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GIS专业英语lesson 22(Data Analysis

GIS专业英语lesson 22(Data  Analysis
GIS专业英语lesson 22(Data  Analysis

Lesson 22 data analysis II

Integrated Analytical Functions in a GIS

Most GIS's provide the capability to build complex models by combining primitive analytical functions. Systems vary as to the complexity provided for spatial modelling, and the specific functions that are available. However, most systems provide a standard set of primitive analytical functions that are accessible to the user in some logical manner. Aronoff identifies four categories of GIS analysis functions. These are :

Retrieval, Reclassification, and Generalization;

Overlay Techniques;

Neighbourhood Operations; and

Connectivity Functions.

The range of analysis techniques in these categories is very large. Accordingly, this section of the book focuses on providing an overview of the fundamental primitive functions that are most often utilized in spatial analyses.

Retrieval, Reclassification and Generalization

Perhaps the initial GIS analysis that any user undertakes is the retrieval and/or reclassification of data. Retrieval operations occur on both spatial and attribute data. Often data is selected by an attribute subset and viewed graphically. Retrieval involves the selective search, manipulation, and output of data without the requirement to modify the geographic location of the features involved.

Reclassification involves the selection and presentation of a selected layer of data based on the classes or values of a specific attribute, e.g. cover group. It involves looking at an attribute, or a series of attributes, for a single data layer and classifying the data layer based on the range of values of the attribute.

Accordingly, features adjacent to one another that have a common value, e.g. cover group, but differ in other characteristics, e.g. tree height, species, will be treated and appear as one class. In raster based GIS software, numerical values are often used to indicate classes. Reclassification is an attribute generalization technique. Typically this function makes use of polygon patterning techniques such as crosshatching and/or color shading for graphic representation.

In a vector based GIS, boundaries between polygons of common reclassed values should be dissolved to create a cleaner map of homogeneous continuity. Raster reclassification intrinsically involves boundary dissolving. The dissolving of map boundaries based on a specific attribute value often results in a new data layer being created. This is often done for visual clarity in the creation of derived maps. Almost all GIS software provides the capability to easily dissolve boundaries based on the results of a reclassification. Some systems allow the user to create a new data layer for the reclassification while others simply dissolve the boundaries during data output.

One can see how the querying capability of the DBMS is a necessity in the

reclassification process. The ability and process for displaying the results of reclassification, a map or report, will vary depending on the GIS. In some systems the querying process is independent from data display functions, while in others they are integrated and querying is done in a graphics mode. The exact process for undertaking a reclassification varies greatly from GIS to GIS. Some will store results of the query in query sets independent from the DBMS, while others store the results in a newly created attribute column in the DBMS. The approach varies drastically depending on the architecture of the GIS software.

Topological Overlay

The capability to overlay multiple data layers in a vertical fashion is the most required and common technique in geographic data processing. In fact, the use of a topological data structure can be traced back to the need for overlaying vector data layers. With the advent of the concepts of mathematical topology polygon overlay has become the most popular geoprocessing tool, and the basis of any functional GIS software package.

Topological overlay is predominantly concerned with overlaying polygon data with polygon data, e.g. soils and forest cover. However, there are requirements for overlaying point, linear, and polygon data in selected combinations, e.g. point in polygon, line in polygon, and polygon on polygon are the most common. Vector and raster based software differ considerably in their approach to topological overlay.

Raster based software is oriented towards arithmetic overlay operations, e.g. the addition, subtraction, division, multiplication of data layers. The nature of the one attribute map approach, typical of the raster data model, usually provides a more flexible and efficient overlay capability. The raster data model affords a strong numerically modelling (quantitative analysis) modelling capability. Most sophisticated spatial modelling is undertaken within the raster domain.

In vector based systems topological overlay is achieved by the creation of a new topological network from two or more existing networks. This requires the rebuilding of topological tables, e.g. arc, node, polygon, and therefore can be time consuming and CPU intensive. The result of a topological overlay in the vector domain is a new topological network that will contain attributes of the original input data layers. In this way selected queries can then be undertaken of the original layer, e.g. soils and forest cover, to determine where specific situations occur, e.g. deciduous forest cover where drainage is poor.

Most GIS software makes use of a consistent logic for the overlay of multiple data layers. The rules of Boolean logic are used to operate on the attributes and spatial properties of geographic features. Boolean algebra uses the operators AND, OR, XOR, NOT to see whether a particular condition is true or false. Boolean logic represents all possible combinations of spatial interaction between different features. The implementation of Boolean operators is often transparent to the user.

