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外贸大学商英名词解释

外贸大学商英名词解释
外贸大学商英名词解释

Glossary for business English

GDP:

国内生产总值(gross domestic product)

GNP:

Real GDP:

实际GDP

Nominal GDP: The production of goods and services valued at constant price.

名义GDP

Economic growth:

GDP gap:

GDP缺口

Recession:经济衰退(Recession)

Depression:

经济萧条

经济附加值(EVA,Economic Value Added)

Okun’s Law:

Okun's Law(奥肯定律或奥肯法则):

Indexing: It is a mechanism by which wages, prices, and contracts are partially or wholly compensated for changes in the general price level.

Phillip’s curve: A curve that shows that short-run trade-off between inflation and unemployment.

表明失业与通货膨胀存在一种交替关系的曲线,通货膨胀率高时,失业率低;通货膨胀率低时,失业率高。菲利普斯曲线是用来表示失业与通货膨胀之间交替关系的曲线,由英国经济学家W·菲利普斯于1958年在《1861-1957年英国失业和货币工资变动率之间的关系》一文中最先提出。此后,经济学家对此进行了大量的理论解释,尤其是萨缪尔森和索洛将原来表示失业率与货币工资率之间交替关系的菲利普斯曲线发展成为用来表示失业率与通货膨胀率之间交替关系的曲线。

Potential GDP: A situation in which all the economy’s labour, capital, land and entrepreneurial ability are fully employed.

潜在GDP 高就业的GDP,或更精确地说,在既定的技术状况和人口规模条件下可以达到的且不致加速通货膨胀的最高水平的GDP。现今一般认为:它是那个与最低可持续失业率相应的产出水平的等价物。

Equilibrium: A situation in which the price has reached the level where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded.

在经济学中,经济均衡或市场均衡指的是市场达到以下的条件:一件商品的市场价格达到供给量与需求量相等的那个价格。

Stagflation: A situation in which an economy is experiencing both falling output and rising prices.

滞胀全称停滞性通货膨胀(Stagflation),在经济学,特别是宏观经济学中,特指经济停滞(Stagnation)与高通货膨胀(Inflation),失业以及不景气同时存在的经济现象。通俗的说就是指物价上升,但经济停滞不前。它是通货膨胀长期发展的结果。

MPC: It is the extra amount that people consume when they receive an extra dollar of disposable income.

MPC是宏观经济学凯恩斯消费理论之一,它代表的意义是:每增减1元国民收入所引起的消费变化。

MPS: It can be defined as the fraction of an extra dollar of disposable income that goes to extra saving.

边际储蓄倾向MPS (marginal propensity to save)

每增减1元国民收入所带来的储蓄的变化。

M1: Transactions money or narrow money consists of items that are actually used for transaction.

狭义货币供应量

货币供应量是指某个时点上全社会承担流通和支付手段的货币存量。

M2: Broad money or near money, includes M1 plus saving accounts in banks and similar assets that are very close substitutes for transaction money.

广义货币供应量在我国现阶段是指M1加上机关、团体、部队、企业和事业单位在银行的定期存款、城乡居民储蓄存款、外币存款和信托类存款。M2可用来作为观察和调控中长期金融市场均衡的目标,通常M2的增幅应控制在经济增长率、物价上涨率、货币流通速度变化程度三者之和的范围内。

Theory of liquidity preference: Keynes’s theory that the interests rate adjusts to bring money supply and money demand into balance.

货币流动性偏好是人们喜欢以货币形式保持一部分财富的愿望或动机。是1936年凯恩斯在《就业、利息、货币通论》中提出的,根据凯恩斯的观点,如果资本边际效率不变,投资决定于利率,而利率又决定于流动性偏好和货币数量。货币的供给是由中央银行控制的,如果货币供给既定,那么,利率则取决于人们心理上的流动性偏好。

Supply shock: An event that directly alters firm’s costs and prices, shifting the economy’s aggregate-supply curve and thus the Phillip’s curve.

供给冲击是指可能引起生产能力和成本变化的事件。供给冲击却通常会使总产出与利率或通胀率产生反方向的变动。

Crowding effect: The offset in aggregate demand that results when expansionary fiscal policy raises the interest rate and thereby reduces investment spending.

或者具体地说是政府扩张性财政政策的挤出效应。

社会财富的总量是一定的,政府这边占用的资金过多,又会使私人部门可占用资金减少,经济学将这种情况,称为财政的“挤出效应”:政府通过向公众(企业、居民)和商业银行借款来实行扩张性的财政政策,引起利率上升和借贷资金需求上的竞争,导致民间部门(或非政府部门)支出减少,从而使财政支出的扩张部分或全部被抵消。民间支出的减少主要是民间投资的减少,但也有消费支出和净出口的减少

Multiplier effect: The additional shifts in aggregate demand that results when expansionary fiscal policy increases income and thereby increases consumer spending. 乘数效应(Multiplier Effect),更完整地说是支出/收入乘数效应,是宏观经济学的一个概念,是指支出的变化导致经济总需求与其不成比例的变化。这一概念通常与凯恩斯经济学相联系,其他一些经济学学派低估或否认这一效应对于宏观经济,尤其是长期看来的重要性。

Fraction-reserve banking:(银行部分准备金制度) A banking system in which banks holds only a fraction of deposits as reserve.

部分准备金银行制度现代银行体系的一种管制形式。依法要求有关金融机构将其所吸收的存款的一定比例,以中央银行存款(或库存现金)的形式留作准备金。

Money multiplier: The amount of money that banking system generates with each dollar of reserve.

在经济学中,乘数效应(Multiplier Effect),更完整地说是支出/收入乘数效应,是宏观经济学的一个概念,是指支出的变化导致经济总需求与其不成比例的变化。这一概念通常与凯恩斯经济学相联系,其他一些经济学学派低估或否认这一效应对于宏观经济,尤其是长期看来的重要性。

Open-market operations: The purchase and sale of US government bonds by the Fed. 公开市场操作(公开市场业务)是中央银行吞吐基础货币,调节市场流动性的主要货币政策工具,通过中央银行与指定交易商进行有价证券和外汇交易,实现货币政策调控目标。

,美联储通常通过公开市场操作,即购进和卖出短期国债控制货币供给

Reserve requirements: Regulation on the minimum amount of reserves that banks must hold against deposits.

法定存款准备金率是法律规定的商业银行准备金与商业银行吸收存款的比率。商业银行吸收的存款不能全部放贷出去,必须按照法定比率留存一部分作为随时应付存款人提款的准备金。

The Laffer curve: A curve which supposes that for a given economy there is an optimal income tax level to maximize tax revenues. It shows that tax revenue rises first with the size of the tax; but then. As the tax gets larger, the market shrinks so much that tax revenue starts to fall.

拉菲尔曲线(The Laffer Curve) 20世纪70年代,年轻的经济学家拉菲尔提出了一个奇怪的看法:对边际收入和资本减税,可获得更多的税收。理由是,减税将产生更多资本,提高企业和员工的生产率,整体经济将增长。这是过去20年美国持续繁荣的原因。

6 Trade deficit: The amount by which a nation’s imports of goods exceeds its exports of goods.

所谓贸易逆差是指一国在特定年度内进口贸易总值大于出口总值,俗称“ 入超”,反映该国当年在对外贸易中处于不利地位。

Trade surplus: The amount by which a nation’s exports of goods exceeds it imports of goods.

所谓贸易顺差是指在特定年度一国出口贸易总额大于进口贸易总额,又称“ 出超”.表示该国当年对外贸易处于有利地位。

Balance of trade: The value of a country’s exports minus the value of its imports.

贸易平衡是指一国在特定年度内外贸进、出口总额基本上趋于平衡。

Absolute Advantage: The ability of a country to supply a particular product or class of goods at lower costs than competing nations.

绝对利益

由英国古典经济学家亚当·斯密提出,是指在某种商品的生产上,一个经济在劳动

生产率上占有绝对优势,或其生产所耗费的劳动成本绝对低于另一个经济。若各个经济都从事自己占绝对优势的产品的生产,继而进行交换,那么双方都可以通过交换得到绝对的利益,从而整个世界也可以获得分工的好处

Comparative advantage: The ability to produce a good at lower cost, relative to other goods, compared to another country.

比较利益相对于其他国家或其他产品,以较低的价格生产产品的能力

英国古典经济学家大卫·李嘉图认为,决定国际贸易的基础是比较利益而非绝对利益。国际分工中若两个贸易参与国家生产力水平不相等,甲国在生产任何产品时成本均

低于乙国,处于绝对优势;而乙国则相反,其劳动生产率在任何产品上均低于甲国,处于绝对劣势。这时,两个国家间进行贸易的可能性依然存在,因为两国劳动生产率之间的差距,并不是在任何产品上都一样。这样,处于绝对优势的国家不必生产全部产品,而应该集中生产本国国内具有最大优势的产品,处于绝对劣势的国家也不必停产所有的产品,而只应该停止生产在本国国内处于最大劣势的产品,通过自由交换,参与交换的各个国家可以节约社会劳动,增加产品的消费,世界也因为自由交换而增加产量,提高劳动生产率。

Demand or reactive lag: It is the time it takes for consumers to respond to the emergence of new, low cost of the product.

