this report. The main use of a parameter is that it is a quantity that is a part of the risk analysis models, and for which we assign numerical values. The more academic definition of a parameter used in a probability
第8 章项目风险管理案例 项目需要以有限的成本在有限的时间内达到项目目标，而风险会影响这一点。风险管理的目的就是最小化风险对项目目标的负面影响，抓住风险带来的机会，增加项目干系人的收益。作为项目管理人员，必须评估项目中的风险，制定风险应对策略，有针对性地分配资源、制定计划，保证项目顺利的进行。 8．1 案例一：风险分类 阅读以下关于信息系统项目管理过程中人群风险分类方面问题的叙述，回答问题1至问题3。 8.1.1 案例场景 某公司召开会议，商量是否实施ERP项目，三个部门主要负责人就此问题发表自己的看法。 甲：我们公司不应该实施这个项目。现在我们刚把办公自动化系统搞好，还没有适应，工作效率也没提高多少，再上ERP 有些不适应，而且这个ERP项目花费太大。ERP在国内很多企业都搞失败了，成功的几率不会多大。如果我们也失败了，会给公司带来灾难性的后果。利用搞ERP的这些钱我们可以做一些短、平、快的项目，多招一些开发高手，提高公司的收益，而不是搞这些无端的风险投资。 乙：不应该一棒子打死ERP，ERP是一种新兴事务，ERP不是万能的，但是不上ERP 又是万万不行的。企业规模到了一定程度，管理和决策就是一个重要的问题。ERP是知识经济时代的管理方案，是面向供应链和“流程制”的智能决策支持系统，其先进的管理思想可以帮助企业最大限度地利用已有资源，解决管理和决策问题。但是实施ERP 风险很大，很多企业都失败了，主要原因在于项目实施的管理问题，没有及时识别项目中的风险并及时处理，项目监控机制不好，高层支持不够，老员工的适应性差等，最终导致“ERP天折”。我们公司以后想获得更大发展，应该实施ERP ，现在有些条件不够，整体上ERP不太可行，我们可以分步实施。我们可以借鉴其他企业实施ERP 的经验，先进行小范围ERP试验、积累经验，等以后时机成熟了，我们就整体实施ERP 。 丙：ERP 应该上，而且要迅速上，不应该等。如果其他企业都上了ERP，那么我们公司再依靠ERP获得收益就没有什么希望了。ERP本身就是一把双刃剑，虽然有风险，但是收益也大，现在我们的目标是收益，对于风险要想法化解。项目实施中要注意借鉴其他企业的经验，摸着石头过河，形成自己的特色，提高自己公司的管理和决策水平，争取把公司做大做强。小的、可以自己解决的风险自己处理；难以处理的、不确定的风险进行外包，实施风险转移；如果管理有问题的话，可以从专业咨询公司招聘顾问来担当项目经理的职务。总之，尽一切可能实施ERP，实现收益最大化。 【问题1】如图8-1所示，横轴表示项目投资的大小，纵轴表示项目成功的概率，A、B, C代表三种不同应对风险的人。请写出A,B,C的名字和特征，并且指出上述案例中甲、乙、丙分别属于哪一种对象(250字左右)。
国内外企业并购动因理论文献综述 摘要：本文总结了国内和国外学者关于企业并购动因理论的研究，并对两者的动因理论进行了比较。相对于国外发达国家的理论，我国的并购动因具有浓厚的中国特色，但另一方面，表明国外关于并购动因所提出的理论已逐渐适合中国的企业。 关键词：企业并购动因理论 并购（mergers and acquisition）包括兼并和收购，两者有一定的区别和联系。但是，随着全球化经济大发展，实业界的创新活动层出不穷，企业兼并和企业收购的界限越来越模糊。正如温斯顿说讲:“传统的主题已经扩展到包括接管以及相关的公司重组、公司控制、企业所有权结构变更等问题上,为简便起见，我们把它们统称为并购(M&A)”。 并购在当今世界扮演者越来越重要的角色。施蒂格勒(G. J. Stigler)经过研究认为：没有一个美国大公司不是通过某种适度、某种方式的兼并而成长起来的，几乎没有一家大公司主要是靠内部扩张成长起来。从19世纪末英、美等西方国家发生的第一次企业并购高潮算起，历经五次企业并购高潮，至今已有近百年的历史。企业并购理论也成为目前西方经济学最活跃的研究领域之一，在该领域的研究主要集中在并购动因研究和并购绩效研究两方面，两者共同成为理解企业并购经济合理性和制定公共政策的基础。在该文中，主要总结并购动因方面的文献。 一、国外企业并购动因的研究 企业并购动因的复杂性和多变性难以用一种经济理论解释清楚，不同地区、不同历史时期企业并购的产生和发展都有深刻的社会、政治、经济等原因；对于不同企业来说，他进行并购活动的原因不同，甚至同一企业在不同时期的并购也有不同的原因。对于并购动因问题，西方学者进行了广泛而深入的研究，提出了多种并购动因理论。Berkovitch 和narayanan(1993)将并购的动因归结于协同效应（synergy）,代理问题(agency)，管理者自负(hubris),并通过实证分析表明，以协同效应为目标的并购将带来正的效应，以代理问题为目标的并购，将带来负的效应。Kode ,Ford, Sutherland(2003)认为并购的动因在于协调效应，并提出了评价并购协同效应的模型。K. D. Brouthers等(1998)认为，并购动机可以分为经济动机、个人动机和战略动机三类。其中，经济动机包括扩大营销规模、增加利润、降低风险、防御竞争对手等子项目9项，个人动机包括增加管理特权等子项目4项，战略动机包括提高竞争力、追求市场力量等4项。这些研究都为并购的动因的理论发展作出了巨大的贡献。 威斯通等（1998）可以看成是国外对企业并购理论研究的集大成者。按照威斯通的理论和其它文献的研究成果，我们可以将企业并购的动因归为两大类：第一类是并购赞成论，包括效率理论（管理协同效应理论、经营协同效应理论、财务协同效应理论、多样化经营理论、价值低估理论）、信息与信号理论、代理成本理论。第二类是并购怀疑论，包括管理主义、自负假说、闲置现金流量理论、市场势力理论。 （一）、并购赞成论 1.效率理论（Efficiency Theory） 效率理论认为并购活动能够给社会收益带来一个潜在的增量，而且对交易的参与者来说无疑能提高各自的效率。这一理论包含两个基本的要点：（1）公司并购活动的发生有利于改进管理层的经营业绩；（2）公司并购将导致某种形式的协同（Synergy）效应。该理论主要包括管理协同效应理论、经营协同效应理论、财务协同效应理论、纯粹多样化经营理论、价值低估理论5个理论。 （1）管理协同（management synergy）效应理论