Generally, GIS software implements the overlay of different vector data layers by combining the spatial and attribute data files of the layers to create a new data layer. Again, different GIS software utilize varying approaches for the display and

reporting of overlay results. Some systems require that topological overlay occur on only two data layers at a time, creating a third layer. This pairwise approach requires the nesting of multiple overlays to generate a final overlay product, if more than two data layers are involved. This can result in numerous intermediate or temporary data layers. Some systems create a complete topological structure at the data verification stage, and the user merely submits a query string for the combined topological data. Other systems allow the user to overlay multiple data layers at one time. Each approach has its drawbacks depending on the application and the nature of the implementation. Determining the most appropriate method is based on the type of application, practical considerations such as data volumes and CPU power, and other considerations such personnel and time requirements. Overall, the flexibility provided to the operator and the level of performance varies widely among GIS software offerings.

The following diagram in Fingure 1 illustrates a typical overlay requirements where several different layers are spatially joined to created a new topological layer.By combining multiple layers in a topological fashion complex queries can be answered concerning attributes of any layer.

Neighbourhood Operations

Neighbourhood operations evaluate the characteristics of an area surrounding a specific location. Virtually all GIS software provides some form of neighbourhood analysis. A range of different neighbourhood functions exist. The analysis of topographic features, e.g. the relief of the landscape, is normally categorized as being a neighbourhood operation. This involves a variety of point interpolation techniques including slope and aspect calculations, contour generation, and Thiessen polygons. Interpolation is defined as the method of predicting unknown values using known values of neighbouring locations.36 Interpolation is utilized most often with point based elevation data.

Figure 2 illustrates a continuous surface that has been created by interpolating sample data points.

Elevation data usually takes the form of irregular or regular spaced points. Irregularly space points are stored in a Triangular Irregular Network (TIN). A TIN is a vector topological network of triangular facets generated by joining the irregular points with straight line segments. The TIN structure is utilized when irregular data is available, predominantly in vector based systems. TIN is a vector data model for 3-D data.

An alternative in storing elevation data is the regular point Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The term DEM usually refers to a grid of regularly space elevation points. These points are usually stored with a raster data model. Most GIS software offerings provide three dimensional analysis capabilities in a separate module of the software. Again, they vary considerably with respect to their functionality and the level of integration between the 3-D module and the other more typical analysis functions.

Without doubt the most common neighbourhood function is buffering. Buffering involves the ability to create distance buffers around selected features, be it points,

lines, or areas. Buffers are created as polygons because they represent an area around a feature. Buffering is also referred to as corridor or zone generation with the raster data model. Usually, the results of a buffering process are utilized in a topological overlay with another data layer. For example, to determine the volume of timber within a selected distance of a cutline, the user would first buffer the cutline data layer. They would then overlay the resultant buffer data layer, a buffer polygon, with the forest cover data layer in a clipping fashion. This would result in a new data layer that only contained the forest cover within the buffer zone. Since all attributes are maintained in the topological overlay and buffering processes, a map or report could then be generated.

Buffering is typically used with point or linear features. The generation of buffers for selected features is frequently based on a distance from that feature, or on a specific attribute of that feature. For example, some features may have a greater zone of influence due to specific characteristics, e.g. a primary highway would generally have a greater influence than a gravel road. Accordingly, different size buffers can be generated for features within a data layer based on selected attribute values or feature types.

Connectivity Analysis

The distinguishing feature of connectivity operations is that they use functions that accumulate values over an area being traversed.37 Most often these include the analysis of surfaces and networks. Connectivity functions include proximity analysis, network analysis, spread functions, and three dimensional surface analysis such as visibility and perspective viewing. This category of analysis techniques is the least developed in commercial GIS software. Consequently, there is often a great difference in the functionality offered between GIS software offerings. Raster based systems often provide the more sophisticated surface analysis capabilities while vector based systems tend to focus on linear network analysis capabilities. However, this appears to be changing as GIS software becomes more sophisticated, and multi-disciplinary applications require a more comprehensive and integrated functionality. Some GIS offerings provide both vector and raster analysis capabilities. Only in these systems will one fund a full range of connectivity analysis techniques.