International Product life cycle: Certain kinds of products go through a continuum, or cycle, that consists of roughly four stages-introduction, growth, maturity, and decline- and that the location of production will shift from one country to another depending on the stage in the products life cycle.

产品生命周期(product life cycle),简称PLC,是产品的市场寿命,即一种新产品从开始进入市场到被市场淘汰的整个过程。费农认为:产品生命是指市上的的营销生命,产品和人的生命一样,要经历形成、成长、成熟、衰退这样的周期。就产品而言,也就是要经历一个开发、引进、成长、成熟、衰退的阶段。而这个周期在不同的技术水平的国家里,发生的时间和过程是不一样的,期间存在一个较大的差距和时差,正是这一时差,表现为不同国家在技术上的差距,它反映了同一产品在不同国家市场上的竞争地位的差异,从而决定了国际贸易和国际投资的变化。为了便于区分,费农把这些国家依次分成创新国(一般为最发达国家)、一般发达国家、发展中国家。

Mercantilism:重商主义是十八世纪在欧洲受欢迎的政治经济体制。它建立在这样的信念上:即一国的国力基于通过贸易的顺差--即出口额大于进口额--所能获得的财富。封建主义解体之后的16~17世纪是西欧资本原始积累时期的一种经济理论或经济体系,反映资本原始积累时期商业资产阶级利益的经济理论和政策体系

Non-tariff barriers: All barriers other then protective tariff that nations erect to impede international trade, including import quotas, licensing requirements and so on.

各种措施。

MES(minimum efficient scale): The lowest level of output at which a form can minimize lone-run average total cost.

最小有效规模

工厂的最小有效规模:在长期中平均成本处于或接近其最小值的最小的工厂规模。

Ad valorem tariff:

从价关税:以商品价格为标准征收的关税。ad volorem是拉丁文,从价之意,即从价关税是采用从价原则征收的,它是按价格的一定百分比征收,税额随价格的上升而增加,随价格下跌而减少,关税收入直接与价格挂钩。也就是以经海关审定的进出口货物价格(称为海关完税价格、海关价格或海关估价)为计税依据,按税则中规定的适用税率计征的关税。完税价格乘以税率即为应纳的关税税额。

Import quotas:Government put a physical limit on the volume of a particular production which may be imported during a particular period of time.

进口配额制(Import,quotas System):是一国政府在一定期限(一般为一年)以内,对于一些商品的进口数量或金额规定一个限额。主要有绝对配额和关税配额两种。Voluntary export restraints: restraints on exports that are self-imposed by an exporting country, although often in response to a threat that if such constraints are not imposed, the importing country will impose import quotes

自愿出口限制又称“自动出口限制”或“自动出口配额制(Voluntary Export Quotas)”,简称“自限制”。它是进口国的政府或一个工业同出口国的政府或相竞争的工业安排的、对后者所出口的一种或一种以上产品的数量加以限制的措施。

Anti-dumping duties: special import duties imposed when a firm, following an enquiry, is assessed as having sold a product in the importing market at a price below the one it charges in the home market.

反倾销税(Anti-dumping Duties)

就是对倾销商品所征收的进口附加税。当进口国因外国倾销某种产品,国内产业受到损害时,征收相当于出口国国内市场价格与倾销价格之间差额的进口税。目的在于抵制倾销,保护国内产业。通常由受损害产业有关当事人提出出口国进行倾销的事实,请求本国政府机构再征。

Countervailing duties: Additional duties imposed by the importing country to offset government subsidies in the exporting country, when the subsidized imports cause material injury to domestic industry in the importing country

反补贴税(Countervailing Duties):对接受补贴的进口商品征收的一种超过正常关税的特殊关税

目的在于抵消国外竞争者得到奖励和补助所产生的影响,从而保护进口国的制造商Externalities: Spillover benefits or costs arising from an economic activity that are not taken into account by producers, resulting in levels of production that are inappropriate from the standpoint of the economy as a whole.

外部性

对他人产生有利或不利的影响,但不需要他人对此支付报酬或进行补偿的活动。当私人成本或收益不等于社会成本或收益时,就会产生外部性。外部性的两种主要的类型是外部经济和外部不经济。

Fundamental disequilibrium: A balance of payments surplus or deficits too great and/or enduring to be financed. It is easy to detect with hindsight, but difficult to detect

国际收支失衡(disequilibr ium)

国际收支失衡是指一国经常账户、金融与资本账户的余额出现问题,即对外经济出现了需要调整的情况。一国国际收支失衡的经济影响。对外,国际收支失衡造成汇率、资源配置、福利提高的困难;对内,国际收支失衡造成经济增长与经济发展的困难,即对外的失衡影响到国内经济的均衡发展,因此需要进行调整。

国际收支平衡:国际收支差额,也就是自主性交易差额为零。但是在统计上和概念上难以精确区分自主性和补偿性,只是一种思维方式,难以付诸实现。

X-inefficiency: The failure to produce any specific output at the lowest average (and total) cost possible.

X-非效率(X-inefficiency)。市场结构理论表明,某一产业内企业数量越少,市场垄断力量就越大。而垄断企业在不存在市场竞争机制约束的状况下,就会放松内部管理和技术创新,从而导致了生产和经营低效率。这些企业不会自觉按照边际成本或平均成本制定价格,而往往会制定垄断价格,导致社会资源分配的低效率。

Capital stock: The total available capital in a nation.

Free rider:The inability of potential providers of an economically desirable but in divisive good or service to obtain payment from those who benefit because the exclusive principle is not applicable.

所谓”搭便车现象”现象是指某种事情产生了正外部性,所谓外部性是指是经济主体(包括厂商或个人)的经济活动对他人和社会造成的非市场化的影响。分为正外部性和负外部性。正外部性是某个经济行为个体的活动使他人或社会受益,而受益者无须花费代价,负外部性是某个经济行为个体的活动使他人或社会受损,而造成外部不经济的人却没有为此承担成本。

Primary product: A good that has not been processed and is therefore in its natural state, specifically products of agriculture, forestry, fishing, and mining.

Intermediate goods: Products that are purchased for resale or further processing or manufacture.初级产品

又称原始产品。指未经加工或因销售习惯而略作加工的产品,如天然橡胶、原油、铁矿石等农林牧渔矿产品。指人们通过劳动,直接从自然界获得的、尚待进一步加工或已经简单加工的产品。初级产品主要是农、林、牧、渔、矿业产品,如矿石、精矿、籽棉、皮棉等。

Local content requiremen t: A requirement that some specific fraction of a good be produced domestically.

当地含量要求(Local content requirement),一般是要求合营企业购买本国的原材料、机器、零配件、燃料等等,从而限制其向外国采购。

Transfer of technology: the movement of a technology from its culture of origin to some different culture.

技术转让

基本解释:

泛指技术从一方转移给另一方的行为。即技术供应方将生产、管理、销售技术及有关权利让与承受方。转让的技术包括有工业产权的技术(如专利、商标等)和无工业产权的专有技术(如图纸、技术说明书)。国家间的技术转让有非商业性的技术援助以及技术贸易两种。

to a contract is not to known to the other party, causing the latter to incur major costs.

E.g.: Individuals who have the poorest health are most likely to buy health insurance.

逆选择问题

经济学中竞争性模型的一个重要假设前提是买方和卖方都具有完全的信息.在保险中,隐含的前提是保险人和被保险人相互之间有充分的了解,双方都是理性的,善意怕.而现实中这些假设很难成立.第一,信息不对称是绝对的买卖双方不可能完全知晓对方的底细.第二,虽然保险合同要求投保人遵循最大诚信原则,但投保人作为一个理性的人,其行事以自身的经济利益为标准在不违法的前提下,投保人一定会利用各种可能来为自己谋利.因此投保人必然会试图得用这种信息不对称,隐瞒自己真实的危险状况使保险人相信自己是低危险投保人.从而达到少缴纳少量的保费获得较大的保障.这种信息不对称发生在保险交易之前,对市场的影响是导致次品良品.信息经济学将这种情况称为逆向选择.

Balance of payments: A summary of all the transactions that took place between the individuals, firms, and governments units of one nation and those of all other nation during a year.

