语言学资料
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Chapter one Introduction一、定义 1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any anima l system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性(创造性) Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence (抽象)Competence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance (具体)Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historic al study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue (抽象)The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole (具体)The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ‖correct‖ behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain s ocial environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象,而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
举例介绍语言学知识
1. 语音学:语音学是研究语言声音的学科。
它包括元音和辅音的发音方式、音位的区别以及语音的变化等。
例如,在英语中,“pin”和“bin”的区别在于元音的发音不同。
2. 形态学:形态学是研究单词的结构和形式的学科。
它包括词素、词根、词缀等。
例如,在英语中,“unhappiness”是由“un”(表示否定)和“happiness”(幸福)组成的。
3. 句法学:句法学是研究句子结构和规则的学科。
它包括句子成分、句子类型、句子语序等。
例如,在英语中,句子“John runs fast”中,“John”是主语,“runs”是谓语,“fast”是状语。
4. 语义学:语义学是研究语言意义的学科。
它包括词汇意义、句子意义、语境意义等。
例如,在英语中,“bank”可以表示河岸或银行,具体意义取决于上下文。
5. 语用学:语用学是研究语言在实际交际中使用的学科。
它包括语境、言语行为、会话含义等。
例如,在对话中,说话人的语气、表情和身体语言等都可以影响话语的含义。
这些只是语言学中的一些基本知识和例子,语言学是一个广泛而复杂的领域,还有许多其他方面值得深入研究。
语言学纲要复习资料语言学纲要期末复习资料导言部分1.文字、音韵、训诂之学是中国“小学”的主要研究内容。
2.20世纪初,瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出,存在于语言社团中每个人头脑中的共同的语言形式结构是语言学研究的真正对象,是现代语言学的标志著作。
3.结构主义语言学:20世纪30至50年代,在欧美形成的语言学流派。
布龙菲尔德的《语言论》是该派的奠基之作。
4.生成语言学:创始人是美国语言学家诺姆-乔姆斯基,《句法结构》的出版标志着转换生成语言学的诞生。
其研究对象是语言能力而不是语言行为。
是欧美语言学理论中最有影响的一种。
5.共时和历时语言学共时:研究相对静止的状态——横向研究历时:探索语言在不同阶段的演变——纵向研究同:都是研究语言的时角,二者是对立统一的,共时体现历时,历时是共时的不同表现。
异:语言的不同时期的先后变化属于历时问题,语言在同一时期的不同变化属于共时问题。
6.历史比较语言学:对不同语言或同种语言的不同发展阶段做比较研究,拟构语言的原始基础形式,确定语言间的亲缘关系,以展现语言的发展变化规律。
第一章语言的功能1.语言是最重要的信息传递工具,语言是第一性,最基本的手段,文字是第二性,辅助性的,文字是对语言的再编码系统。
2.人的大脑分为左右半球,语言功能是由左半球控制的。
3.运用语言进行传递信息,大致分为五个部分编码、发出、传递、接受、译码阶段。
4.思维方式的差异更多地体现在不同语言在表达思想时语法方面的特点。
5.思维能力的普遍性和思维方式的特殊性,与语言的性质是密切相关的。
6.语言和言语的区分是索绪尔提出的,言语不稳定,语言是稳定的。
7.语言是符号系统,是最重要最典型的符号,符号的形式和意义是约定,无必然联系。
征候是事物本身的特征,它传递的某种信息,可以通过它自身的物质属性来推断。
(远处的炊烟、病人的脉象、气色、舌苔、口气,罪犯的指纹,脚印)8.音————义————心理现实————客观现实语言符号指称反映客观现实:是四维时空中外在于人的所有存在,当下和历史上所有的人物、事物、现象以及他们的相互关系及其变化。
语言学纲要复习资料语言学纲要复习资料语言学作为一门研究语言的学科,涵盖了广泛的内容,包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个分支。
本文将对语言学的主要概念和理论进行复习和总结,以帮助读者更好地理解和掌握这门学科。
一、语音学语音学研究的是语音的产生、传播和接收。
它关注的是语音的物理特性和语音单位的分类与描述。
语音学的基本概念包括音素、音位、音节等。
音素是语言中最小的语音单位,而音位是具有区别意义的音素。
音节则是由一个或多个音位构成的,是语言中的基本音节单位。
二、语法学语法学研究的是语言的结构和规则。
它关注的是句子的构成和句法关系。
语法学的基本概念包括词类、短语、句子等。
词类是语言中的基本单位,包括名词、动词、形容词等。
短语是由一个或多个词构成的,具有某种语法功能的单位。
句子是由一个或多个短语构成的,具有完整意义的单位。
三、语义学语义学研究的是词语和句子的意义。
它关注的是词语和句子的含义和语义关系。
语义学的基本概念包括词义、句义、语义角色等。
词义是词语的基本含义,而句义是句子的整体含义。
语义角色是句子中不同成分所承担的语义功能。
四、语用学语用学研究的是语言使用的情境和目的。
它关注的是语言的交际功能和言语行为。
语用学的基本概念包括语用规则、语用失误、语用推理等。
语用规则是语言使用中的约定和规范,它决定了言语行为的合理性和恰当性。
语用失误是指在语言使用中出现的不恰当或误导性的言语行为。
语用推理是根据上下文和语境进行的推理和理解。
五、语言变异与语言变化语言是一种活动的、变化的社会现象。
语言变异研究的是不同地区、社会群体和个体之间的语言差异。
语言变化研究的是语言随时间的变化和演变。
语言变异和语言变化的原因包括地理因素、社会因素、历史因素、个体因素等。
六、语言习得与语言教学语言习得研究的是儿童和成人在自然环境中学习语言的过程。
语言教学研究的是如何有效地教授和学习语言。
语言习得和语言教学的理论和方法包括行为主义、认知主义、社会交际主义等。
导言一、填空题1.语言学是研究语言的学科,语言是语言学的研究对象。
语言学的基本任务是研究人类语言的规律,使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
2.中国、印度、希腊—罗马是语言学的三大发源地。
3.我国传统语言学包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学等三门分支学科,合称“小学”。
二、判断题1.综合各种语言的基本研究的成果,归纳成语言的一般规律,这是具体语言学的任务。
(错)2.世界上有几千种语言,有些语言的研究已经比较深入,大部分语言的研究还很不够,甚至还没有人去研究。
(对)三、名词解释1.普通语言学以人类一般语言为研究对象,探究人类语言的起源、发展、本质。
探究人类语言内部结构的共性及普遍规律的语言学门类。
