中文2860字
Software engineering
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https://www.doczj.com/doc/8a18395535.html,/zh-cn/%E8%BD%AF%E4%BB%B6%E5%B7%A5%E7%A8%8B Software engineering is the study of the use of engineering methods to build and maintain effective, practical and high-quality software disciplines. It involves the programming language, database, software development tools, system platform, standards, design patterns and so on.
In modern society, the software used in many ways. Typical software such as email, embedded systems, human-machine interface, office packages, operating systems, compilers, databases, games. Meanwhile, almost all the various sectors of computer software applications, such as industry, agriculture, banking, aviation and government departments. These applications facilitate the economic and social development, improve people's working efficiency, while improving the quality of life. Software engineers is to create software applications of people collectively, according to which software engineers can be divided into different areas of system analysts, software designers, system architects, programmers, testers and so on. It is also often used to refer to a variety of software engineers, programmers.
Origin
In view of difficulties encountered in software development, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1968 organized the first Conference on Software Engineering, and will be presented at the "software engineering" to define the knowledge required for software development, and suggested that "software development the activities of similar projects should be. " Software Engineering has formally proposed since 1968, this time to accumulate a large number of research results, widely lot of technical practice, academia and industry through the joint efforts of software engineering is gradually developing into a professional discipline. Definition
creation and use of sound engineering principles in order to obtain reliable and economically efficient software.
application of systematic, follow the principle can be measured approach to development, operation and maintenance of software; that is to be applied to software engineering.
The development, management and updating software products related to theories, methods and tools.
A knowledge or discipline (discipline), aims to produce good quality, punctual delivery, within budget and meet users need software.
the practical application of scientific knowledge in the design, build computer programs, and the accompanying documents produced, and the subsequent operation and maintenance.
Use systematic production and maintenance of software products related to technology and management expertise to enable software development and changes in the limited time and under cost.
Construction team of engineers developed the knowledge of large software systems
disciplines.
the software analysis, design, implementation and maintenance of a systematic method.
the systematic application of tools and techniques in the development of computer-based applications.
Software Engineering and Computer Science
Software development in the end is a science or an engineering, this is a question to be debated for a long time. In fact, both the two characteristics of software development. But this does not mean that they can be confused with each other. Many people think that software engineering, computer science and information science-based as in the traditional sense of the physical and chemical engineering as. In the U.S., about 40% of software engineers with a degree in computer science. Elsewhere in the world, this ratio is also similar. They will not necessarily use every day knowledge of computer science, but every day they use the software engineering knowledge.
For example, Peter McBreen that software "engineering" means higher degree of rigor and proven processes, not suitable for all types of software development stage. Peter McBreen in the book "Software Craftsmanship: The New Imperative" put forward the so-called "craftsmanship" of the argument, consider that a key factor in the success of software development, is to develop the skills, not "manufacturing" software process.
Software engineering and computer programming
Software engineering exists in a variety of applications exist in all aspects of software development. The program design typically include program design and coding of the iterative process, it is a stage of software development.
Software engineering, software project seeks to provide guidance in all aspects, from feasibility analysis software until the software after completion of maintenance work. Software engineering that software development and marketing activities are closely related. Such as software sales, user training, hardware and software associated with installation. Software engineering methodology that should not be an independent programmer from the team and to develop, and the program of preparation can not be divorced from the software requirements, design, and customer interests.
Software engineering design of industrial development is the embodiment of a computer program.
Software crisis
Software engineering, rooted in the 20th century to the rise of 60,70 and 80 years of software crisis. At that time, many of the software have been a tragic final outcome. Many of the software development time significantly beyond the planned schedule. Some projects led to the loss of property, and even some of the software led to casualties. While software developers have found it increasingly difficult for software development.
OS 360 operating system is considered to be a typical case. Until now, it is still used in the IBM360 series host. This experience for decades, even extremely complex
software projects do not have a set of programs included in the original design of work systems. OS 360 is the first large software project, which uses about 1,000 programmers. Fred Brooks in his subsequent masterpiece, "The Mythical Man Month" (The Mythical Man-Month) in the once admitted that in his management of the project, he made a million dollar mistake.
Property losses: software error may result in significant property damage. European Ariane rocket explosion is one of the most painful lesson.
Casualties: As computer software is widely used, including hospitals and other industries closely related to life. Therefore, the software error might also result in personal injury or death.
Was used extensively in software engineering is the Therac-25 case of accidents. In 1985 between June and January 1987, six known medical errors from the Therac-25 to exceed the dose leads to death or severe radiation burns.