2.国际收支平衡和国际收支均横

1)国际收支平衡:国际收支差额,也就是自主性交易差额为零。但是在统计上和概念上难以精确区分自主性和补偿性,只是一种思维方式,难以付诸实现。

2)国际收支均衡:国内经济处于均衡状态下的自主性国际收支平衡,即国内实现充分就业、物价稳定,国外实现国际收支平衡的状态。是一国达到福利最大化的综合政策目标。

Current account:The section in a nation’s international balance of payments that records its exports and imports of goods and services, its net investment income, and its net transfer.

经常账户(Current Account)一国国际收支的主要组成部分,主要包括商品贸易收支,即有形货物的进出口,及服务贸易收支,即诸如旅游、银行及保险等各种服务的往来。经常账户不包含长期借贷和投资的资金流,这些均是资本账户上的项目。1

经常账户(Current Account,或译为―经常项目‖),是经常发生的国际经济交易,是最基本、最重要的账户。包括货物、服务、收入和经常转移四个项目。2 经常账户(即―经常项目‖),和资本与金融账户相对,指在国际收支平衡表中贸易和服务而产生的资金流动。这一部分所以被看成是一种更加合理的资金流动。

Capital account: The section in a nation’s international balance of payments that records the capital inflows and the capital outflows of that nation.

资本项目:指资本的输出输入,所反映的是本国和外国之间以货币表示的债权债务的变动,换言之,就是一国为了某种经济目的在国际经济交易中发生的资本跨国界的收支项目。在国际收支统计,资本项目亦称资本账户。包括各国间股票、债券、证券等的交易,以及一国政府、居民或企业在国外的存款。分为长期资本(合同规定偿还期超过1年的资本或像公司股本一样未定偿还期资本)和短期资本(即期付款的资本和合同规定借款期为1年和1年以下的资本)。

Double entry accounting: A method of bookkeeping in which every entry is balanced by another entry. Correct double-entry accounting always provides a balanced set of books; that is, the total value of your asset accounts minus the total of your liability accounts will equal the total of your equity accounts.

复式会计

广义复式会计是一个新的会计学假说,它由财富会计、速度会计、加速度会计、边际会计、边际率会计和概率会计等六个子会计组成。财富会计的核算对象是以货币计量的财富,它是现行会计的主体;速度会计和加速度会计的核算对象分别是以货币/时间计量伪速度和以货币/时间计量的加速度,它们是通过财富会计求时间微积分而得到的;边际会计和边际率会计的核算对象分别以货币/产销量计量的边际和以货币/产销量计量的边际率,它们是通过对财富会计求产销量微积分而得到的;概率会计的核算对象是未来的财富,它是通过概率运算使财富会计随机化而得到的。广义复式会计的各个子会计都具有复式簿记的结构,它们的基本概念和方法之间存在着紧密的数学关系,广义复式会计是一个严密的公理体系。广义复式会计的提出,在时间、空间和未来等三个方向上突破和扩展了盛行五百余年的复式簿记的结构,全面突破和扩展了会计学的基本框架,实现了会计学的新统一。

Unilateral transfer: Payment made by the government or private sector of one country to another as a gift or aid, not as payment for any good or service nor as an obligation. 单方面转移收支Unilateral Transfer:也称无偿转移收支,指国家之间单方面的,无需偿还的外汇收支,包括私人单方面转移收支和政府单方面转移收支两部分。私人单方面转移收支包括侨汇、年金、个人赠与等;政府单方面转移收支包括政府间的经济援助、军事援助、战争赔款、政府间的赠与等。单方面转移收支是国际收支的组成部分,包括在国际收支平衡表中的经常项目(Current Account)中。

Private transfer payments: It refers to gifts made by individual’s and non-government institutions to foreign.

私人资金转移

Government transfers refer to gifts or grants made by one government to foreign residents or foreign governments.

政府间财政转移

Special Drawing Rights:

特别提款权(special drawing right,SDR)是国际货币基金组织创设的一种储备资产和记账单位,亦称―纸黄金(Paper Gold)‖。它是基金组织分配给会员国的一种使用资金的权利。会员国在发生国际收支逆差时,可用它向基金组织指定的其他会员国换取外汇,以偿付国际收支逆差或偿还基金组织的贷款,还可与黄金、自由兑换货币一样充当国际储备。但由于其只是一种记帐单位,不是真正货币,使用时必须先换成其他货币,不能直接用于贸易或非贸易的支付。因为它是国际货币基金组织原有的普通提款权以外的一种补充,所以称为特别提款权(SDR)。

Hot money: Money that moves rapidly across country borders in quick profits on debt or equities investments.

―热钱(Hot Money)‖又称―逃避资本(Refugee Capital)‖,游资或投机性短期资本,是充斥在世界上,无特定用途的流动资金。它是为追求最高报酬及最低风险,在国际金融市场上迅速流动的短期投机性资金。

Par value: Face value. The central value of a pegged exchange rate, around which the actual rate is permitted to fluctuate within set bounds.

票面价值

票面价值:指公司最初所定股票票面值。

股价=票面价值/银行利率

股票的票面价值又称面值,即在股票票面上标明的金额。

in response to changes in selective quantitative indicators, such as past inflation differentials vis-à-vis major trading partners, differentials between the inflation target and expected inflation in major trading partners, and so forth.

爬行钉住汇率制度是当今一些发展中国家采用的独具特色的汇率制度,在该汇率制度下,政府当局经常按一定时间间隔以事先宣布的百分比对汇率平价作小幅度的调整,直至达到均衡。Key currency: It is one that is traded on world money markets, has demonstrated stable values over time and has been widely accepted as a means of international settlement.

关键货币(Key Currency)

在国际汇率中使用最多在各国外汇储备中最大可自由兑换,在国际上可普便接受的货币.

Hedging:

套利交易:即买入一种期货合约的同时卖出另一种不同的期货合约,这里的期货合约既可以是同一期货品种的不同交割月份。也可以是相互关联的两种不同商品。还可以是不同期货市场的同种商品。套利交易者同时在一种期货合约上做多在另一种期货合约上做空,通过两个合约间价差变动来获利,与绝对价格水平关系不大。

Basket of currencies: A group of currencies used to establish a value for some other currency.

Net capital inflows: It means the purchase of foreign assets by domestic residents is less than the purchase of domestic assets by foreign residents.

Net capital outflows: It means the purchase of foreign assets by domestic residents is more than the purchase of domestic assets by foreign residents.

International monetary system: Or international monetary order or regime refers to the rules, customs, instruments, facilities, and organizations for effecting international payments.

国际货币体系的概念

国际货币体系就是各国政府为适应国际贸易与国际支付的需要,对货币在国际范围内发挥世界货币职能所确定的原则、采取的措施和建立的组织形式的总称。

Pegged exchange rate :

钉住汇率制:指一国使本币同某外国货币或一篮子货币保持固定比价的汇率制度。一篮子货币指由多种国家货币按特定的权数组成的货币单位。

在钉住汇率制,一国货币与其它某一种或某一篮子货币之间保持比较稳定的比价,即钉住所选择的货币。本国货币随所选货币的波动而波动,但相互之间的比价相对固定或只在小范围内浮动,一般幅度不超过1%。被钉住的一般是主要工业国家的货币或IMF的特别提款权。

Specie flow mechanism: Under the gold standard, the mechanism by which international payments would adjust. A country with high inflation would export less,

quantity of gold, the resulting monetary contraction would reduce prices. Due to David Hume.

物价–现金流动机制(Price Specie-Flow Mechanism)

在国际间普遍实行金本位制的条件下,一个国家的国际收支可通过物价的涨落和现金(即黄金)的输出输入自动恢复平衡。这一自动调节规律称为―物价–现金流动机制(Price Specie-Flow Mechanism)。‖它是在1752年由英国经济学家休谟·大卫(Hume David)提出的,所以又称―休谟机制‖。

Gold Standard: A monetary system in which both the value of a unit of the currency and the quantity of it in circulation are specified in terms of gold. If two currencies are both on the gold standard, then the exchange rate between them is approximately determined by their two prices in terms of gold.