关于企业质量管理文献综述 摘要：随着新世纪的到来，特别是我国加入WTO后，中国将进一步融入世界经济的主流，质量将成为我国广大企业抓住机遇、迎接严峻挑战的关键。要拓展海外市场，必须靠有竞争力的质量；要保护国内的市场，不再有高关税和政府的过渡保护，也要靠质量的较量。随着科学技术的进步，质量管理的理论和方法有了更大发展。本文综合了质量管理的发展历程，并简要评价，提出看法，以便为企业的质量管理和理论研究提供参考。 关键词：质量管理、管理改进 21世纪是质量的世纪”。随着经济全球化和信息革命的迅猛发展，竞争日益加剧。在“数量”问题已解决的今天，人们将越来越追求和依赖于高质量的产品和服务，而且质量的领域不断拓宽，生活的质量、环境的质量、文化的质量、经济增长的质量更加受到全社会的关注。质量已成为竞争的焦点，不仅关系到企业的生存发展，而且影响到国家经济实力的增强和民族的形象。质量已成为全球经济发展战略的核心问题。 一、质量管理理论的回顾 （一）、质量管理的发展阶段 （1）质量检验阶段（20世纪20-30年代） 生产力迅猛发展，生产过程分工细化、日益复杂，许多美国企业按照泰勒的管理模式，纷纷设立检验部门，使检验与生产分离开来，其最大特点为“事后把关”。（2）统计质量阶段（20世纪40-50年代） 早在20世纪20年代，美国贝尔实验室工程师休哈特就提出“控制与预防缺陷”的概念。主要是利用数理统计原理，预防产生废品并检验产品质量，在方式上由专业质量控制工程师和技术人员承担。但这种方法只是保证生产过程中的产品质量，而不能提高产品本身的质量。 （3）全面质量管理阶段（20世纪60年代至今） 美国的费根堡姆提出，“全面质量是为了能够在最经济的水平上，并考虑到充分满足顾客要求的条件下进行生产和提供服务，将企业各部门研制质量、维持质量和提高质量的活动构成为一体的一种有效体系”。 （二）、质量管理的理论流派 1、事后检验 20世纪，美国工程师泰勒提出“科学管理理论”，1911 年泰勒出版了专
外文文献翻译 Commercial Bank Risk Management : An Analysis of the Process
外文文献： Commercial Bank Risk Management: An Analysis of the Process Abstract Throughout the past year, on-site visits to financial service firms were conducted to review and evaluate their financial risk management systems. The commercial banking analysis covered a number of North American super-regionals and quasi±money-center institutions as well as several firms outside the U.S. The information obtained covered both the philosophy and practice of financial risk management. This article outlines the results of this investigation. It reports the state of risk management techniques in the industry. It reports the standard of practice and evaluates how and why it is conducted in the particular way chosen. In addition, critiques are offered where appropriate. We discuss the problems which the industry finds most difficult to address, shortcomings of the current methodology used to analyze risk, and the elements that are missing in the current procedures of risk management. 1. Introduction The past decade has seen dramatic losses in the banking industry. Firms that had been performing well suddenly announced large losses due to credit exposures that turned sour, interest rate positions taken, or derivative exposures that may or may not have been assumed to hedge balance sheet risk. In response to this, commercial banks have almost universally embarked upon an upgrading of their risk management and control systems. Coincidental to this activity, and in part because of our recognition of the industry's vulnerability to financial risk, the Wharton Financial Institutions Center, with the support of the Sloan Foundation, has been involved in an analysis of financial risk management processes in the financial sector. Through the past academic year, on-site visits were conducted to review and evaluate the risk management systems and the process of risk evaluation that is in place. In the banking sector, system evaluation was conducted covering many of North America's