In industry, some embedded systems do not lead to the normal operation of the machine, which will push some people into the woods.
Methodology
There are many ways software engineering aspects of meaning. Including project management, analysis, design, program preparation, testing and quality control. Software design methods can be distinguished as the heavyweight and lightweight methods. Heavyweight methods produce large amounts of official documentation. Heavyweight development methodologies, including the famous ISO 9000, CMM, and the Unified Process (RUP).
Lightweight development process is not an official document of the large number of requirements. Lightweight methods, including well-known Extreme Programming (XP) and agile process (Agile Processes).
According to the "new methodology" in this article, heavyweight method presented is a "defensive" posture. In the application of the "heavyweight methods" software organizations, due to a software project manager with little or no involvement in program design, can not grasp the item from the details of the progress of the project which will have a "fear", constantly had to ask the programmer to write a lot of "software development documentation." The lightweight methods are presented "aggressive" attitude, which is from the XP method is particularly emphasized four criteria - "communication, simplicity, feedback and courage" to be reflected on. There are some people that the "heavyweight method" is suitable for large software team (dozens or more) use, and "lightweight methods" for small software team (a few people, a dozen people) to use. Of course, on the heavyweight and lightweight method of approach has many advantages and disadvantages of debate, and various methods are constantly evolving.
Some methodologists think that people should be strictly followed in the development and implementation of these methods. But some people do not have the conditions to implement these methods. In fact, the method by which software development depends on many factors, but subject to environmental constraints. Software development process
Software development process, with the subsequent development of technology
evolution and improvement. From the early waterfall (Waterfall) development model to the subsequent emergence of the spiral iterative (Spiral) development, which recently began the rise of agile development methodologies (Agile), they showed a different era in the development process for software industry different awareness and understanding of different types of projects for the method.
Note distinction between software development process and software process improvement important difference between. Such as ISO 15504, ISO 9000, CMM, CMMI such terms are elaborated in the framework of software process improvement, they provide a series of standards and policies to guide software organizations how to improve the quality of the software development process, the ability of software organizations, and not give a specific definition of the development process. Development of software engineering
"Agile Development" (Agile Development) is considered an important software engineering development. It stressed that software development should be able to possible future changes and uncertainties of a comprehensive response.
Agile development is considered a "lightweight" approach. In the lightweight approach should be the most prestigious "Extreme Programming" (Extreme Programming, referred to as XP).Correspond with the lightweight approach is the "heavyweight method" exists. Heavyweight approach emphasizes the development process as the center, rather than people-centered. Examples of methods such as heavyweight CMM / PSP / TSP.
Aspect-oriented programming (Aspect Oriented Programming, referred to as the AOP) is considered to software engineering in recent years, another important development. This aspect refers to the completion of a function of a collection of objects and functions. In this regard the contents related to generic programming (Generic Programming) and templates.
软件工程
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软件工程是一门研究用工程化方法构建和维护有效的、实用的和高质量的软件的学科。它涉及到程序设计语言、数据库、软件开发工具、系统平台、标准、设计模式等方面。
在现代社会中，软件应用于多个方面。典型的软件比如有电子邮件、嵌入式系统、人机界面、办公包、操作系统、编译器、数据库、游戏等。同时，各个行业几乎都有计算机软件的应用，比如工业、农业、银行、航空、政府部门等。这些应用促进了经济和社会的发展，提高人们的工作效率，同时提升了生活质量。
软件工程师是对应用软件创造软件的人们的统称，软件工程师按照所处的领域不同可以分为系统分析员、软件设计师、系统架构师、程序员、测试员等等。人们也常常用程序员来泛指各种软件工程师。
由来
鉴于软件开发时所遭遇困境，北大西洋公约组织（NATO）在1968年举办了首次软件工程学术会议，并于会中提出“软件工程”来界定软件开发所需相关知识，并建议“软件开发应该是类似工程的活动”。软件工程自1968年正式提出至今，这段时间累积了大量的研究成果，广泛地进行大量的技术实践，借由学术界和产业界的共同努力，软件工程正逐渐发展成为一门专业学科。
定义
创立与使用健全的工程原则，以便经济地获得可靠且高效率的软件.
