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英美概况英国地理小结英美概况-英国地理小结? 大不列颠?地理特征和人口1.thebritishislesaresituatedinthenorthwestpartoftheeurope.2.英国统治着世界人民的1/4帝国nations英联邦.4.官方名称：大不列颠和北爱尔兰联合王国。
5.大不列颠和英国的关系：大不列颠+northernireland=theuk6.theuk―capital:london苏格兰是伟大英国的象征首都：爱丁堡。
威尔士在英国首都：加的夫7.northernirelandisthefourthregionoftheuk.---capital:belfast.8.英国地势：--risinginnorth-westcauseshighlands--东南部下沉导致低地9.英国地势优点advantage:nopartofbritainisveryfarfromthecoastandit提供有价值的资源。
英国的海岸线很长，有很好的深水港。
SeaRoute向内陆延伸，提供廉价的运输。
10.最重要的河流：最著名的河流最长河：theseverncthelongestriver最高的山：贝内维斯（苏格兰）-最高的山最大的山：彭尼内斯彭尼内斯（英格兰）pennines:thebackboneofengland11.苏格兰：首都爱丁堡1)the2ndlargestofthe4nations2)famousforitsgreatcastle3）威尔士：首都：加的夫威尔士人是凯尔特人(celt)的后裔，会讲celtic(凯尔特语).13.英国气候:maritimeclimate海洋性气候14.伦敦：世界第四大城市，世界三大经济和金融中心之一，政治、经济和文化中心标志性建筑：buckinghampalace,bigben,londoneye,toweroflondon,towerbridge15.自1973年以来，联合王国一直是欧洲联盟的成员，英国现在是一个多民族社会，产生了20多个非欧洲民族的人口。
英美概况大题知识点总结1. 位置与面积:- 英国位于欧洲大陆的西北部，由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰四个国家组成，是一个岛国，又称不列颠群岛。
- 美国位于北美洲的中北部，东临大西洋，西濒太平洋，与加拿大和墨西哥为邻。
是全球第三大、北美洲第二大的国家。
2. 地形:- 英国地貌复杂，地势起伏。
苏格兰地区有高山，如本提高地、格兰特群山、高地等，英格兰和威尔士地势较低，北爱尔兰地区以丘陵地形为主。
- 美国地大物博，地貌多样。
东部大西洋沿岸是低洼平原，中部是多河流盆地、大草原和沙漠，西部有洛矶山脉、科罗拉多高原和内华达高原，阿拉斯加地区是冰川遍布的高山地区，夏威夷是火山构成的群岛，加利福尼亚州和华盛顿州有大片的森林。
3. 气候:- 英国气候温和，受海洋性气候和大西洋洋流的影响。
冬季不太寒冷，夏季不太炎热，年降水量较多。
- 美国气候多样，北部地区属于温带大陆性气候，南部地区属于亚热带气候。
阿拉斯加地区气候寒冷，夏威夷地区气候属于热带海洋性气候。
整体上，美国西部偏干燥，东部偏湿润。
4. 主要城市:- 英国主要城市包括伦敦、曼彻斯特、伯明翰、利物浦等。
伦敦是英国首都，也是英国最大的城市，世界上最重要的金融中心之一。
- 美国主要城市包括纽约、洛杉矶、芝加哥、旧金山、华盛顿等。
纽约是美国最大的城市，也是世界金融中心之一，华盛顿是美国首都。
5. 自然资源:- 英国主要矿产资源包括煤炭、天然气、铁矿石和石油。
海洋渔业资源也非常丰富。
- 美国拥有丰富的煤炭、石油、天然气、铁矿石等矿产资源，以及广大的农业土地和丰富的水资源。
6. 语言和宗教:- 英国官方语言是英语，宗教主要是基督教，其中以英国国教会和天主教最为流行。
- 美国官方语言也是英语，宗教信仰多元，基督教、犹太教、伊斯兰教等都有一定的信徒。
英美历史概况:1. 古代历史:- 英国在古代分别由凯尔特人、罗马人、盎格鲁-撒克逊人和维京人等民族统治，1066年诺曼征服后建立了专制统治的王朝。
英美概况：英国人口探析The United Kingdom, often referred to as the UK, is a sovereign state located on the island of Great Britain in Europe. It comprises four constituent countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The UK has a rich history and diverse culture, making it a fascinating country to explore. In this essay, we will delve into the demographics of the UK, specifically its