金本位制是指以黄金作为本位货币的货币制度。其主要形式有金币本位制、金块本位制和金汇兑本位制。1、金币本位制

金币本位制是以黄金为货币金属的一种典型的金本位制。其主要特点有:金币可以自由铸造、自由熔化;流通中的辅币和价值符号(如银行券)可以自由兑换金币;黄金可以自由输出输入。在实行金本位制的国家之间,根据两国货币的黄金含量计算汇率,称为金平价。

2、金块本位制

金块本位制是指由中央银行发行、以金块为准备的纸币流通的货币制度。它与金币本位制的区别在于:其一,金块本位制以纸币或银行券作为流通货币,不再铸造、流通金币,但规定纸币或银行券的含金量,纸币或银行券可以兑换为黄金;其二,规定政府集中黄金储备,允许居民当持有本位币的含金量达到一定数额后兑换金块。

3、金汇兑本位制

金汇兑本位制是指以银行券为流通货币,通过外汇间接兑换黄金的货币制度。金汇兑本位制与金块本位制的相同处在于规定货币单位的含金量,国内流通银行券,没有铸币流通。但规定银行券可以换取外汇,不能兑换黄金。本国中央银行将黄金与外汇存于另一个实行金本位制的国家,允许以外汇间接兑换黄金,并规定本国货币与该国货币的法定比率,从而稳定本币币值。

Beggar thy neighbor: 以邻为壑效应(英文:beggar-thy-neighbor effect)

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定义

简单来说就是一国采取的政策行动尽管对本国经济有利,却损害了别国的经济。具体来说,即汇率代表货币的相对价值,因此,任何一个汇率水平,任何一个国家的汇率制度选择,任何一个开放经济体为实现内外均衡而实施的宏观经济政策,都不可避免地具有外部性。其中,负的外部性即以邻为壑效应。

Cartel: A group of firms that seeks to raise the price of a good by restricting its supply. The term is usually used for international groups, especially involving state-owned firms and/or governments.

卡特尔是垄断组织形式之一。生产或销售某一同类商品的企业,为垄断市场,获取

的成员在生产、商业和法律上仍然保持独立性

Stand-by-arrangements:(备用信贷协议)It refers to advance permission for future borrowing by the nation in IMF.

备用信贷是一成员国在国际收支发生困难或预计要发生困难时,同国际货币基金组织签订的一种备用借款协议。协议一经签订后,成员国在需要时可按协议规定的方法提用,不需要再办理新的手续。这种协议通常包括可借用款项的额度、使用期限、利率、分阶段使用的规定、币种等等。备用信贷协议中规定的借款额度,有时并不被完全使用。对于未使用部分的款项,只需缴纳约1%的年管理费。有的成员国与基金组织签订了备用信贷协议后,甚至根本不去使用它。凡按规定可随时使用未使用的部分,计入借入储备。备用信贷协议的签订,表明政府干预外汇市场的能力扩大和政府干预外汇市场的决心,对外汇市场上的交易者和投机者具有一种心理上的作用。

Seignior age:(铸币利差)It is the profit accruing to a nation form issuing the currency or which its currency is used as an international currency.

储备货币国创造新货币金额的成本与利用这种货币余额所能获得的实际资源之间的差额叫作―铸币利差‖,也就是所谓的铸币税。

Maastricht Treaty:

马斯特里赫特条约

概述

1991年12月9日—10日,欧共体第46届首脑会议在荷兰的马斯特里赫特举行。12个成员国经过激烈的讨价还价,草签了包括《经济联盟条约》和《政治联盟条约》两部分的《欧洲联盟条约》。因该条约是在马斯特里赫特签署的,故而又称作《马斯特里赫特条约》,简称《马约》。

《经济联盟条约》确定了经济和货币的最终目标,规定至迟于1998年7月1日成立欧洲中央银行,并于1999年1月1日实行单一货币。按原先计划,如到1996年,有7个国家符合规定的经济标准(通膨率在5%以下,财政赤字不超过国民生产总值的3%,公共债务不超过国民生产总值60%),便于1997年实行单一货币,但需由12国多数表决通过。条约规定,如届时达到上述标准的不到7国或多数表决未能通过,那么达到标准的国家至迟于1999年1月1日放弃本国货币而实行单一货币,其他国家待达到标准后参加。

Globalization: The increasing worldwide integration of markets for goods, services, and capital that attracted special attention in the late 1990s.

全球化的定义有许多种,同时,对全球化的真正意义和其真正涵盖的范围还是有相当大的争议的。

全球化的一个实用的定义是:

在很大程度上由信息技术和一般意义上的技术的推动下,人员、贸易和商务的跨国家和跨地区界限的相互依赖正在日益增长。

一个更精确的定义是:全世界经济的一体化。

Strategic alliances: are business alliances among companies that provide strategic benefits to the partners.

战略联盟是现代企业竞争的产物,它是指一个企业为了实现自己的战略目标,与其他企业在利益共享的基础上形成的一种优势互补、分工协作的松散式网络化联盟。它可以表现为正式的合资企业,即两家或两家以上的企业共同出资并且享有企业的股东权益;或

进行的合作。战略联盟是各企业在追求长期竞争优势过程中为达到阶段性企业目标而与其他企业的结盟,通过相互交换互补性资源形成合力优势,共同对付强大的竞争者。Privatization: The conversion of a government-owned enterprise to private ownership. 【私有化】[Privatization] 是指公有组织或公有财产的所有权人直接或由其代理人越权将公有组织或公有财产以及这些组织或财产的所有权及其派生权利合法或非法地由公有组织或公有财产的全体公民或某一集体所有转变为个别私人所有的行为及其过程。Derivative market: A derivatives market is any market for a derivative security, that is a contract which specifies the right or obligation to receive or deliver future cash flows based on some future event such as the price of an independent security or the performance of an index.

金融衍生市场是一种以证券市场、货币市场、外汇市场为基础派生出来的金融市场,它是利用保证金交易的杠杆效应,以利率、汇率、股价的趋势为对象设计出大量的金融商品进行交易,以支付少量保证金及签订远期合同进行互换,掉期等的金融派生商品的交易市场。

其交易对象是,各类金融衍生工具(financial derivative instruments),交易目的是为了转移基础金融资产的风险,或降低交易双方的成本。金融衍生工具,实质是一种价值取决于基础性金融资产的价值或某一指数的金融合约,主要包括远期,期货,期权,互换四种基本类型,合约成交后在未来结算。

FDI:

国际直接投资:是一国的投资者(自然人或法人)跨国境投入资本或其他生产要素,以获取或控制相应的企业经营管理权为核心,以获得利润或稀缺生产要素为目的的投资活动。

Engel’s laws:恩格尔定律(E ngel,s law)反映食物支出比重与家庭总支出变化关系的定律。即:一个家庭收入越少,家庭收入中或家庭总支出中用于购买食物的支出所占的比重就越大;一个国家越穷,每个国民的平均收入或平均支出中用于购买食物的费用所占的比重也越大。随着家庭收入的增加,家庭收入或家庭支出中用于购买食物的支出所占的比重将会下降。恩格尔定律是19世纪德国统计学家恩格尔(E.En- geD提出的。他根据经验统计资料,对消费结构的变化提出了上述定律,后来以他的名字命名。其定律用下列公式表示: 食物支出对总支出的比率(RI)一食物支出变动百分比总支出变动百分比食物支出对收入_ 的比率(RZ)一食物总支出变动百分比收入变动百分比RZ又称为食物支出的收入弹性。根据恩格尔定律得出的比例数称为恩格尔系数(Engel,5 Coeffieient)。它以下列公式表示: 恩格尔系数二食物支出金额总支出金额根据恩格尔定律,可以得出食物支出曲线,人们称它为恩格尔食物支出曲线。在中国,据国家统计局家庭抽样调查,城乡居民食物支出金额占生活消费总支出金额的比重,1981年为56,7%,1988年下降为51 .4%。(丁声俊)

Entrepreneurs: The agents that put science into application and thus change it into technologies or the people into business practices.

企业家是担负着对土地、资本、劳动力等生产要素进行有效组织和管理、富有冒险和创新精神的高级管理人才。

Technology diffusion: It is the dissemination of technical information and knowledge and the subsequent adoption of new technologies and techniques by users. Technology diffusion is a component in the broader innovation process.

技术扩散(Technological Diffusion)是一项技术从首次得到商业化应用,经过大力推广、普遍采用阶段,直至最后因落后而被淘汰的过程。。它不仅仅指对生产技术的简单获取,而是强调对技术引进方的技术能力的构建活动。技术扩散是在技术进步和技术创新后才发生的,并且与技术创新在市场上的推广传播过程有关,而创新则是指那些第一次被引入到商业贸易活动中的新发明。

Entry barrier: A natural or artificial impediment to a firm beginning to operate in an

these are often national firms in competition with potential foreign entrants.

进入壁垒是影响市场结构的重要因素,是指产业内既存企业对于潜在进入企业和刚刚进入这个产业的新企业所具有的某种优势的程度。换言之,是指潜在进入企业和新企业若与既存企业竞争可能遇到的种种不利因素。进入壁垒具有保护产业内已有企业的作用,也是潜在进入者成为现实进入者时必须首先克服的困难。

Corporate strategy: strategic planning or management decisions that effect the direction or performance of company.

企业战略:企业面对激烈变化,严峻挑战的经营环境,为求得长期生存和不断发展而进行的总体性谋划。

Value chain: An organization's set of linked, value-creating activities, ranging from securing basic raw materials and energy to the ultimate delivery of products and services.