应用系统化，遵从原则，可被计量的方法来发展、操作及维护软件；也就是把工程应用到软件上。
与开发、管理及更新软件产品有关的理论、方法及工具。
一种知识或学科（discipline），目标是生产品质良好、准时交货、符合预算，并满足用户所需的软件。
实际应用科学知识在设计、建构电脑程序，与相伴而来所产生的文件，以及后续的操作和维护上。
使用与系统化生产和维护软件产品有关之技术与管理的知识，使软件开发与修改可在有限的时间与费用下进行。
建造由工程师团队所开发之大型软件系统有关的知识学科。
对软件分析、设计、实施及维护的一种系统化方法。
系统化地应用工具和技术于开发以计算机为主的应用。
软件工程与计算机科学
软件的开发到底是一门科学还是一门工程，这是一个被争论了很久的问题。实际上，软件开发兼有两者的特点。但是这并不意味着它们可以被互相混淆。很多人认为软件工程基于计算机科学和信息科学就如传统意义上的工程学之于物理和化学一样。在美国，大约40%的软件工程师具有计算机科学的学位。在世界其他地方，这个比例也差不多。他们并不一定会每天使用计算机科学方面的知识，但是他们每天都会使用软件工程方面的知识。
例如 Peter McBreen 认为，软件“工程”意味着更高程度的严谨性与经过验证的流程，并不适合现阶段各类型的软件开发。Peter McBreen 在著作《Software Craftsmanship: The New Imperative》提出了所谓“craftsmanship”的说法，认为现阶段软件开发成功的关键因素，是开发者的技能，而不是“manufacturing”软件的流程。
软件工程与计算机程序设计
软件工程存在于各种应用中，存在于软件开发的各个方面。而程序设计通常包含了程序设计和编码的反复迭代的过程，它是软件开发的一个阶段。
软件工程力图对软件项目的各个方面作出指导，从软件的可行性分析直到软件完成以后的维护工作。软件工程认为软件开发与各种市场活动密切相关。比如软件的销售，用户培训，与之相关的软件和硬件安装等。软件工程的方法学认为一个独立的程序员不应当脱离团队而进行开发，同时程序的编写不能够脱离软件的需求，设计，以及客户的利益。
软件工程的发展是计算机程序设计工业化的体现。
软件危机
软件工程的兴起要根源于20世纪60，70和80年代的软件危机。在那个时代，很多的软件最后都得到了一个悲惨的结局。很多的软件项目开发时间大大超出了规划的时间表。一些项目导致了财产的流失，甚至某些软件导致了人员伤亡。同时软件开发人员也发现软件开发的难度越来越大。
OS 360操作系统被认为是一个典型的案例。到现在为止，它仍然被使用在IBM360系列主机中。这个经历了数十年，极度复杂的软件项目甚至产生了一套不包括在原始设计方案之中的工作系统。OS 360是第一个超大型的软件项目，它使用了1000人左右的程序员。Fred Brooks在随后他的大作《人月神话》（The Mythical Man-Month）中曾经承认，在他管理这个项目的时候，他犯了一个价值数百万美元的错误。
财产的损失：软件的错误可能导致巨大的财产损失。欧洲阿里亚娜火箭的爆炸就是一个最为惨痛的教训。
人员伤亡：由于计算机软件被广泛应用于包括医院等与生命息息相关的行业。因此软件的错误也有可能会导致人员伤亡。
在软件工程界被大量引用的案例是Therac-25的意外. 在1985年六月到1987年一月之间, 六个已知的医疗事故来自于Therac-25错误地超过剂量, 导致患者死亡或严重辐射灼伤[12]。
在工业上，某些嵌入式系统导致机器的不正常运转，从而将一些人推入了险境。
方法学
软件工程的方法有很多方面的意义。包括项目管理，分析，设计，程序的编写，测试和质量控制。
软件设计方法可以区别为重量级的方法和轻量级的方法。重量级的方法中产生大量的正式文档。
著名的重量级开发方法包括ISO 9000，CMM，和统一软件开发过程（RUP）。
轻量级的开发过程没有对大量正式文档的要求。著名的轻量级开发方法包括极限编程（XP）和敏捷过程（Agile Processes）。
根据《新方法学》这篇文章的说法，重量级方法呈现的是一种“防御型”的姿态。在应用“重量级方法”的软件组织中，由于软件项目经理不参与或者很少参与程序设计，无法从细节上把握项目进度，因而会对项目产生“恐惧感”，不得不要求程序员不断撰写很多“软件开发文档”。而轻量级方法则呈现“进攻型”的姿态，这一点从XP方法特别强调的四个准则—“沟通、简单、反馈和勇气”上有所体现。目前有一些人认为，“重量级方法”适合于大型的软件团队（数十人以上）使用，而“轻量级方法”适合小型的软件团队（几人、十几人）使用。当然，关于重量级方法和轻量级方法的优劣存在很多争论，而各种方法也在不断进化中。
一些方法论者认为人们在开发中应当严格遵循并且实施这些方法。但是一些人并不具有实施这些方法的条件。实际上，采用何种方法开发软件取决于很多因素，同时受到环境的制约。
软件开发过程
软件开发过程是随着开发技术的演化而随之改进的。从早期的瀑布式(Waterfall)的开发模型到后来出现的螺旋式的迭代(Spiral)开发，以致最近开
始兴起的敏捷开发方法(Agile)，他们展示出了在不同的时代软件产业对于开发过程的不同的认识，以及对于不同类型项目的理解方法。
注意区分软件开发过程和软件过程改进之间的重要区别。诸如像ISO 15504, ISO 9000, CMM, CMMI这样的名词阐述的是一些软件过程改进框架，他们提供了一系列的标准和策略来指导软件组织如何提升软件开发过程的质量、软件组织的能力，而不是给出具体的开发过程的定义。
软件工程的发展方向
“敏捷开发”（Agile Development）被认为是软件工程的一个重要的发展。它强调软件开发应当是能够对未来可能出现的变化和不确定性作出全面反应的。
敏捷开发被认为是一种“轻量级”的方法。在轻量级方法中最负盛名的应该是“极限编程”（Extreme Programming，简称为XP）。而与轻量级方法相对应的是“重量级方法”的存在。重量级方法强调以开发过程为中心，而不是以人为中心。重量级方法的例子比如CMM/PSP/TSP。
面向方面的程序设计（Aspect Oriented Programming，简称AOP）被认为是近年来软件工程的另外一个重要发展。这里的方面指的是完成一个功能的对象和函数的集合。在这一方面相关的内容有泛型编程（Generic Programming）和模板。
毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：软件开发概念和设计方法文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业： 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14
外文资料原文 Software Development Concepts and Design Methodologies During the 1960s, ma inframes and higher level programming languages were applied to man y problems including human resource s yste ms,reservation s yste ms, and manufacturing s yste ms. Computers and software were seen as the cure all for man y bu siness issues were some times applied blindly. S yste ms sometimes failed to solve the problem for which the y were designed for man y reasons including: ?Inability to sufficiently understand complex problems ?Not sufficiently taking into account end-u ser needs, the organizational environ ment, and performance tradeoffs ?Inability to accurately estimate development time and operational costs ?Lack of framework for consistent and regular customer communications At this time, the concept of structured programming, top-down design, stepwise refinement，and modularity e merged. Structured programming is still the most dominant approach to software engineering and is still evo lving. These failures led to the concept of "software engineering" based upon the idea that an engineering-like discipl ine could be applied to software design and develop ment. Software design is a process where the software designer applies techniques and principles to produce a conceptual model that de scribes and defines a solution to a problem. In the beginning, this des ign process has not been well structured and the model does not alwa ys accurately represent the problem of software development. However,design methodologies have been evolving to accommo date changes in technolog y coupled with our increased understanding of development processes. Whereas early desig n methods addressed specific aspects of the