population.The population of the UK is estimated to be around 67 million people, with England being the most populous constituent country. The UK's population density is relatively high, with the majority of people residing in urban areas, particularly in and around London, the capital city. London is the largest city in the UK and one of the most populous cities in the world.The UK's population is diverse, with people from various ethnic backgrounds, religions, and cultures. This diversity is reflected in the country's rich tapestry of languages, with English being the official language but many regional dialects and immigrant languages also spoken.The UK's multiculturalism adds to its charm and makes it a vibrant and inclusive society.The UK's population structure is also noteworthy. The median age of the population is relatively high, indicating a maturing society. This is due to several factors,including increasing life expectancy and decreasingfertility rates. The older population segment presents challenges and opportunities for the UK, such as providing adequate healthcare and retirement benefits while fostering economic growth and innovation.The UK's population dynamics are also influenced by migration. The country has a long history of immigration, with people from around the world settling in the UK. Migration has shaped the UK's demographics, economy, and culture, making it a truly global nation. However,migration has also been a contentious issue in recent years, with debates surrounding its economic, social, and cultural impacts.In conclusion, the UK's population is a dynamic and diverse entity that reflects the country's rich history and multiculturalism. The challenges and opportunitiespresented by the UK's population dynamics are numerous, but with careful planning and innovation, the country can continue to thrive as a global leader in culture, economy, and society.**英国人口概况探析**英国，常被称为联合王国，是一个位于欧洲大不列颠岛上的主权国家。
英美概况考前知识点总结一、英国1.概况英国，全称为大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国（The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland），是位于欧洲西部的一个岛屿国家，由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰四个地区组成。