2.应用语言学狭义的应用语言学指语言教学、文字的创制和改革、正音正字、词典编纂等,广义的应用语言学还包括与计算机有关的及其翻译、情报检索、语音识别、自然语言处理等。
3.小学在中国古代,小学先从教授字的形、音、义开始,就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。
小学一直是经学的一部分,包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。
第一章一、填空题1.从语言的社会功能上看,语言是人类独有的最重要的交际和思维的工具;从语言的内部结构上看,语言是一套音义结合的符号。
2.文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的辅助交际工具,旗语之类是建立在语言和文字基础上的特殊领域的辅助交际工具。
二、判断1.从理论上来说,句子的长度是可以无限的。
(对)2.语言是文字基础上产生的人类最重要的交际工具。
(错)3.文字始终是从属于语言的。
(错)4.思维离不开语言,语言也离不开思维。
(对)5.语言和思维互相依存共同发展。
(对)6.在现代社会,文字比语言更加重要。
(错)7.文字也是人类最重要的交际工具。
(错)8.语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。
(对)9.会不会说话是人类和动物的根本区别之一。
(对)10.思维能力是全人类共同的,语言是各民族不同的。
(对)11.思维离不开语言,聋哑人不能掌握语言,所以聋哑人不能进行思维。
语言学纲要资料pdf摘要:一、引言1.语言学的定义和重要性2.语言学的历史发展二、语言学的基本分支1.语音学2.语法学3.语义学4.语用学5.语言学的历史比较研究三、语言学与相关学科的关系1.心理学2.社会学3.人类学4.计算机科学四、语言学在实际应用中的价值1.教育领域2.翻译和interpretation3.语言治疗和康复4.语言技术应用五、语言学的前沿发展与挑战1.神经语言学2.语言演化与演化语言学3.语言多样性与语言濒危4.语言技术的新发展六、结语1.语言学的重要性和影响2.语言学的发展趋势和前景正文:语言学是一门研究语言的科学,探讨语言的结构、起源、发展、变化、认知、社会与文化等方面的问题。
语言学的研究对于了解人类思维、沟通和文化交流具有重要意义。
语言学的历史发展可以追溯到古希腊时期,当时的哲学家们开始对语言的本质和结构进行思考。
随着历史的发展,语言学逐渐分化出许多不同的分支,如语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等。
语音学研究语音现象,包括音位、音高、音节、音调等方面。
语法学研究语言的结构和规则,包括单词、句子的构成和语法关系。
语义学研究语言的意义,包括词汇、句子的意义和语义关系。
语用学研究语言的用途和语境,包括语言行为、言语交际和话语分析等方面。
语言学的历史比较研究则关注语言的起源、演变和亲缘关系。
语言学与其他学科如心理学、社会学、人类学和计算机科学等有着密切的联系。
心理学研究心理过程和行为,对于理解语言的认知机制具有重要意义。
社会学关注社会结构和文化背景,对于理解语言的社会与文化功能有重要作用。
人类学则从人类进化的角度研究语言,探讨语言的起源和演变。
计算机科学则将语言学应用于自然语言处理和人工智能等领域。
语言学在实际应用中具有很高的价值。
在教育领域,语言学为提高教学质量、设计课程和评估体系提供了理论依据。
在翻译和interpretation 领域,语言学为准确传达信息、消除语言障碍提供了方法指导。
第一章语言和语言学1.语言与各个领域的社会活动都有着密切的联系,在这种情况下,语言学必须明确自己的研究对象,才能成为一门现代意义上的科学。
2.任何符号,包括语言符号都是形式和意义的统一体。
3.什么是语言的客观存在形式语言的客观存在形式首先表示为有声的口头语言即口语,而当出现了文字以后,又表现为有形的书面语言即书面语。
4.语言符号的强制性正因为语言符号是社会约定俗成的,因此在同一社会,同一时代,对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的,是不能任意改变的,因为如果个人可以任意改变,那就互相听不懂了,也就从根本上丧失了交际工具的作用。
5.语言与言语的区别语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的、有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分;而含有个人要素或个人杂质的说话行为和说出来的话只能属于言语。
第二章语音1.声音的四要素:音高,音强,音长,音质2.振幅:也就是发音体振动时离开平衡位置的最大偏移距离。
3.频率:发音体在每一秒钟内振动的次数。
4.音高:就是声音的高低。
它是由频率的大小决定的。
频率同音高成正比。
频率越大,声音越高;频率越小,声音越低。
5.音强:就是声音的强弱。
它是由振幅的大小决定的。
振幅同音强成正比,振幅的大小又决定于使发音体振动外力的大小。
外力大,振幅就大,声音就强;外力小,振幅就小,声音就弱。
6.音长:就是声音的长短。
它是由发音体振动的持续时间决定的。
发音体振动的持续时间长,声音就长;发音体振动的时间短,声音就短。
7.基音:振动中有一个频率最低的振动,由它发出的声音叫做“基音”。
其他振动发出的声音叫做“陪音”。
8.乐音:当基音的频率的陪音的频率之间存在着整数倍的比例关系时,会形成一种复杂而有规则的,具有周期性重复特征的声波形式,这种声音叫做乐音。
9.噪音:如果基音的频率和陪音的频率之间不存在整倍数的比例关系,就会形成一种杂乱无章的不规则的声波形式,这种声音叫做噪音。
10.语音的生理基础:语音是由人的发音器官协同动作而产生的,人的发音及其运动是“语音的生理基础”,决定着语音的生理特征。
语言:语言是一种特殊的社会现象,是人类最重要的交际工具和思维的工具。
是音义结合的词汇和语法构成的符号系统,注意,文字不是语言。
语言符号:语言符号是由声音形式和意义内容构成,语言符号是音与义相结合的统一体,是说的和听的历史比较语言学:对不同语言或同一语言的不同发展阶段做比较分析,构拟语言的原始基础形式。
语流音变:语流音变是音位和音位组合时发生的语音变化。
这种变化是由于受相邻的音位的影响或说话时的快慢、高低、强弱等因素的影响造成的。
汉语的轻声、变调,都是,如“西瓜”中的“瓜”念轻声,“展览”中的“览”念阳平。
常见的语流音变现象主要有同化、异化(如汉语变调)、弱化(如轻声音节)、脱落(豆腐)等。
音素:音素是语音的最小单位,它是人类语言从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位。
音位:是具语言或方言中有区别意义作用的最小语音结构单位,如送气和不送气的分别。
区别特征:具有区别音位的作用的发音特征叫区别特征,不同的音位正是通过区别特征来实现其区别意义的功能。
语言联盟:也称“语言的区域分类"是指一片地理区域内的不同语言不仅在词汇上相互有大量的借贷,而且在语音、语法系统的结构格局、结构规划方面也十分相似,但各语言仍有相当数量的核心词根彼此不同。
系统感染:是指处于同一地区的若干语言在语音、语法系统的结构格局、结构规则方面逐渐趋同,但仍然保持了各自的语言本质,有相当数量继承与自己语言祖语的核心词根。
亲属语言:从同一种语言中分化出来的几种独立语言,彼此有同源关系。
例如英语、德语来自日尔曼语,法语、意大利语来自拉丁语,就是亲属语言。
谱系分类:就是根据语言的亲属关系对语言所作的分类。
谱系分类分出的最大的语言类别是语系,语系下面是语族,语族下面再分语支。
例如汉语属于汉藏语系,英语、法语属于印欧语系。
屈折语:屈折语以词形变化作为语法关系的主要手段,以印欧语系为代表,如俄语、英语、法语等。
黏着语:黏着语也有丰富的词形变化,通过词本身形式的变化来表示各种语法关系。
第一章:语言与语言学A语言的特性:一、任意性与规约性1. 任意性:语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。
2. 规约性:语言的形式和意义是约定俗称的关系。