企业的价值创造是通过一系列活动构成的,这些活动可分为基本活动和辅助活动两类,基本活动包括内部后勤、生产作业、外部后勤、市场和销售、服务等;而辅助活动则包括采购、技术开发、人力资源管理和企业基础设施等。这些互不相同但又相互关联的生产经营活动,构成了一个创造价值的动态过程,即价值链。

Expropriation:The confiscation of private property by the State, with or without compensation or consent.

Legal recourse:

Differentiation.: A key element in firms' competitive advantage. Refers to market conditions in which a product can vary in some significant way from firm to firm producing it, and purchasers demonstrate preferences about which supplier to patronize in terms of these non-price differences. Factors contributing to product differentiation include quality and performance variations, special service conditions, and advertising. Severance pay: It is an entitlement that may be payable to an employee of the Public Service upon termination of employment.

劳动合同订立时所依据的客观情况发生重大变化,致使原劳动合同无法履行,经当事人协商不能就变更劳动合同达成协议,由用人单位解除劳动合同的,用人单位按劳动者在本单位工作的年限,工作时间每满一年发给相当于一个月工资的经济补偿金

Extraterritoriality:

Extraterritoriality is the state of being exempt from the jurisdiction of local law, usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations. For instance, a citizen of country A may enjoy extraterritoriality while visiting country B. In that case, this person cannot legally be tried by the courts of country B for some alleged crime. Extraterritoriality can also be applied to physical places, such as embassies, consulates, or military bases of foreign countries.

治外法权是免除本地法律司法权的情形,通常是外交谈判的结果。例如,一个甲国公民当在乙国访问时享受治外法权。在这种情况下,这个人在涉嫌犯罪时,乙国的法院不能进行审判。

Anti-trust: Government regulation intended to maintain competitive market structures, in order to protect trade and commerce from monopolies and restraints on competition such as collusive price-fixing and vertical restraints.

取缔垄断行径、贸易限制和那些旨在抬高价格或取消竞争的厂商勾结行为的各种法律。Transfer price: Prices that one subsidiary of a firm pays for goods purchases from a

存货转让价格的概念

总部将存货转让给分支机构的价格。主要有成本价、成本加成价和零售价格三种。Nationalization:A process in which ownership of resources are transferred from the private to public sectors.将私人企业的生产资料收归国家所有的过程。国有化是国家所有制经济形成过程中的一条重要途径。

Intellectual property right: The right to control and derive the benefits from something one has invented, discovered, or created.

知识产权,指―权利人对其所创作的智力劳动成果所享有的专有权利‖,一般只在有限时间期内有效。各种智力创造比如发明、文学和艺术作品,以及在商业中使用的标志、名称、图像以及外观设计,都可被认为是某一个人或组织所拥有的知识产权。据斯坦福大学法学院的Mark Lemley教授,广泛使用该术语―知识产权‖是一个在1967年世界知识产权组织成立后出现的,最近几年才变得常见

Forum shopping: It is the informal name given to the practice of attempting to get a case heard in the court thought most likely to provide a decision favorable to a plaintiff. 择地行诉择地行诉(forum shopping)是与自然诉讼(natural forum)相对应的。自然行诉指的是“与诉讼条件具有真正和实际联系的法院”、“能以更少的不便和费用,公正处理争议的法院。”实践中,英国法院常常推定碰撞发生地是处理碰撞案件的自然行诉地点。本案中碰撞发生在土耳其水域,英国法院认为它是最自然且适宜的管辖地;而古巴船东作为当事人一方,试图选择一个在他认为可以获得最有利的判决或裁定的法院(本案中为英国法院)进行诉讼,则是择地行诉。

Principle of comity:It provides that a country will honor and enforce within its own territory the judgments and decisions of foreign courts with certain limitations.

礼让原则

First to file system: The first to file policy is a world-wide mainstream patent law doctrine used by nearly the whole world save the United States and the Philippines. Based on this policy, even if inventor A made the invention earlier than inventor B, if B filed the patent application to the patent office earlier, B shall be awarded a patent. Merger and acquisition: Combining of two or more entities through the direct acquisition by one of the net assets of the other.

并购的内涵非常广泛,一般是指兼并(Merger)和收购(Acquisition)。兼并收购简称并购。

兼并—又称吸收合并,指两家或者更多的独立企业,公司合并组成一家企业,通常由一家占优势的公司吸收一家或者多家公司。

收购—指一家企业用现金或者有价证券购买另一家企业的股票或者资产,以获得对该企业的全部资产或者某项资产的所有权,或对该企业的控制权。

与并购意义相关的另一个概念是合并(Consolidation)——是指两个或两个以上的企业合并成为一个新的企业,合并完成后,多个法人变成一个法人。

Consumer market: An organization group of buyers and sellers of a particular product that are affected by its demand and supply.

Distribution channel:All the organizations and people involved in the physical

分销渠道是指"当产品从生产者向最后消费者或产业用户移动时,直接或间接转移所有权所经过的途径。"

Listed company: A company whose share have been quoted by the stock exchange. Listed Company(上市公司) 公开发行股票的公司可分为上市公司与上柜公司,上柜公司为仅办理公开发行股票却未申请上市的股票发行公司,上市公司则为公开发行股票且已办理上市手续的公司。

Industrial complex:A manufacturing area that consist of many different factories

turning out different products.

Brand recognition: A product that has been recognized by local consumers.

品牌再认(brand recognition)

品牌再认是指当向消费者出示某个品牌时,消费者能辨认出该品牌的能力,也就是消费者能够正确辨认出曾经见过或听说过的品牌的程度,是品牌意识的两个重要表现之一(另一个为品牌再现)。品牌再认不涉及曾在何地接触到该品牌,为什么此品牌与其他品牌不同,或者甚至是这个品牌的产品分类是什么等问题,而只是简单地表明过去是否曾见过这一品牌。因为再认本身可引起对品牌更为积极的感受,所以它也在一定程度上反映了消费者从过去对品牌的接触中产生的对品牌的好感程度。

Quota: A restriction on the quantity of imports of a particular lines of products.

配额是指对一种商品每年能够进口的数量所施加的限制。

从广义上说,配额是对有限资源的一种管理和分配,是对供需不等或者各方不同利益的平衡。其结果会形成不公平竞争。

Organizational culture: The common values, behavior patterns, institutions, and so on among employees of corporation.

企业文化,或称组织文化(Corporate Culture或Organizational Culture),是一个组织由其价值观、信念、仪式、符号、处事方式等组成的其特有的文化形象。

Market economy:An economy in which the market is used to determine resource allocation, prices, and investments.

市场经济(又称为自由市场经济或自由企业经济)是一种经济体系,在这种体系下产品和服务的生产及销售完全由自由市场的自由价格机制所引导,而不是像计划经济一般由国家所引导。市场经济也被用作资本主义的同义词。在市场经济里并没有一个中央协调的体制来指引其运作,但是在理论上,市场将会透过产品和服务的供给和需求产生复杂的相互作用,进而达成自我组织的效果。市场经济的支持者通常主张,人们所追求的私利其实是一个社会最好的利益。

New economy: A different form of economy that is mainly supported by information technology sector instead of manufacturing.

新经济

所谓―新经济‖是建立在信息技术革命和制度创新基础上的经济持续增长与低通货

膨胀率、低失业率并存,经济周期的阶段性特征明显淡化的一种新的经济现象。Bubble economy: An economy that primarily depends on banking, financial markets

and other transient operations.

泡沫经济:虚拟资本过度增长与相关交易持续膨胀日益脱离实物资本的增长和实业部门的成长,金融证券、地产价格飞涨,投机交易极为活跃的经济现象。泡沫经济寓于金融投机,造成社会经济的虚假繁荣,最后必定泡沫破灭,导致社会震荡,甚至经济崩溃。Venture capital:Funds that are invested in new plants or other enterprises open to

风险投资(venture capital)简称是VC在我国是一个约定俗成的具有特定内涵的概念,其实把它翻译成创业投资更为妥当。广义的风险投资泛指一切具有高风险、高潜在收益的投资;狭义的风险投资是指以高新技术为基础,生产与经营技术密集型产品的投资。根据美国全美风险投资协会的定义,风险投资是由职业金融家投入到新兴的、迅速发展的、具有巨大竞争潜力的企业中一种权益资本。

Business cycle: A period of time during which business moves form high activity through a running-down period to a state of low activity and then gradually improves and booms again.

经济周期(Business cycle):也称商业周期、商业循环、景气循环,它是指经济运行中周期性出现的经济扩张与经济紧缩交替更迭、循环往复的一种现象。是国民总产出、总收人和总就业的波动

Deregulation:The ending of the existing system of regulations, especially by the government.