首都为伦敦，是英国最大的城市，也是英国的政治、经济和文化中心。
2. 地理英国位于欧洲大陆西北部，主要由大不列颠岛和北爱尔兰岛组成。
英国陆地面积约为24.2万平方公里，辖区范围包括英国本土以及北爱尔兰地区。
英国地势起伏，有平原、丘陵和山地，包括英格兰北部的湖区和苏格兰的高地。
英国气候多变，主要受大西洋气候影响，冬季寒冷，夏季温和多雨。
3. 政治英国是一个君主立宪制国家，国家元首为英国女王，目前由伊丽莎白二世担任。
英国议会由两院组成，包括由选举产生的下议院和由上议院成员组成的上议院。
英国政府由首相领导，议会制度是英国政治的核心。
4. 经济英国是一个发达国家，经济实力雄厚。
英国主要产业包括金融、保险、科技、汽车制造、机械制造、航空航天、医药等。
伦敦作为金融中心，对世界经济有着重要影响。
英国是欧盟成员国，但于2016年公投决定脱离欧盟。
5. 文化英国是文化底蕴深厚的国家，有着悠久的历史和传统。
英国文学、音乐、戏剧等领域拥有世界级的影响力，莎士比亚、狄更斯、爱默生等文学巨匠为世人所熟知。
英国还是摇滚乐的发源地之一，披头士乐队、皇后乐队等乐团享誉世界。
二、美国1.概况美利坚合众国（The United States of America），简称美国，是位于北美洲的一个联邦共和制国家，由50个州组成。
首都为华盛顿哥伦比亚特区，最大的城市是纽约。
美国是世界上最强大的国家之一，拥有世界上最大的经济、最强大的军事力量和最先进的科技。
2. 地理美国地处北美洲中部，东临大西洋，西临太平洋，北界加拿大，南濒墨西哥湾。
美国领土面积约为9.83万万平方公里，是世界第四大国家。
英美概况知识点总结英美概况是指英国和美国的综合概述，包括地理、历史、文化、经济等方面的内容。
以下将从不同角度对英美概况进行总结。
一、地理概况英国位于欧洲大陆西北部，包括大不列颠岛和北爱尔兰。
英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰是英国的四个组成部分。
英国是一个岛国，海洋对英国的经济和国际交流起着重要作用。
美国位于北美洲，东临大西洋，西靠太平洋，与加拿大和墨西哥为邻。
美国是世界第三大国家，拥有广袤的领土和多样的地理环境。
二、历史概况英国历史悠久，曾经是大不列颠帝国的核心。
英国是工业革命的发源地，对现代科技和工业发展做出了重要贡献。
美国的历史相对较短，于18世纪独立建国。
美国是一个移民国家，吸引了来自世界各地的移民，形成了多元文化的社会。
三、文化概况英国文化深厚，包括文学、音乐、戏剧等方面的成就。
莎士比亚、狄更斯、奥斯卡·王尔德等众多文化名人出自英国。
英国的摇滚乐、流行音乐也享誉世界。
美国文化的影响力也非常大，好莱坞电影、流行音乐、美式足球等都深受全球喜爱。
美国文学也有众多杰出作品，如马克·吐温的《哈克贝利·费恩历险记》和弗朗西斯·斯科特·菲茨杰拉德的《了不起的盖茨比》。
四、经济概况英国是世界上最发达的资本主义国家之一，金融业和服务业发达。
伦敦作为国际金融中心，具有重要的地位。
美国是全球最大的经济体，以市场经济为基础，拥有世界上最发达的科技和创新产业。
美国是世界上最大的农产品生产国和第二大制造业国。
总结起来，英美概况涵盖了地理、历史、文化和经济等方面的内容。
英国和美国都是世界上具有重要影响力的国家，对世界的发展有着重要的贡献。
两个国家在不同领域都有独特的优势和特色，值得我们进一步深入了解和学习。
英美概况知识点总结(一)前言英美概况是学习英语文化不可或缺的一部分，它包括了英美两国的历史、地理、政治、文化等方方面面。
对于英语学习者来说，了解英美概况有助于更好地理解和运用英语，也能加深对这两个国家的了解。
本文将从几个主要的方面介绍英美概况知识点。
正文英国概况•地理位置：英国位于欧洲大陆西北部，由大不列颠岛、北爱尔兰和其他岛屿组成。
•首都与大城市：伦敦是英国首都，也是最大的城市。
伯明翰、曼彻斯特、利物浦等城市也是重要的经济和文化中心。
•政治体系：英国是君主立宪制国家，国王或女王是元首，首相是政府的首脑。
•历史背景：英国是一个历史悠久的国家，曾经是大英帝国的核心。
英国的历史包括了罗马时期、中世纪、工业革命等重要的时期。
•文化特点：英国有着丰富多样的文化，包括莎士比亚的戏剧、披头士乐队的音乐、茶文化、博物馆和艺术画廊等。
美国概况•地理位置：美国位于北美洲，从东海岸到西海岸横跨了大陆。
•首都与大城市：华盛顿特区是美国首都，纽约、洛杉矶、芝加哥等城市是美国的重要城市。
•政治体系：美国是联邦共和制国家，总统是最高行政和国家元首，国会是立法机构。
•历史背景：美国是一个年轻的国家，从独立战争开始建立起来。
美国历史包括了西部拓荒、内战、种族平等运动等重要的事件。
•文化特点：美国文化多样，融合了来自世界各地的移民文化。
美国文化的代表包括好莱坞电影、音乐、篮球和美式足球等。
结尾通过了解英美概况，我们可以更好地理解和运用英语，也可以深入了解英美两国的历史和文化。
英国和美国虽然有相似之处，但也有自己独特的特点。
希望本文所提供的英美概况知识点对于英语学习者有所帮助。
前言英美概况是学习英语文化不可或缺的一部分，它包括了英美两国的历史、地理、政治、文化等方方面面。