Proximity analysis techniques are primarily concerned with the proximity of one feature to another. Usually proximity is defined as the ability to identify any feature that is near any other feature based on location, attribute value, or a specific distance. A simple example is identifying all the forest stands that are within 100 metres of a gravel road, but not necessarily adjacent to it. It is important to note that neighbourhood buffering is often categorized as being a proximity analysis capability. Depending on the particular GIS software package, the data model employed, and the operational architecture of the software it may be difficult to distinguish proximity analysis and buffering.

The identification of adjacency is another proximity analysis function. Adjacency is defined as the ability to identify any feature having certain attributes that exhibit adjacency with other selected features having certain attributes. A typical example is

the ability to identify all forest stands of a specific type, e.g. specie, adjacent to a gravel road.

Network analysis is a widely used analysis technique. Network analysis techniques can be characterized by their use of feature networks. Feature networks are almost entirely comprised of linear features. Hydrographic hierarchies and transportation networks are prime examples. Two example network analysis techniques are the allocation of values to selected features within the network to determine capacity zones, and the determination of shortest path between connected points or nodes within the network based on attribute values. This is often referred to as route optimization. Attribute values may be as simple as minimal distance, or more complex involving a model using several attributes defining rate of flow, impedance, and cost.

Three dimensional analysis involves a range of different capabilities. The most utilized is the generation of perspective surfaces. Perspective surfaces are usually represented by a wire frame diagram reflecting profiles of the landscape, e.g. every 100 metres. These profiles viewed together, with the removal of hidden lines, provide a three dimensional view. As previously identified, most GIS software packages offer 3-D capabilities in a separate module. Several other functions are normally available. These include the following functions :

user definable vertical exaggeration, viewing azimuth, and elevation angle;

identification of viewsheds,e.g. seen versus unseen areas;

the draping of features, e.g. point, lines, and shaded polygons onto the perspective surface;

generation of shaded relief models simulating illumination;

generation of cross section profiles;

presentation of symbology on the 3-D surface; and

line of sight perspective views from user defined viewpoints.

While the primitive analytical functions have been presented the reader should be aware that a wide range of more specific and detailed capabilities do exist.

会计专业英语期末试题 )

期期末测试题 Ⅰ、Translate The Following Terms Into Chinese 、 1、entity concept 主题概念 2、depreciation折旧 3、double entry system 4、inventories 5、stable monetary unit 6、opening balance 7、current asset 8、financial report 9、prepaid expense 10、internal control 11、cash flow statement 12、cash basis 13、tangible fixed asset 14、managerial accounting 15、current liability 16、internal control 17、sales return and allowance 18、financial position 19、balance sheet 20、direct write-off method Ⅱ、Translate The Following Sentences Into Chinese 、 1、Accounting is often described as an information system、It is the system that measures business activities, processes into reports and communicates these findings to decision makers、 2、The primary users of financial information are investors and creditors、Secondary users include the public, government regulatory agencies, employees, customers, suppliers, industry groups, labor unions, other companies, and academic researchers、 3、There are two sources of assets、One is liabilities and the other is owner’s equity、Liabilities are obligations of an entity arising from past transactions or events, the settlement of which may result in the transfer or use of assets or services in the future、 资产有两个来源,一个就是负债,另一个就是所有者权益。负债就是由过去得交易或事件产生得实体得义务,其结算可能导致未来资产或服务得转让或使用。 4、Accounting elements are basic classification of accounting practices、They are essential units to present the financial position and operating result of an entity、In China, we have six groups of accounting elements、They are assets, liabilities, owner’s equity, revenue, expense and profit (income)、会计要素就是会计实践得基础分类。它们就是保护财务状况与实体经营

GIS专业英语词汇 2010

Alogrithm:算法; Accuracy:准确度; Application:应用; Artificial Intelligence(AI):人工智能;Aspect:方位Attribute:属性; Binary:二进制; Boolean operation:布尔*作(逻辑*作) Buffer:缓冲区; Cartography:制图学; Cell:单元; Chain:链Continuous data:连续数据 Coordinate system:坐标系统 Database:数据库; Database approach:数据库方法 Database management system(DBMS):数据库管理系统Data entry:数据输入; Data set:数据集 Data standards:数据标准; Data structure:数据结构 Data visualization:数据可视化; Derived data:派生数据 Original data:原始数据; Digitize:数字化; Digitizer:数字化仪 Discrete data:离散数据; Distributed system:分布式系统 Fractal:分形; Geocoding:地理编码(地址编码)Georeferenced:地理参考; Land information system(LIS):土地信息系统 Map algebra:地图代数;Map projection:地图投影Map scale:地图比例尺; Metadata:元数据 Overlay:叠置; Parcel:地块Peripherals:外设; Pixel:像元 Plotter:绘图仪; Polygon:多边形 Precision:精度; Proximity analysis:邻近分析 Query:查询; Recode:重编码

