英美概况1英国概况

1066-Battle of Hastings黑斯廷斯战役William the Conqueror征服者威廉1076-Revolt of the Earls伯爵的反抗1086-Landholders swear loyalty to William the Conqueror封臣发誓效忠征服者威廉As fast as the Conqueror subjugated 征服the territory领土he confiscated 没收the lands of those who had fought against him, and either took them himself or distributed them among his followers, who held them in feudal tenure 占有as vassals of the king. Some of the English, in all probability not a large number, who had neither fought against him nor revolted反叛, he allowed to redeem 赎回their lands and to hold them from him by the same tenure as before. Thus, for the complicated复杂的land system of the English was substituted取代a perfectly simple arrangement according to which all land was held feudally 如封建地of the king. In a great meeting held at Salisbury索尔兹伯里in 1086 William summoned 召集all the landholders封臣and made them swear allegiance 效忠to him as chief lord and king.' Thus he laid down建立the rule that every landholder封建主in England, whosesoever vassal 封臣he might be, owed allegiance first to the king and then to his own lord, and that, therefore, no English vassal might follow his lord against his king. In so doing William violated 违反the recognized feudalprinciple公认的领地原则that a vassal owed allegiance to his immediate lord only.Mag na Carta 大宪章Henry III亨利三世1315-1322Great European Famine also 1348-Black Death欧洲大饥荒，黑死病The Hundred Year s’ War百年大战The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts wagedbackground of the Hundred Years War went as far back as to the reign of William the Conqueror. When William the Conqueror became king in 1066 after his victory at the Battle of Hastings, he united England with Normandy in France. William ruled both as his own.In 1328, Charles IV of France died. Charles did not have any sons to take over his land and all his brothers were dead. He did have a sister called Isabella. She was the mother of Edward III and Edward believed that because of this, he should be king of France. However, the French decided that a cousin of Charles, Philip, should be crowned king.By 1337 Edward was ready to fight for what he believed washis and he declared war on Philip.The war is commonly divided into three phases separated by争洛琳的战争 and, which saw the slow decline衰落of English fortunes 机遇after the appearanceJohn Wyclif church reformer约翰威克里夫Richard II 理查德二世Henry IV亨利四世Henry V战神亨利五世Henry V (16 September 1386 – 31 August 1422[1][2]) was King of England from 1413 until his death at the age of 35 in 1422. He was the second English monarch君主who came from the House of Lancaster兰卡斯特家族.After military experience fighting various lords 上院议员who rebelled反叛against his father, Henry IV, Henry came into political conflict with the increasingly ill king. After his father's death, Henry rapidly assumed假定control of the country and embarked着手on war with France. From an unassuming 不出风头的start, his military successes in the Hundred Years' War, culminating 告终with his famous victory at the Battle of Agincourt亚金科特战役,saw him come close to conquering France. After months of negotiation 谈判with Charles VI of France, the Treaty of Troyes特鲁瓦条约recognised Henry V as regent摄政王and heir-apparent 法定继承人to the French throne, and he was subsequently随后married to Charles's daughter, Catherine of Valois卢瓦卢的凯瑟琳. Following Henry V's sudden and unexpected death in France, he was succeeded by his infant 未成年的son, who reigned as Henry VI.Role in government and conflict with Henry IVThe Welsh 威尔士的revolt反抗of O wain Glyn dŵr absorbed使全神贯注Henry's energies until 1408. Then, as a result of the king's ill health, Henry began to take a wider share in politics. From January 1410, helped by his uncles Henry and Thomas Beaufort伯福特— legitimated合法的sons of John of Gaunt冈特的约翰— he had practical control of the government.Both in foreign and domestic国内的policy he differed from the king, who in November 1411 discharged排出the prince 王子from the council理事会. The quarrel of father and son was political only, though it is probable that the Beau forts had discussed the abdication退位of Henry IV, and their opponents 对手certainly endeavored 努力to defame 诽谤the prince.Queen Elizabeth I(1558)Francis Drake (1580) 法兰西斯.德瑞克Spanish Armada 无敌舰队William ShakespeareWilliam Shakespeare (26 April 1564–23 April 1616)was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent 优秀的dramatist.He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon"埃文河的吟游诗人.His extant 显著的works, including some collaborations合作, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, two epitaphs墓志铭on a man named John Combe库姆, one epitaph on Elias James以利亚詹姆斯, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon 史特拉福. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway安妮海瑟薇, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet哈姆奈特 and Judith朱迪思. Between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men宫廷大臣剧团, later known as the King's Men. He appears to have retired toStratford around 1613 at age 49, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive, and there has been considerable重要的speculation 推测about such matters as his physical appearance,sexuality, religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others.Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were mainly comedies and histories, genres流派he raised to the peak of sophistication诡辩and artistry 艺术性by the end of the 16th century. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, King Lear, Othello奥赛罗, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest works in the English language. In his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies悲喜剧, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights.Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy准确性during his lifetime. In 1623, John Heminges赫名斯and Henry Condell康德尔, two friends and fellow actors of Shakespeare, published the First Folio第一对开本, a collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare's. It was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson本琼生, in which Shakespeare is hailed致敬, presciently 有先见, as "not of an age, but for all time."Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day, but his reputation did not rise to its present heights until the 19th century. The Romantics浪漫主义者, in particular, acclaimed 欢呼Shakespeare's genius, and the Victorians worship-ped Shakespeare with a reverence崇敬that George Bernard Shaw乔治萧伯纳called "bardolatry"莎士比亚崇拜.In the 20th century, his work was repeatedly adopted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance. His plays remain highly popular today and are constantly studied, performed, and reinterpreted重新解释in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world.Scientific Revolution: Galileo,Descartes笛卡尔, Kepler, Bacon,NewtonThe protestant Reformation( Martin Luther)新教改革The Glorious Revolution1688; English Bill of Rights1689The Enlightenment启蒙运动:Thomas Hobbes, John LockeThe Enlightenment is the period in the history of western thought and culture, stretching 延伸roughly from the mid-decades of the seventeenth century through the eighteenth century, characterized以.为特点by dramatic引人注目的revolutions in science, philosophy, society and politics; these revolutions swept away the medieval world-view中世纪的世界观and ushered引座员in our modern western world. The Enlightenment begins with the scientific revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.Two English intellectuals知识分子, mathematician Thomas Hobbes霍布斯(1588–1679) and philosopher John Locke 约翰洛克(1632–1704), were among the first to use a scientific approach to study man and his society. As a mathematician, Hobbes’ political theory was an effort to make politics into an exact science like geometry几何学. Hobbes w as an admirer of Galileo’s studies of motion, and attempted to apply Galileo’s scientific principles to social theory.The philosopher John Locke was himself a friend of Sir Isaac 艾萨克牛顿Newton, and was influenced by Newton’s description of the universe as a vast machine operating by precise严格的, unvarying 不变的scientific laws. Locke thought deeply about the nature of economics, psychology and religion, as well as politics. Both men lived through upheavals剧变of seventeenth-century English politics, and witnessed the establishment确立of limited monarchy君主政治and Parliamentary议会的rule. Hobbes had witnessed the bloody 血腥的execution死刑of King Charles I in 1649, as the culmination 高潮of England’s bitter Civil War (1642–1649). As tutor 导师to the young heir-apparent 法定继承人Charles II, he fled 逃走with the royal household to France after theKing’s execution. Locke, on the other hand, although aligned 结盟with the political opposition to the Stuarts斯图亚特王室and exiled 放逐in 1683, was successful in government circles upon his return to England after 1688. He witnessed the so-called ―Glorious Revolution‖ of 1689, in which William and Mary came to the throne of England, replacing the monarch James II almost without bloodshed.Hobbes’s and Locke’s divergent 相异的views of human nature reflect their different personal experiences. While Hobbes concluded that the nature of humans was competitive, that fear was their most powerful motive for action, and that their natural state was one of war, Locke saw men living in a state of nature which was basically reasonable and cooperative.Hobbes’s pessimistic悲观的view of human nature did not appeal to most Enlightenment thinkers: Locke’s view of humankind as essentially reasonable and benevolent仁慈的accorded符合much better with the optimism of the age, and seemed to justify it. But the two English political theorists had pointed the way to a new, rationalist理性主义者approach to the problems of government and society. They showed that the laws of science might have their counterpart 副本in other laws that governed social and politicalbehavior. The scientific method could be applied even to intractable 棘手的questions of politics.。