放松管制(deregulation)是针对金融机构的许多限制被放松或取消,如在产品类型和服务场所方面所设的限制。

Public offering: A non-exclusive issue to the general public either bonds or stock by a firm in order to raise funds.

Bottleneck: Difficulties or things those are more likely to hinder normal production or prevent smooth economic development.

一般是指在整体中的关键限制因素。瓶颈在不同的领域有不同的含义。产业发展的瓶颈,是指在构成产业关联的产业系统中,那些不能适应其他产业发展的产业。Information technology: All devices and knowledge that required to managed and kind of data.

信息技术(Information Technology 简称IT)是指在信息科学的基本原理和方法的指导下扩展人类信息功能的技术。一般说,信息技术是以电子计算机和现代通信为主要手段实现信息的获取,加工,传递和利用等功能的技术总和。人的信息功能包括:感觉器官承担的信息获取功能,神经网络承担的信息传递功能,思维器官承担的信息认知功能和信息再生功能,效应器官承担的信息执行功能。

Treasury bill: A U.S government short-term security sold to the public each week.

Treasury bill可能是:

?短期国债(Treasury bill/Short-term Government bond/Treasury Bond/short term bills )是一国政府为满足先支后收所产生的临时性资金需要而发行的短期债券。短期国债在英美称为国库券,英国是最早发行短期国债的国家。

?短期国库券(Treasury Bill):美国政府发行的债务证券,期限少于一年。短期国库券通过竞标过程发售,价格相对面值有折扣,所以不会像大部分其他债券一般支付定额利息。

Capital stock: The entire shares of a joint-stock company whose shareholders together from the ownership of the concern..

Product life cycle: A theory states that certain kinds of products go through a cycle consisting of four stages(introduction, growth, maturity and declines.

issued by a company with low credit rating.

Liquidity: Available cash or the capacity to obtain it on demand.

流动资金有两种定义:

一、广义的流动资金。指企业全部的流动资产,包括现金、存货(材料、在制品、及成品)、应收帐款、有价证券、预付款等项目。以上项目皆属业务经营所必需,故流动资金有一通俗名称,称为营业周转资金。

二、狭义的流动资金=流动资产-流动负债。即所谓净流动资金(net workingcapital)。依照此一定义,流动资产的资金来源,除流动负债外,应另辟长期来源。净流动资金的多寡代表企业的流动地位,净流动资金越多表示净流动资产愈多,其短期偿债能力较强,因而其信用地位也较高,在资金市场中筹资较容易,成本也较低。

Multinational company: A very large organization that owns companies in more than one country in order to obtain cheap raw materials and make efficient use of a local workforce.

跨国公司是指由两个或两个以上国家的经济实体所组成,并从事生产、销售和其他经营活动的国际性大型企业。跨国公司主要是指发达资本主义国家的垄断企业,以本国为基地,通过对外直接投资,在世界各地设立分支机构或子公司,从事国际化生产和经营活动的垄断企业。

Benchmark: A standard by which something can be measured or judged.

基准

[datum;criterion]∶在测量工作中用作起始尺度的标准

Pricing policy: A plan or statement of prices set by an organization for its products and services.

价格政策是国家为达到一定的宏观目标,在商品价格上所采取的一系列方针、措施的总称。Money market: The institutions and practices through which short-term funds are channeled to borrowers and entrepreneurs.

货币市场是短期资金市场,是指融资期限在一年以下的金融市场,是金融市场的重要组成部分。由于该市场所容纳的金融工具,主要是政府、银行及工商企业发行的短期信用工具,具有期限短、流动性强和风险小的特点,在货币供应量层次划分上被置于现金货币和存款货币之后,称之为―准货币‖,所以将该市场称为―货币市场‖。

Capital market: A place where deals are made relating to long-term investment needed by business and pubic authorities.

英文: capital market

亦称―长期金融市场‖、―长期资金市场‖。期限在一年以上各种资金借贷和证券交易的场所。资本市场上的交易对象是一年以上的长期证券。因为在长期金融活动中,涉及资金期限长、风险大,具有长期较稳定收入,类似于资本投入,故称之为资本市场Collateral: Property or an item of value that can be claimed by a person, bank or other organizations if a loan is not repaid.

Dow-Jones industrial Average: An index of share prices quoted on the New York

道琼斯工业平均指数(Dow Jones Industrial Average,DJIA,简称―道指‖)是由华尔街日报和道琼斯公司创建者查尔斯·道创造的几种股票市场指数之一。他把这个指数作为测量美国股票市场上工业构成的发展,是最悠久的美国市场指数之一。

Blue chip: A stock that sells at a high price because of public confidence in its long record of steady earning.

蓝筹股(blue chip):在某一行业中处于重要支配地位,业绩优良,交投活跃,红利优厚的大公司的股票,又称为"绩优股"。但蓝筹股并不等于具有很高投资价值的股票。

Social security: A government program that provides economic assistance to persons faced with unemployment, disability, or agedness, financed by assessment of employers and employees.

社会保障(social security),是指国家和社会在通过立法对国民收入进行分配和再分配,对社会成员特别是生活有特殊困难的人们的基本生活权利给予保障的社会安全制度。社会保障的本质是维护社会公平进而促进社会稳定发展。

Reinsurance:The purchase of insurance by an insurance company form another insurance company (reinsurer) to provide it protection against large losses on cases it has already insured.

再保险(reinsurance)也称分保,是保险人在原保险合同的基础上,通过签订分保合同,将其所承保的部分风险和责任向其他保险人进行保险的行为。

Sanction: The penalty for noncompliance specified in a law or decree.

制裁针对某一国所采取的强制行动。现代意义上的制裁基本有两种形式:一是个别国家或国家集体实施的强制性措施;二是国际组织(首先是联合国)组织实施的强制性措施。一般都是采取以下几种方式:禁运(武器、粮食、技术设备及其他物品);中断外交关系和人员往来;减少或中止贷款、贸易及援助等。这些方式基本上都是非武装性的,现代国际社会普遍反对采取武力制裁。

Speculation: Engagement in risky business transactions on the chance of quick or considerable profit.

投机与保值恰好相反,投机不是避免外汇风险,而是接受或利用外汇风险。投机不是要尽量减少损失,而是要最大限度地追求利润。汇率不断变动恰好为投机者追求利润提供了机会,创造了条件。投机者既可以利用软货币投机,也可以利用硬货币投机。

Value added tax: An indirect tax imposed on consumption that is reflective of the incremental increases on the value of goods through the chain of production, from the raw material phase to final consumption.

增值税是一种销售税,属累退税,是基于商品或服务的增值而征税的一种间接税,在澳大利亚、加拿大、新西兰、新加坡称为商品及服务税(Goods and Services Tax, GST),在日本称作消费税。Fair trade: Trade that conforms to a fair-trade agreement.

―互惠购买‖在国际上的名称是―公平贸易‖,是慈善组织―乐施会‖引进中国的一个公益项目。即―你买我的商品,我买你的商品‖,或形成三角形互惠。这是市场竞争激烈条件下产生的购买方式,使企业优先选择某供货商,同时保证自己产品的销路。在国际上,互惠购买(公平贸易)有别于传统的国际贸易,它是一个为若是生产者提供可持续发展机会的贸易伙伴关系。根据市场运作的方法,支持发展中国家持续发展的概念。

Subsidy: A financial benefit, direct or direct, provided through financial contribution, policy measures or practices of a Government or any public body to producers or processors.

津贴,是指补偿职工在特殊条件下的劳动消耗及生活费额外支出的工资补充形式。常见的包括矿山井下津贴、高温津贴、野外矿工津贴、林区津贴、山区津贴、驻岛津贴、艰

贴。

Rebate: A deduction from an amount to be paid or a return of part of an amount given in payment.

所谓赎价券,是指延迟给予消费者的折扣凭券。

消费者把赎价券寄回厂商可收到厂商寄来的折扣钱数。它的效果不及折价券大,但可以提高奖额。也可以要求消费者必须寄回多种商品的赎价券才可兑换现金。是营业推广的工具之一

Trade liberalization: Reduction of tariffs and removal or relaxation of national trade barriers.

贸易自由化是指一国对外国商品和服务的进口所采取的限制逐步减少,为进口商品和服务提供贸易优惠待遇的过程或结果。无论是以往的关贸总协定,还是现在的世贸组织,都是以贸易自由化为宗旨

Trade barrier: Any barrier that may impede the import of goods, such as testing or certification.

贸易壁垒(Trade Barrier)又称贸易障碍。

对国外国间商品劳务交换所设置的人为限制,主要是指导一国对外国商品劳务进口所实行的各种限制措施。一般分关税壁垒和非关税壁垒两类。

Waiver: Permission granted by WTO members allowing a WTO member not to comply with normal commitments. Waivers have time limits and extensions have to be justified. Arbitration: The process by which the parties to a dispute submit their differences to the judgment of an impartial person or group appointed by mutual consent or statutory provision.