毕业设计说明书 英文文献及中文翻译 学院：专 2011年6月 电子与计算机科学技术软件工程
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外文翻译 Construction projects, private and public alike, have a long history of cost escalation. Transportation projects, which typically have long lead times between planning and construction, are historically underestimated, as shown through a review of the cost growth experienced with the Holland Tunnel. Approximately 50% of the active large transportation projects in the United States have overrun their initial budgets. A large number of studies and research projects have identified individual factors that lead to increased project cost. Although the factors identified can influence privately funded projects the effects are particularly detrimental to publicly funded projects. The public funds available for a pool of projects are limited and there is a backlog of critical infrastructure needs. Therefore, if any project exceeds its budget other projects are dropped from the program or the scope is reduced to provide the funds necessary to cover the cost growth. Such actions exacerbate the deterioration of a state’s transportation infrastructure. This study is an anthology and categorization of individual cost increase factors that were identified through an in-depth literature review. This categorization of 18 primary factors which impact the cost of all types of construction projects was verified by interviews with over 20 state highway agencies. These factors represent documented causes behind cost escalation problems. Engineers who address these escalation factors when assessing future project cost and who seek to mitigate the influence of these factors can improve the accuracy of their cost estimates and program budgets Historically large construction projects have been plagued by cost and schedule overruns Flyvbjerg et al. 2002. In too many cases, the final project cost has been higher than the cost estimates prepared and released during initial planning, preliminary engineering, final design, or even at the start of construction “Mega projects need more study up front to avoid cost overruns.” The ramifica tions of differences between early project cost estimates and bid prices or the final cost of a project can be significant. Over the time span between project initiation concept development and the completion of construction many factors may influence the final project costs. This time span is normally several years in duration but for the highly
软件工程专业BIOS资料外文翻译文献 What is the Basic Input Output System (BIOS)? BIOS is an acronym for Basic Input Output System. It is the program that stores configuration details about your computer hardware and enables your computer to boot up. Every time your computer is switched on the BIOS loads configuration data into main memory, performs a routine diagnostic test on your hardware, then loads the operating system. The BIOS resides in a ROM (Read-Only memory) chip, which is mounted on the motherboard, usually in a socket so it is removable. To the right is an example of what a BIOS chip may look like in your motherboard. This is a PLCC 32 pin type BIOS chip. It is a very common type. Every computer has BIOS. There are many types but the most common type of BIOS 's come from: AMI, Award and Phoenix. Motherboard manufacturers buy or lease the BIOS source code from these companies. The BIOS tells the operating system in your computer how to boot up, where to load everything, what to load, what memory and CPU are present and much more. A good comparison to further understand the