景观设计要素专业术语英文大全

景观设计要素专业术语 英文大全 (喜欢请转 ) 来邓卓迪的日志 2.0001 园林学 landscape architecture, garden ar-chitecture 2.0002 造园学 garden making, landscape garden-ing 2.0003 环境园艺学 environmental horticulture 2.0004 观赏园 艺学 ornamental horticulture 2.0005 园林艺术 garden art 2.0006 园林美学 garden aesthetics 2.0007 园林建筑学 garden architecture 2.0012 盆景 miniature landscape, penjing 2.0013 园林 garden and park 2.0014 园林学史 history of garden architecture 2.0015 园林规划 garden planning, landscaping planning 2.0016 园林设计 garden design 2.0017 园林机具设备 gardening machine 2.0018 园林管理 garden management 2.0019 园林生态 landscape ecology 2.0020 绿化 greening, planting 2.0021 环境绿化 environmental greening 2.0022 绿地面积 green area 2.0023 绿地率 ratio of green space 2.0024 城市绿化覆盖率 urban green coverage 2.0025 工厂绿化 factory greening, factory garden-ing 2.0026 街道绿化 street greening, street planting 2.0027 车行道绿化 driveway greening 2.0028 分车带绿化 dividing stripe greening 2.0029 人行道绿化 sidewalk greening 2.0031 郊区绿化 suburban greening 2.0032 公路绿化 highway greening railway greening, railway planting bank planting balcony greening 2.0036 窗台绿化 window-sill greening 2.0037 屋顶绿化 roof greening vertical greening climber greening bridgehead greening 2.0041 花园 garden 2.0042 专类花园 specified flower garden 2.0030 群众绿化 mass planting movement 2.0008 园林建筑 2.0009 园林工程 2.0010 园林植物 2.0011 观赏植物 garden building garden engineering landscape plant ornamental plant 2.0033 铁路绿化 2.0034 堤岸种植 2.0035 阳台绿化 2.0038 垂直绿化 2.0039 攀缘绿化 2.0040 桥头绿化

专业英语期末试卷

ACCOUNTING ENGLISH Middle-of-term Test Papers PartⅠ.Translating the following terms 1、Notes to financial statements 2、Accounting elements 3、Variable costs 4、Economic entity 5、Depreciation expense 6、Deferred income taxes 7、Nominal accounts 8、ROA 9、LIFO 10、Work in process 11、现金收支 12、原材料 13、制造费用 14、相关性 15、持续经营 16、复式记账 17、优先股 18、预付费用 19、购货退回与折让 20、永续盘存制

PartⅡ.True or False 1、 The accounting process generates financial reports for both “internal ”and “external”users. 2、The balance sheet reflects the basic accounting equation and the means of financing the organization's assets. 3、The existence of Accounts Receivable on the Balance Sheet indicates that the company has one or more creditors. 4、Liabilities are classified and presented in increasing order of liquidity. 5、Working capital equals current assets less current liabilities. 6、Declaration of dividends reduces the retained earnings portion of the owners' equity of the corporation and creates a liabilities called Dividends Payable. 7、A chart of accounts is a listing of the titles of all accounts. 8、The cash basis of accounting often violates the matching rule. 9、Closing entries convert real and nominal accounts to zero balance. 10、The work sheet is published with the balance sheet and income statement, as a supplementary statement. 11、A company's sustainable growth rate is the highest growth rate in sales it can attain without issuing new stock. 12、Only rapidly growing firms have growth management problems.