仲裁是指纠纷当事人在自愿基础上达成协议,将纠纷提交非司法机构的第三者审理,由第三者作出对争议各方均有约束力的裁决的一种解决纠纷的制度和方式。仲裁在性质上是兼具契约性、自治性、民间性和准司法性的一种争议解决方式。

Dispute Settlemen t: Those institutional provisions in a trade agreement which provide the means for settling differences of view between the parties.

Copyright: The legal right granted to an author, a composed, a playwright, a publisher, or a distributor to exclusive publication, production, sale, or distribution of a literary, musical, dramatic, or artistic work.

著作权(在我国,―著作权‖与―版权‖为同一法律概念)是指文学、艺术、科学作品的作者依法对他的作品享有的一系列的专有权。著作权是一种特殊的民事权利。它与工业产权构成知识产权的主要内容。在广义上,它也包括法律赋予表演者、音像制作者广播电台、电视台或出版者对其表演活动、音像制品、广播电视节目或版式设计的与著作权有关的权利。

Trade sanction:Use of a trade policy as a sanction, most commonly an embargo imposed against a country for violating human right.

贸易制裁(Trade sanction)是一国或数国政府通过法令对另一国采取强硬措施,以断绝相互之间的经济和贸易关系的行为。奥巴马就职以来,美国政府已经对中国产品开展了至少十余次―反倾销、反补贴‖调查。中方已多次就美国对中国出口产品征收关税表示

Trade reciprocity:The practice by which government extend similar concessions to each other, as when one government lowers its tariffs or other barriers impeding its imports in exchange for equivalent concessions from a trading partner on barriers affecting its exports.

Appellate Body: An independent body that , upon request by one or more parties to the dispute, reviews findings in panel reports.

Balance sheet: A financial statement that reports the assets and equities of a company at a particular time.

资产负债表(the Balance Sheet)亦称财务状况表,表示企业在一定日期(通常为各会计期末)的财务状况(即资产、负债和业主权益的状况)的主要会计报表。资产负债表利用会计平衡原则,将合乎会计原则的资产、负债、股东权益‖交易科目分为―资产‖和―负债及股东权益‖两大区块,在经过分录、转帐、分类帐、试算、调整等等会计程序后,以特定日期的静态企业情况为基准,浓缩成一张报表。其报表功用除了企业内部除错、经营方向、防止弊端外,也可让所有阅读者于最短时间了解企业经营状况。

Re-capitalization: The act or process of changing the capital structure of a company.

重新资本化。

即大规模借债用于回购股票或支付特殊红利,从而迅速和显著提高长期负债比例和财务杠杆,优化资本结构。重新资本化往往出现在竞争地位相当强、经营进入稳定增长阶段,但长期负债比例过低的公司。由于这类公司具有可观的未充分使用的债务融资能力储备,按照资产预期能够产生的现金流入的风险与资本结构匹配的融资决策准则,提高财务杠杆,可以优化公司资本结构,降低公司总体资本成本,增加公司价值,从而为股东创造价值。同时,也有助于防止敌意并购袭击。因为在有效的金融市场环境中,具有大量未使用的债务融资能力的公司,往往容易受到敌意并购者的青睐和袭击。

Cash flow: The cash receipts or net income from one or more assets for a given period, reckoned after taxes and other disbursements, and often used as a measure of corporate worth.

现金流量是现代理财学中的一个重要概念,是指企业在一定会计期间按照现金收付实现制,通过一定经济活动(包括经营活动、投资活动、筹资活动和非经常性项目)而产生的现金流入、现金流出及其总量情况的总称。即:企业一定时期的现金和现金等价物的流入和流出的数量。

Labor-intensive:Requiring or having a large expenditure of labor in comparison to capital.

劳动密集型(Labour-intensive)

为生产一定产量所必须投入的生产要素中,劳动投入的比例高于其它生产要素比例的产业。如轻纺工业、手工业和服务业等产业。这些产业占用资金少,设备的技术程度低,容纳劳动力较多。随着社会生产力的发展和科学技术在生产中的广泛应用,劳动密集型产业将逐步向资本密集型产业或知识密集型产业转化,或者在新的物质技术上形成新的劳动密集型产业。

The chain of command: A system whereby authority passes down from the top through a series of executive positions or military ranks in which each is accountable to the one directly superior.

英语国家概况名词解释新

英语国家概况名词解释 1、The Constitution:Britain has no written foundations of the British state are laid out in statute law,which are laws passed by Parliament; the common laws, which are laws established through commom practice in courts;and conventions. 2、The house of Common: It’s the real center of British political life because it is the place where about 650 elected representatives(Members of Parliament) make and debate policy,These MPs are elected in the General Elections and should represent the interests of the people who vote for them. 3、The electoral campaign:Before a general election,the political parties would start their electoral campaigns in order to make their ideologies and policies known to the campaign involves advertisements in newspapers, door-to-door campaigning,postal deliveries of leaflets and ‘party electoral broadcasts” on the parties also try to attack and critisise the opponents’,these campaigns sometimes can be quite aggressive and critical. 4、Class system in British society:The class system does exist in British of British population would claim themselves to be either of middle-class or working-class,though some people would actually belong to the upper middle-class or lower divisions are not simply economic,they are cultural as of different classes may defferent may differ in the kind of newspaper they read,in the way they speak and in the kind of education they of the distinctive features about the British class system is that aristocratic titles can still be inherited. 5、Relative decline of the UK economy:The UK has experienced an economic decline since this is a relative decline rather than an absolute is wealthier and more productive than it was in 1945,but since other countries developed more rapidly,it has slid from being the second largest economy to being the six. 6、Comprehensive schools:are the most popular secondary schools in Britain schools admit children without reference to their academic abilities and provide a general can study everything from academic subjects like literature to more practical subjects like cooking 7、Grammar school s:it’s a type of secondary schools in schools select children at the age 11,through an examination called “the 11-plus”.Those children with the highest marks go to grammar schools lay emphasis on advanced academic subjects rather than the more general curriculum of the comprehensive schools and expect many of their pupils to go on to universities. 8、Independent schools:are commonly called public schools which are actually private schools that receive their funding through the private sector and tuition rates,with some government schools are not part of national education system,but the quality of instruction and standards are maintained through visits from Her Majesty’s Inspectors of schools are restricted to the students whose parents are comparatively rich. 9、the first English settle in North America:The first English permanent settlement was organized in 1607 by the London Company with a charter from the English colonists settled in Virginia and survived by imposing strict discipline on themselves and by transplanting tobacco into the colony of 1619,the settlers elected their delegates and set up the House of Burgesses,and the same time they bought and enslaved

商务英语名词解释

Hostile takeover An acquisition of a firm despite resistance by the target firm's management and board of directors. Total quality control A philosophy and set of guiding concepts that provides a comprehensive means of improving total organization performance and quality by examining each process through which work is done in a systematic, integrated, consistent, organization-wide manner. Abbreviated TQM. Motivation theory/need hierarchy theory Psychological discipline that attempts to describe why people or animals behave as they do solely in terms of internal needs that drive behavior, rather than attributing any influence to external stimuli. theory X and theory Y assumption T h e o r y X With Theory X assumptions, management's role is to coerce and control employees. o People have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it whenever possible. o People must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment in order to get them to achieve the organizational objectives. o People prefer to be directed, do not want responsibility, and have little or no ambition. o People seek security above all else. T h e o r y Y With Theory Y assumptions, management's role is to develop the potential in employees and help them to release that potential towards common goals. o Work is as natural as play and rest. o People will exercise self-direction if they are committed to the objectives (they are NOT lazy). o Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. o People learn to accept and seek responsibility. o Creativity, ingenuity, and imagination are widely distributed among the population. People are capable of using these abilities to solve an organizational problem. o People have potential.