附录 一、英文原文 Hardware/Software Design and Development Process Everett Lumpkin and Michael Gabrick Delphi Corporation, Electronics and Safety Division INTRODUCTION Process and technology advancements in the semiconductor industry have helped to revolutionize automotive and consumer electronics. As Moore’s Law predicted, the increase in complexity and operating frequencies of today’s integrated circuits have enabled the creation of system applications once thought to be impossible. And systems such as camera cell phones, automotive infotainment systems, advanced powertrain controllers and handheld personal computers have been realized as a result. In addition to the increases in process technology, the Electronic Design Automation (EDA) industry has helped to transform the way semiconductor integrated circuits (IC) and subsequent software applications are designed and verified. This transformation has occurred in the form of design abstraction, where the implementation continues to be performed at higher levels through the innovation of design automation tools. An example of this trend is the evolution of software development from the early days of machine-level programming to the C++ and Java software written today. The creation of the assembler allowed the programmer to move a level above machine language, which increased the efficiency of code generation and documentation, but still tied the programmer to the underlying hardware architecture. Likewise, the dawn of C / C++ compilers, debuggers and linkers helped to move the abstraction layer further away from the underlying hardware, making the software completely platform independent, easier to read, easier to debug and more efficient to manage. However, a shift to higher levels of software abstraction has not translated to a reduction in complexity or human resources. On the contrary, as integrated systems have become more feature rich, the complexity of the operating system and corresponding applications have increased rapidly, as have the costs associated with the software implementation and verification activities. Certainly the advancements in embedded software tools such as static code checkers, debuggers and hardware emulators have helped to solve some of the software verification problems, but software verification activities have become more time and resource consuming than the actual software creation. Time-to-market constraints have pushed software verification activities to the system-level, and led to a greater demand for production hardware to be made available earlier in
毕业设计（论文） 外文文献翻译 文献、资料中文题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 文献、资料英文题目： 文献、资料来源： 文献、资料发表（出版）日期： 院（部）： 专业：工程管理 班级： 姓名： 学号： 指导教师： 翻译日期： 2017.02.14
科技文献翻译 题目：研究建设项目的工程造价 研究建设项目的工程造价 摘要 在工程建设中，中国是拥有世界最大投资金额和具有最多建设项目的国家。它是一 项在建设项目管理上可以为广泛的工程管理人员进行有效的工程造价管理，并合理 确定和保证施工质量和工期的条件控制施工成本的重要课题。 在失去了中国建筑的投资和技术经济工程，分离的控制现状的基础上，通过建设成 本控制的基本理论为指导，探讨控制方法和施工成本的应用，阐述了存在的问题在 施工成本控制和对决心和施工成本的控制这些问题的影响，提出了建设成本控制应 体现在施工前期，整个施工过程中的成本控制，然后介绍了一些程序和应用价值工 程造价的方法在控制建设项目的所有阶段。 关键词：建设成本，成本控制，项目 1.研究的意义 在中国，现有的工程造价管理体系是20世纪50年代制定的，并在1980s.Traditional 施工成本管理方法改进是根据国家统一的配额，从原苏联引进的一种方法。它的特 点是建设成本的计划经济的管理方法，这决定了它无法适应当前市场经济的要求。 在中国传统建筑成本管理方法主要包括两个方面，即建设成本和施工成本控制方法 的测定方法。工程造价的确定传统的主要做法生搬硬套国家或地方统一的配额数量 来确定一个建设项目的成本。虽然这种方法已经历了20多年的改革，到现在为止，计划经济管理模式的影响仍然有已经存在在许多地区。我们传统的工程造价控制的
中英文对照外文翻译 (文档含英文原文和中文翻译) Application Fundamentals Android applications are written in the Java programming language. The compiled Java code — along with any data and resource files required by the application — is bundled by the aapt tool into an Android package, an archive file marked by an .apk suffix. This file is the vehicle for distributing the application and installing it on mobile devices; it's the file users download to their devices. All the code in a single .apk file is considered to be one application. In many ways, each Android application lives in its own world: 1. By default, every application runs in its own Linux process. Android starts the process when any of the application's code needs to be executed, and shuts down the process when it's no longer needed and system resources are required by other applications. 2. Each process has its own virtual machine (VM), so application code runs in isolation from the code of all other applications. 3. By default, each application is assigned a unique Linux user ID. Permissions are set so that the application's files are visible only to that user and only to the application itself — although there are ways to export them to other applications as well. It's possible to arrange for two applications to share the same user ID, in which case they will be able to see each other's files. To conserve system resources, applications with the same ID can also arrange to run in the same Linux process, sharing the same