GIS专业英语词汇

GIS专业英语词汇 Alogrithm:算法; Accuracy:准确度; Application:应用; Artificial Intelligence(AI):人工智能;Aspect:方位 Attribute:属性; Binary:二进制; Boolean operation:布尔*作(逻辑*作)Buffer:缓冲区; Cartography:制图学; Cell:单元; Chain:链 Continuous data:连续数据Coordinate system:坐标系统Database:数据库; Database approach:数据库方法Database management system(DBMS):数据库管理系统 Data entry:数据输入; Data set:数据集 Data standards:数据标准; Data structure:数据结构 Data visualization:数据可视化;Derived data:派生数据 Original data:原始数据; Digitize:数字化; Digitizer:数字化仪 Discrete data:离散数据; Distributed system:分布式系统Fractal:分形; Geocoding:地理编码(地址编码)Georeferenced:地理参考; Land information system(LIS):土地信息系统 Map algebra:地图代数; Map projection:地图投影 Map scale:地图比例尺; Metadata:元数据 Overlay:叠置; Parcel:地块 Peripherals:外设;Pixel:像元 Plotter:绘图仪; Polygon:多边形 Precision:精度; Proximity analysis:邻近分析 Query:查询; Recode:重编码 Relational database:关系数据库; Site suitability analysis:位置适宜度分析 Spatial accuracy:空间准确度;Spatial analysis:空间分析 Spatial precision:空间精度; Spatial relationship:空间关系Subset:子集; Terrain analysis:地形分析 Thematic map:专题地图;Topology:拓扑 Tracking GIS:动态GIS; UTM(Universal Transverse Mercator):通用横轴麦卡托投影 Node:结点; Vertex:节点 Viewshed:可视域 vector 矢量 merge 合并 slope溢出 terrain地形 infrastructure 基础设施 dynamic 动态的 sequence 顺序 cumulative积累 outline大纲 horizon视野 substantial真实的 paradigm范例 perceptions理解 integrated完整的 analog类似物 coherence 连贯的 impairing 削弱

环境艺术设计常用的术语中英文对照

Content目录- Design Explanation设计说明- Master Plan总平面- Space Sequence Analysis景观空间分析- Function Analysis功能分析- Landscape Theme Analysis景观景点主题分析图- Traffic Analysis交通分析- Vertical Plan竖向平面布置图- Lighting Furniture Layout灯光平面布置示意图- Marker/Background Music/Garbage Bin标识牌/背景音乐/垃圾桶布置图-Plan平面图- Hand Drawing手绘效果图- Section剖面图- Detail详图- Central Axis中心公共主轴- Reference Picture参考图片- Planting Reference Picture植物选样- 材料类:- aluminum铝- asphalt沥青- alpine rock轻质岗石- boasted ashlars粗凿- ceramic陶瓷、陶瓷制品- cobble小圆石、小鹅卵石- clay粘土-

crushed gravel碎砾石- crushed stone concrete碎石混凝土- crushed stone碎石- cement石灰- enamel陶瓷、瓷釉- frosted glass磨砂玻璃- grit stone/sand stone砂岩- glazed colored glass/colored glazed glass彩釉玻璃-granite花岗石、花岗岩- gravel卵石- galleting碎石片- ground pavement material墙面地砖材料- light-gauge steel section/hollow steel section薄壁型钢-light slates轻质板岩- lime earth灰土- masonry砝石结构- membrane张拉膜、膜结构- membrane waterproofing薄膜防水- mosaic马赛克- quarry stone masonry/quarrystone bond粗石体- plaster灰浆- polished plate glass/polished plate磨光平板玻璃- panel面板、嵌板- rusticated ashlars粗琢方石- rough rubble粗毛石-

汽车工程专业英语》期末试卷

一、选择题 1、The four-stroke cycle operates in which order __C__. A. intake, exhaust, power, compression B. intake, power, compression, exhaust C. intake, compression, power, exhaust 2、With the piston at the bottom of the cylinder, the ___C____ valve ___________ to allow the burned exhaust gas to be expelled to the exhaust system. A.intake, closes B. exhaust, closes C. exhaust, opens 3、A car engine's job is to ___B__ A. Convert fuel into heat B. Convert fuel into motion C. Convert fuel into exhaust 4、When the crankshaft completes four revolutions for a four-cycle engine, each cylinder will have gone through ____B____intake stroke(s). A.one B. two C. Three 5、___C___ is the life-blood of the engine. A. gas B. water C. Oil 6、What is the core of a car's engine___C___ A.The spark plug B. exhaust C. The cylinder 7、What determines the size and the placement of the engine block____C____ A. The number of spark plugs B. The number of pistons C. The number of cylinders 8、In the standard engine, each cylinder has ___A___. A.four valves B. two valves C. one valve 9、A crankshaft's job in an engine is to ___C___ A. Deliver fuel to the cylinders B. Keep cylinder heads in place C. Change linear motion into rotational motion 10、The _____C___ system on an internal combustion engine provides the spark that ignites the combustible air/fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. A.starting B. fuel C. igniting 二、填空题 1.Today’s average car contains more than 15000 separate, individual parts that must work together. These parts can be grouped into four major categories: body,engine,chassis and electrical system . 2.The direction motion of vehicle is controlled by a steering system. A basic steering system has 3 main parts: steering control mechanism ,steering gear and steering linkage mechanism which connecting wheels and steering gear . 3.The location of the driving axle determines whether the vehicle is classified as rear-wheel?drive ,front-wheel?drive ,four-wheel?drive and all-wheel drive. 4.The modern clutch9 is a single plate, dry disc . It consists of five major parts: flywheel, clutch disc , pressure plate assembly, throw-out bearing , and clutch linkage.

