Chapter 1: Introduction
is generally defined as the scientific hypotheses about the language
2、 L anguage is a
system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication （语言是一套用于人类交流的任意的口 语系统）. 3、 G eneral linguistics （通用语言学）：the study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.
4、 P honetics （语言学），morphology （咅位），syntax （形态）， semantics （句法），pragmatics （语用），sociolinguistics （社 会语言学），psycholinguistics （心理语言学），applied linguistics （应用语言学）
5> Prescriptive （规定的）vs. Descriptive （描写的）
Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive ? If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ^correct and standard" behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive. structured fully prove their validity ）
1> Linguistics （语言学）
study of language. （☆ to observe and collect language
facts^formulates some
6、Synchronic （共时的）vs? Diachronic （历时的）
Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic?A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
7、Langue （语言）vs. Parole （言语）
The distinction between langue and parole was made by Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system （抽象的语言系统）shared by all the members of a speech community （言语社区），and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use?
8、Competence （语言能力）vs. Performance （言语行为）
It was proposed by the American linguist N. CHOMSKY in the late 1950s. Chomsky （乔姆斯基）defines competence as the ideal user^ knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
9^ while Saussure?s distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure （索绪尔）took a
view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky （乔姆斯 looks at language from a psychological （心理逻辑学） point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
10、Design features of language （区别性特征）：
Arbitrariness （任意性 this means that there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds, on the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated. The best examples are the onomatopoeic words 拟声词 and some compound words 混合词 ）
productivity （能产性）,duality （二重性），displacement （移位），cultural transmission （文化传递）
llx Functions of language （语言的功能）
Descriptive function （描写功自￡）, expressive function （表 达功能），social function （社会功能）
Jakobson （雅各布逊）：emotive （表情功能）,conative （意动功能），referential （指称功能），poetic （组诗功能）， phatic communion （寒暄功能），metalinguistic （元语言功能） Halliday （韩礼德）：ideational （概念功能 ‘interpersonal
sociological （社会逻辑学） 基）
（人际功能），textual （语篇功能）
Chapter 2： Phonology
1、Phonetics （语音学）：is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages ?
Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view. First, it studies the sounds from speaker^ point of view, that is to say, how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. Then, it looks at the sounds from the hearer's point of view, that is to say, how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. Lastly, it studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves（声波）,the physical （物理方式）means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to anothe匚The three branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics （发咅语言学），auditory phonetics （听觉语言学），and acoustic phonetics （声学语言学）respectively （各自的）.
2、Phonology （音位学）：aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
3> Phone （音素）：is a phonetic unit or segment.
Phoneme （音位）：is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value.
Allophones （音位变体）:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（同一音位在不同语言环境屮的不同出现形式）
4、Phonemic contrast （音位对立）：If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast?
Complementary distribution （互补分布）：if they are allophones of same phoneme, then they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, they are said to be in complementary distributio n.
Minimal pair （最小对立体）：the two sounds then represent different phonemes, an easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs, （when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same place in strings ,the two words are said to form a minimal pair; 当两个词，除了出现在同一位置上的咅外，其余的音都一样，那么这两个词就构成了一个最小的对立体）
5、O rgans of speech （言语器官）：
Pharyngeal cavity （咽腔）,oral cavity （口腔）,nasal cavity （鼻腔）6、D ifference between phonology and phonetics
Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspec of language-the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages., how they are produced, how they differ
from each other, what phonetic features they posses, how they can be classified? Phonology, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication
7、Suprasegmental features （超切分特征）-—stress, tone, intonation
The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasergmental features.
Chapter 3： Morphology
1、M orphology （词素）：refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.
2、O pen class words （开放词类）：nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary, they are the content words of a language, which are sometimes called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly.（不断有新词加入）
Closed class words （封闭词类）：conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the "grammatical" or "functionaF, words. The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added, therefore such words is have been referred to as closed class words.（彳艮少有新词加入）3、F ree morpheme （自由词素）：a morpheme which can be a word by itself.
Bound morpheme （粘着词素）：a morpheme that must be attached to another one?
4、Derivational morpheme （派生词素）：morphemes which form new words or change the grammatical class of word.
Inflectional morpheme （屈折词素）：bound morphemes which signify tense, number, case （格）and so on.
Do-does
Boy? boys
Morphological （形态学的）rules thus reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new words .It is these rules that enable people to coin new words, such hair spray （发胶）,tea ceremony, space walk （太空漫步），and teach-in （宣讲会座谈会）.compounding is then a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.
Chapter 4： Syntax
1、Syntax （句法）is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar function in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
2、Major lexical categories （主要词汇范畴）are Noun, Verb, Adjective and Preposition.