软件开发外文翻译本页仅作为文档页封面，使用时可以删除 This document is for reference only-rar21year.March
Requirements Phase The chances of a product being developed on time and within budget are somewhat slim unless the members of the software development team agree on what the software product will do. The first step in achieving this unanimity is to analyze the client’s current situation as precisely as possible. For example, it is inadequate to say, “ They need a computer-aided design system because they claim their manual design system, there is lousy. “ Unless the development team knows exactly what is wrong with the current manual system, there is a high probability that aspects of the new computerized system will be equally “lousy. “ Similarly, if a personal computer manufacturer is contemplating development of a new operating system, the first step is to evaluate the firm’s current operating system and analyze carefully exactly why it is unsatisfactory. To take an extreme example, it is vital to know whether the problem exists only in the mind of the sales manager, who blames the operating system for poor sales, or whether users of the operating system are thoroughly disenchanted with its functionality and reliability. Only after a clear picture of the present situation has been gained can the team attempt to answer the critical question, What must the new product be able to do The process of answering this question is carried out during the requirements phase. A commonly held misconception is that , during the requirements phase, the developers must determine what software the client wants. On the contrary, the real objective of the requirements phase is to determine what software the client needs. The problem is that many clients do not know what they need. Furthermore, even a client who has a good idea of what is needed may have difficulty in accurately conveying these ideas to the developers, because most clients are less computer literate than the members of the development team.
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附录 Software Engineering-A PRACTITIONER’S APPROACH Written by Roger S. Pressman, Ph.D. （P.340-P.343） 13.3DESIGN PRINCIPLES Software design is both a process and a model. The design process is a sequence ofsteps that enable the designer to describe all aspects of the software to be built. It is important to note, however, that the design process is not simply a cookbook. Creative skill, past experience, a sense of what makes “good” software, and an overallcommitment to quality are critical success factors for a competent design. The design model is the equivalent of an architect’s plans for a house. It begins by representing the totality of the thing to be built (e.g., a three-dimensional renderingof the house) and slowly refines the thing to provide guidance for constructing eachdetail (e.g., the plumbing layout). Similarly, the design model that is created for softwareprovides a variety of different views of the computer software. Basic design principles enable the software engineer to navigate the design process.Davis suggests a setof principles for software design, which have beenadapted and extended in the following list: ? The design process should not suffer from “tunnel vision.” A gooddesigner should consider alternative approaches, judging each based on therequirements of the the resources available to do the job, and thedesign concepts presented in Section ? The design should be traceable to the analysis model. Because a singleelement of the design model often traces to multiple requirements, it is necessaryto have a means for tracking how requirements have been satisfied bythe design model. ? The design should not reinvent the wheel. Systems are constructed usinga set of design patterns, many of which have likely been encountered before.These patterns should always be chosen as an alternative to reinvention.Time is short and resources are limited! Design time should be invested inrepresenting truly new ideas and integrating those patterns that already exist. ? The design should “minimize the intellectual distance” between the software and the problem as it exists in the real world.That is, the structure of the software design should (whenever possible)mimic the structure of the problem domain.