GIS专业英语教学教材

G I S专业英语

第一课 Comprehensive:全面的,综合的,Intellectual:智力的,才智的Jargon:专业术语 Terminology:专业术语Geomatique:地理信息技术Geoscience:地球科学Derivative:派生物,衍生物Cartography:地图绘制学,地图绘制Architect:建筑师 Preliminary:初步的,起始的Enumerate:列举,枚举Resemble:像,与……相似Transformation:转换 第二课 Automated:自动化的Equivalent:a等价的Cartographer:绘制图表者,制图师Mylar:胶片 Electronic:电子的 Encode:编码Orthophotoquad:正射影像图Aerial:空中的,航空的Aggregation:集合,聚合,集合体Reproduction:再现,复制,繁殖Dissemination:传播,宣传,传染Counterpart:相似之物Compactness:致密性 Complexity:复杂,复杂性Hamper:阻碍,束缚 Retrieval:取回,恢复,修补Analog:模拟的 Planimeter:测面器,求积仪 Phenomena:现象Quantitative:数量的,定量的Histogram:直方图,柱状图Supplementally:追加,补充Modification:修改,变型Cartogram:统计地图,统计图Hand-drawn:手绘 Emergency:紧急事件Employe:雇佣,雇工

Clarify:澄清,阐明Taxonomy:分类学,分类法Bifurcation:分歧,分叉 Parcel:地块 Conservation:保存,保持Procurement:获得,取得,采购Wildlife:野生动植物Earthquake:地震 Landslide:泥石流,山崩Cadastral:地籍的,有关土地清册的Geodetic:大地测量学,最短线的Sophisticated:精致的,复杂的 第三课 Pervade:弥漫,遍及 Aspect:坡向,方向,面貌Inevitable:必然的,不可避免的Proprietary:所有的,专利的Mineral:矿物的,矿质的Military:军队,军人 Electricity:电力,电流Telecommunication:通讯,电信学Interconnect:使相互连接,相互联系Administrative:管制的,行政的Environmental:环境的,周围的Attribute:属性,特质Procedure:步骤,程序,手续Manipulation:操作,操纵,处理Historically:历史上地,Subsume:把…..归入,把…..包括在Eclipse:形成蚀,使黯然失色Visualization:可视化,Immense:巨大的,广大的Analogue:类似,相似物Conventional:常见的,惯例的Enquire:询问,打听Coniferous:松柏科的 Highlight:强调,突出, Stress:强调,加压力与 Derive:得到,源于 Discipline:纪律,学科,惩罚Algorithm:算法, Interpret:说明,口译,解释Artificial:人造的,仿造的,虚伪的 Geomatique:地理信息技术Cartography:地图绘制学,地图绘制Preliminary:初步的,起始的Cartographer:绘制图表者,制图师Encode:编码 Aggregation:集合,聚合,集合体Retrieval:取回,恢复,修补Analog:模拟的 Quantitative:数量的,定量的Histogram:直方图,柱状图Cartogram:统计地图,统计图Parcel:地块 Geodetic:大地测量学,最短线的Cadastral:地籍的,有关土地清册 的 Attribute:属性,特质 Procedure:步骤,程序,手续 Prime meridian:本初子午线 Algorithm:算法, Discipline:纪律,学科,惩罚Visualization:可视化, Globe;球体 Map projection地图投影 Planar projection;平面投影Azimuthal projection;方位投影Characteristic,特征,特性Reference globe;参考椭球体 Scale factor;比例因子 Principle scale;主比例尺Equivalent projection;等积投影Equidistant;等距投影 Mercator transverse;横轴莫卡托投影Gnomonic protection;中心切面投影Lambert‘s equal area projection 兰伯特等级方位投影

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