会计专业专业术语中英文对照

会计专业专业术语中英文对照 一、会计与会计理论 会计 accounting 决策人 Decision Maker 投资人 Investor 股东 Shareholder 债权人 Creditor 财务会计 Financial Accounting 管理会计 Management Accounting 成本会计 Cost Accounting 私业会计 Private Accounting 公众会计 Public Accounting 注册会计师 CPA Certified Public Accountant 国际会计准则委员会 IASC 美国注册会计师协会 AICPA 财务会计准则委员会 FASB 管理会计协会 IMA 美国会计学会 AAA 税务稽核署 IRS 独资企业 Proprietorship 合伙人企业 Partnership 公司 Corporation

会计目标 Accounting Objectives 会计假设 Accounting Assumptions 会计要素 Accounting Elements 会计原则 Accounting Principles 会计实务过程 Accounting Procedures 财务报表 Financial Statements 财务分析Financial Analysis 会计主体假设 Separate-entity Assumption 货币计量假设 Unit-of-measure Assumption 持续经营假设 Continuity(Going-concern) Assumption 会计分期假设 Time-period Assumption 资产 Asset 负债 Liability 业主权益 Owner's Equity 收入 Revenue 费用 Expense 收益 Income 亏损 Loss 历史成本原则 Cost Principle 收入实现原则 Revenue Principle 配比原则 Matching Principle

医学统计学 名词解释+问答题-1

医学统计学 1、应用相对数时应注意的事项 ①计算相对数时分母不能太小; ②分析时不能以构成比代替率; ③当各分组的观察单位数不等时,总率(平均率)的计算不能直接将各分组的率相加求其平均; ④对比时应注意资料的可比性:两个率要在相同的条件下进行,即要求研究方法相同、研究对象同质、观察时间相等以及地区、民族、年龄、性别等客观条件一致,其他影响因素在各组的内部构成应相近; ⑤进行假设检验时,要遵循随机抽样原则,以进行差别的显著性检验。 2、正态分布的特点及其应用 性质:①两头低中间高,略呈钟形; ②只有一个高峰,在X=μ,总体中位数亦为μ; ③以均数为中心,左右对称; ④μ为位置参数,当σ恒定时,μ越大,曲线沿横轴越向右移动; σ为变异度参数,当μ恒定时,σ越大,表示数据越分散,曲线越矮胖,反之,曲线越瘦高; ⑤对于任何服从正态分布N(μ,σ2)的随机变量X作的线性变换,都会变换成u 服从于均数为0,方差为1的正态分布,即标准正态分布。 应用:①概括估计变量值的频数分布; ②制定参考值范围; ③质量控制; ④是许多统计方法的理论基础。 3、确定参考值范围的一般原则和步骤、方法 一般原则和步骤:①抽取足够例数的正常人样本作为观察对象; ②对选定的正常人进行准确而统一的测定,以控制系统误差; ③判断是否需要分组测定; ④决定取单侧范围值还是双侧范围值; ⑤选定适当的百分范围; ⑥选用适当的计算方法来确定或估计界值。 方法:①正态分布法:②百分位数法(偏态分布) 4、总体均数的可信区间与参考值范围的区别 概念:可信区间是按预先给定的概率来确定的未知参数μ的可能范围。 参考值范围是绝大多数正常人的某指标范围。所谓正常人,是指排除了影响所研究指标的疾病和有关因素的人;所谓绝大多数,是指范围,习惯上指正常人的95%。 计算公式:可信区间① ② ③ 参考值范围①正态分布 ②偏态分布 用途:可信区间用于总体均数的区间估计 参考值范围用于表示绝大多数观察对象某项指标的分布范围

生理学基本概念的中英文名词解释

绝对不应期absolute refractory period The time interval during which a cell is incapable of initiating a second action potential. 动作电位action potential An action potential is a rapid change in the membrane potential. Each action potential begins with a sudden change from the normal resting negative potential to a positive membrane potential (depolarization) and then ends with an almost equally rapid change back to the negative potential (repolarization). 主动转运active transport The movement of substances across the membrane occurs against the electrochemical gradient with the necessity of consumption of metabolic energy 后负荷afterload Afterload is the load that is given to the muscle after the beginning of the contraction. 自身调节autoregulation In certain cases, a tissue or organ can respond directly to the environmental changes, depending neither on nervous nor on humoral control. This form of regulation is called auto-regulation. 完全强直收缩complete tetanus When the frequency of stimulation reaches a critical level, the successive contractions are so rapid that they literally fused together, and the contraction appears to be completely smooth and continuous. This is called completely tetanus. 去极化depolarization The change in membrane potential away from the resting potential and toward the sodium equilibrium. 入胞endocytosis Very large particles enter the cell by a specialized function of the cell membrane called endocytosis. The principle forms of endocytosis are pinocytosis and phagocytosis. 平衡电位equilibrium potential Electrochemical equilibrium is a steady state, as in the resting membrane potential of a cell ,in which an electrical potential and chemical potential gradient are in balance and no net movement of charged particles occurs. 兴奋性excitability Excitability is the ability of certain kinds of cells (excitable cell) to generate active changes in their membrane potential. Excitability is a fundamental property common to all tissues and cells. 兴奋excitation Excitation signifies and increases in activity, such as contraction of a muscle, acceleration of the heart beat. 出胞exocytosis A stimulus to secrete causes the intracellular vesicles to fuse with the plasma membrane and to release the vesicles contents is called exocytosis. 易化扩散facilitated diffusion

商务英语专有名词解释

Деловой перевод. Forms of ownership: –Sole Proprietorship—a business owned and operated by a single individual. –Partnership---- партнёрство— a business owned by two or more people. –Limited Company—a company where ownership is represented by company's shares. 1. Board of directors---.Cовет директоров —the officials elected by shareholders who rule the company 2. Current liabilities—the money that a company during which certain goods are produced. 3. Dividends—company profits paid to shareholders. 4. Entrepreneur-- Предприниматель—person who sets up a new commercial enterprise to make a profit. 5. Indebtedness -- задолженность– amount of debts 6. Initial funds --funds used in starting a business. 7. Liabilities -- Обязательства– the amount of debt that must be paid. 8. Shareholders-- акционер–those who own shares of a company's stock. 9. Accounting –бухгалтерия---- the action or process of keeping financial accounts. Is a system of gathering , summarizing and communicating financial information for a business firm, government or other organizations. 10. Balance sheet –Балансовый отчёт - is a statement which describes the companies resources and indicates where these resources have come from.

医学统计学简答题

医学统计学简答题 1.简述标准差、标准误的区别与联系? 区别:(1)含义不同:标准差S表示观察值的变异程度,描述个体变量值(x)之间的变异度大小,S越大,变量值(x)越分散;反之变量值越集中,均数的代表性越强。标准误..估计均数的抽样误差的大小,是描述样本均数之间的变异度大小,标准误越大,样本均数与总体均数间差异越大,抽样误差越大;反之,样本均数越接近总体均数,抽样误差越小。 (2)与n的关系不同: n增大时,S趋于σ(恒定),标准误减少并趋于0(不存在抽样误差)。 (3)用途不同:标准差表示x的变异度大小、计算变异系数、确定医学参考值范围、计算标准误等,标准误用于估计总体均数可信区间和假设检验。 联系:二者均为变异度指标,样本均数的标准差即为标准误,标准差与标准误成正比。 2.简述假设检验的基本步骤。 1.建立假设,确定检验水准。 2.选择适当的假设检验方法,计算相应的检验统计量。 3.确定P值,下结论 3.正态分布的特点和应用:? 特点:?1、集中性:正态曲线的高峰位于正中央,即均数所在的位置;? 2、对称性:正态分布曲线位于直角坐标系上方,以x=u为中心,左右对称,曲线两端永远不与横轴相交; 3、均匀变动性:正态曲线由均数所在处开始,分别向左右两侧逐渐均匀下降;?

4、正态分布有两个参数,即均数μ和标准差σ,可记作N(μ,σ):均数μ决定正态曲线的中心位置;标准差σ决定正态曲线的陡峭或扁平程度。σ越小,曲线越陡峭;σ越大,曲线越扁平; ?5、u变换:为了便于描述和应用,常将正态变量作数据转换;?? 应用:?1.估计医学参考值范围?2.质量控制?3.正态分布是许多统计方法的理论基础 4.简述参考值范围与均数的可信区间的区别和联系 可信区间与参考值范围的意义、计算公式和用途均不同。 ?1.从意义来看?95%参考值范围是指同质总体内包括95%个体值的估计范围,而总体均数95%可信区间是指?95%可信度估计的总体均数的所在范围? 2.从计算公式看?若指标服从正态分布,95%参考值范围的公式是:±1.96s。?总体均数95%可信区间的公式是:??前者用标准差,后者用标准误。前者用1.96,后者用α为0.05,自由度为v的t界值。 5.频数表的用途和基本步骤。 用途:(1)揭示资料的分布特征和分布类型;(2)便于进一步计算指标和分析处理;(3)便于发现某些特大或特小可疑值。 基本步骤:(1)求出极差;(2)确定组段,一般设8~15个组段;(3)确定组距;组距=R/组段数,但一般取一方便计算的数字;(4)列出各个组段并确定每一组段频数。 6.非参数统计检验的适用条件。 (1)资料不符合参数统计法的应用条件(总体为正态分布、且方差相等)或总体分布类型未知;(2)等级资料;(3)分布呈明显偏态又无适当的变量转换方法使之满足参数统计条件;(4)在资料满足参数检验的要求时,应首选参数法,以免降低检验效能 7.线性回归的主要用途。

英语国家概况考试名词解释整理中文翻译

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