Minor lexical categories （次要词汇范畴）are Determiner （限定词）, Degree word （程度词）s, Qualifier （修饰词），Auxiliary and Conjunction （助动词和连词）.
Three criteria to determine a word9s category：meaning, inflection and distribution.
3、Phrase elements：head （中心语），specifiers （标志语），complement （补足语）
4、Deep structure：formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head?s subcategorization properties, is called deep structure （or D-structure）.
Surface structure：corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure （or S-structure）?
5、Chomsky： "Generative Transformational grammar95生产转换语法
Complement phrase: the sentence introduced by the complementizer （补语化成分）is called a complement clause. Thus the whole underlined part in the above sentence is called a complement phrase （补语短语）（shorted as CP） and the construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called Matrix clause（主句）. However, it is a misleading to assume that a word's category can be
told straightforward from its meaning. Firstly, nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities. Secondly, some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns. Thirdly, words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories. For example, be aware of and know about can have the same meaning but they belong to different word categories?
Chapter 5: Semantics
1、Semantics （语义学）：can be simply defined as the study of meaning. 2> View concerning the study of meaning: the naming theory（命名论）, the conceptualist view （概念观），contextualism （语境观），behaviorism （行为观）
Semantic triangle or triangle of significance （语义三角）
3、sense （抽象意义）：is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized （非语境变化）.
Reference （具体意义）：means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.
4、M ajor sense relations：
synonymy （同义现象），polysemy （一词多义），homonymy （同音 /形异义），hyponymy （上下义关系）,antonymy （反义词）
5、C omponential analysis （成分分析法）：is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.
Predication analysis （述谓结构分析法）：a way to analyze sentence meaning.
First, the meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the Meaning of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not be worked out by adding up the meaning of all its constituent words? For example, the two sentence: "the dog bit the marT and "the man bit the dog，，，through consisting of exactly the same words, differ wildly in what they mean. In this respect, a sentence is different from a word, the meaning of which is the sum total of all its components, I.e. its semantic features.
Chapter 6： Pragmatics
1、Pragmatics （语用学）：is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
2> Context （语境）：it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
3、Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 话语意义（区另U）：
The meaning of abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in
a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
4> Speech act theory （言语行为理论）：it was originated with the British philosopher John Austin in the late 50s of the 20th century. It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “What d o we do when using language?^, Traditionally philosophers were interested in the truth-value of sentence,i.e. how to judge whether a sentence is true or false; they believed that a statement was used either to state a fact or to describe a state of affairs. Although a philosopher himself, Austin expressed doubt about this assumption because he found that some statements were not used either to state or to describe, they could not be judged as true or false; rather they were used by the speaker to do something. Thus he made a distinction between what they called "constatives，'（述事话语）and
"performatives^ （彳亍事话语）
5、Locutionary act （言内行为）：is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses? It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon
and phonology.
Illocutionary act （言夕卜行为）：is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.
Perlocutionary act （言后行为）：is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
E?g. You have the door wide open.
6、Cooperative Principle （CP）： Grice （格赖斯）
The maxim of quantity （数量准则）：Make your contribution as informative as required （for the current purpose of the exchange）?Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
The maxim of quality （质量准则）：Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
The maxim of relation （关联准则）:Be relevant.
The maxim of manner （方式准贝！J）：Avoid obscurity of expression;
Avoid ambiguity. Be brief （avoid unnecessary prolixity）. Be orderly.
Chapter 7： Language Change
1、Historical linguistics （历史语言学）：as a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of
language changes that occurred over time?
2、Addition of new words （新词的添加）：coinage （创新词）, clipped words （缩略词）,blending （紧缩词）,acronyms （词首字母）,back-formation （逆构词），functional shift （功能转
变,borrowing （外来词）
3、Semantic change （语义变化）：semantic broadening （语义扩展），semantic nairowing （语义缩小），semantic shift （语义转换）
Chapter 8： Language and Society
1、Speech community （言语社团）：The social group that is singled out for any special study is called the speech community.
2、Speech variety （言语变体）：Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.
Three types of speech variety：Regional dialects （地域方言,sociolects （社会方言），registers （语域）
3、Regional dialect （地域方言）:A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.
Idiolect （个人语言）：Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding, social, gender,
and age variations.
4、Register （语域）：The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.
Three social variables that determine the register：field of discourse （话语范围）,tenor of discourse （话语基调）,and mode of discourse （话语方式）?（Halliday 韩礼德）
Field of discourse refers to what is going on： to the area of operation of the language activity.
Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question： who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.
Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communicatio n.
5、Pidgin （洋泾浜语）：A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.
Creole （克里奥尔语）：When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.