二、二层性:指拥有两层结构这种特性,上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成,每层都有自身的组合规则。
(有限手段无限使用,人类交际最显著特征)三、创造性:指语言的能产性,这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
四、移位性:指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间和观点(好处:使得我们有可能用抽象的概念来交流或思考)B与动物语言区别:由于喉部结构的差异,不适合吐字发音。
但可使用手势语言C语言的功能:信息功能人际功能施为功能感情功能寒暄交谈娱乐功能元语言功能D语言学的发展脉络:一、传统语言学:1.从哲学角度思考(名实之争):区分主语、谓、宾等逻辑成分概念、对语言起源问题的讨论2. 语文学习角度研究(梵文):为阅读理解古代经典文献服务的3. 历史比较角度(主要比较印欧语系):试图通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律,拟测它们共同母语(提供了科学的方法)二、现代语言学(20c,结构语言学)语言是一个符号系统,提出语言的线条性、任意性、“能指”(符号可感知)与“所指”(符号所代表的内容)、“组合关系”(两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性顺序组合的关系)与“聚合关系”(某一位置能够互相替代)(区分历时)更强调共时研究,重视排除历史干扰而对语言现状进行现实的描写区分“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”,认为语言学首先要进行语言系统和系统内部各个要素的研究。
E当代语言学三个主要流派的基本思想:生成语言学派:语言是人类内在化的能力,人类语言虽然差别很大但遵循的原则相同。
强调语法的天赋性、自主性,着重探索人类语言的机制、共性,同时探究各个语言的参数差异,即在探索人类语言共性的基础上探究各个语言的特点。
天赋假设:语言是天赋,儿童生下了就有普遍语法,婴儿言语获得过程是先天的“语言习得机制”。
101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the u nderstanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw a bat,wh ere a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story. 106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionall y e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is a proper ty of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic st ructure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerne d somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures represent ed in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng. 114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,er ning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines t hought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to the structu ral diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand s ociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’soci al starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a c onstative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of s yntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference. 125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with the speaker’s int ention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatanda ble to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates inte ntionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other:e.g.”Mar y is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-inf er-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the pr esumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale,i.e.Make your contribution necessary (G.Rela tion,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a c orresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conv eyed).134. constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the stor y,relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of pass age can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse,and therefore even more backgruonded th an indirect speech representation would be.141. narrator”srepresentation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the t houghts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts.For example,,she consider ed his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their character s are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144. narrator’s representation of thought acts:a kind of the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent th e day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their character s are exactly as that used to present indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147. narrator”s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of t heir characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g.He spent the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characte rs are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech,e.g.He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exac tly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs ,etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human lan guage.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students int o appropriate lessons,material,etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They o ffer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experi ence with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on on e disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can access information quickly and ef ficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one la nguage to another.158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word,sequence of words.or perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually i n a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,w hereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text, whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.161. informational retri: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,applied to the type of actrvity discussed in this volume.An information retri system does not infor(i.e.change the knowledge of )the user on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereab outs of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,betwee n documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retri strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document representatives,for the purpose of information retri. 163. precision: the proportion of retri documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retri documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning an d teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting l anguage to communicative use.167. syllabus:the planning of course of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching proc edures and learning experiences.168. interlanguage:the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are s till in the process of learning a language,i.e.the language system between the target language and the l earner’s native language.169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language.When structures of the two la nguages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in st ructures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds o f validity,i.e.content validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.171. rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of reliability,i.e.stability reliability,an d equiralence reliability.172. hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both frequency,i.e.overpassi ng the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting the target,i.e.extending the use of a form inali nguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extend ing pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not supposed to occur.173. discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into ind ividual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.174. integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into indivi dual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.。