对于英语学习者来说，了解英美概况有助于更好地理解和运用英语，也能加深对这两个国家的了解。
本文将从几个主要的方面介绍英美概况知识点。
正文英国概况•地理位置：英国位于欧洲大陆西北部，由大不列颠岛、北爱尔兰和其他岛屿组成。
大二英美概况知识点总结在大二的学习中，英美概况这门课程为我们打开了了解英美国家的一扇窗。
通过这门课程，我们对英美两国的历史、政治、经济、文化等方面有了更全面和深入的认识。
以下是对大二英美概况课程知识点的总结。
一、英国概况1、地理英国位于欧洲大陆西北面的不列颠群岛，被北海、英吉利海峡、凯尔特海、爱尔兰海和大西洋包围。
英国的主要岛屿包括大不列颠岛、爱尔兰岛东北部和一些小岛。
其气候温和湿润，属于温带海洋性气候。
2、历史英国的历史悠久且丰富。
从罗马统治时期，到盎格鲁撒克逊人的入侵，再到诺曼征服，英国的政治和社会结构不断演变。
工业革命使英国成为世界上第一个工业化国家，拥有强大的经济和军事实力，建立了庞大的殖民地。
3、政治英国是一个君主立宪制国家，女王是国家元首，但权力主要由议会和政府行使。
英国议会分为上议院和下议院，政府由首相领导。
英国的政党制度主要有保守党和工党。
4、经济英国是世界上重要的经济体之一，其经济以服务业为主，特别是金融服务业。
伦敦是全球重要的金融中心之一。
制造业和农业在英国经济中也占有一定地位。
5、文化英国文化底蕴深厚，在文学、艺术、音乐、戏剧等领域有着卓越的成就。
从莎士比亚的戏剧到简·奥斯汀的小说，从披头士乐队到皇家芭蕾舞团，英国的文化影响力广泛。
此外，英国的教育体系也备受世界瞩目，拥有众多顶尖的大学。
二、美国概况1、地理美国位于北美洲中部，领土还包括北美洲西北部的阿拉斯加和太平洋中部的夏威夷群岛。
美国地形多样，有山脉、平原、高原和沙漠等。
气候类型丰富，从寒带到热带都有分布。
2、历史美国原为印第安人的聚居地，15 世纪末，西班牙、荷兰、法国、英国等相继移民至此。
通过独立战争，美国摆脱了英国的殖民统治，建立了联邦制国家。
美国在 19 世纪通过领土扩张和工业发展迅速崛起，成为世界强国。
3、政治美国是一个联邦制国家，实行三权分立的政治制度，行政权由总统行使，立法权属于国会，司法权属于最高法院。
英美概况教程知识点总结英国和美国是世界上最具影响力、最发达的国家之一，两国在政治、经济、文化、教育等方面都具有举足轻重的地位。
了解英美的概况对于拓展视野、增进知识十分重要。
本文将对英美概况进行详细总结，希望能为读者提供全面的了解。
一、英国概况1. 地理位置英国位于欧洲西部，东临英吉利海峡，北面是北海，西北面是爱尔兰海，东北面是北大西洋。
英国主要由大不列颠岛和苏格兰、威尔士、北爱尔兰等岛屿组成。
2. 政治体制英国是一个君主立宪制国家，国家元首是女王伊丽莎白二世，首相则是政府首脑。
3. 经济发展英国是世界第五大经济体，金融、汽车制造、航空航天、化工、制药等产业发达，是全球最大的外汇交易中心。
4. 文化英国是世界文化强国，文学、音乐、艺术、体育等方面都有深厚的底蕴，如莎士比亚、贝多芬、莫扎特等都是国际知名的文化巨匠。
二、美国概况1. 地理位置美国位于北美洲的中心地带，东临大西洋，西濒太平洋，北面和加拿大相邻，南面与墨西哥相接。
2. 政治体制美国是一个联邦制国家，国家元首是总统，实行三权分立的政治体制。
3. 经济发展美国是世界第一大经济体，工业、农业、科技、金融等方面都处于世界领先地位，是全球最大的出口国和进口国。
4. 文化美国是世界文化强国，好莱坞电影、流行音乐、时尚等文化产业对全球产生深远影响，美国文艺活动也具有世界性影响力。
三、英美概况对比1. 政治体制英国是君主立宪制国家，国家元首是女王，政治体制稳定；美国是联邦制国家，国家元首是总统，实行三权分立的政治体制。
2. 经济发展英国虽然是世界经济体，但经济规模和实力与美国相比仍有差距，尤其在科技、金融等方面美国更为发达。
3. 文化影响英国和美国在文化领域都有世界性的影响力，但美国的文化产业更加发达，对全球的影响力更广泛。
四、学习英美概况的重要性1. 拓展视野了解英美的概况可以帮助人们拓展视野，了解世界上其他国家的政治、经济、文化等情况，增强对世界的认识。
英美概况知识点总结高中英美概况是指英国和美国两个国家的基本情况和特点的总称，包括国家地理环境、政治制度、经济发展、文化传统、社会风貌等多个方面的内容。
作为世界上两个最具有影响力和历史底蕴的国家，英美概况的了解对于增进我们对这两个国家的了解和认识具有重要意义。
下面将进行英美概况知识点的总结，以便于大家更好地了解这两个国家。
一、英国概况1. 地理环境英国位于欧洲大陆西北面，是一个由英格兰、苏格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰四个国家组成的联合王国。
英国地处大西洋东部，地形多样，有山地、平原、丘陵和岛屿等地貌。
英国的气候受大西洋海洋性气候影响，冬季温和湿润，夏季凉爽多雨。
英国是一个发达的海岛国家，拥有丰富的自然资源和美丽的风景。
2. 政治制度英国的政治制度是君主立宪制，君主是国家元首，议会是最高权力机构。
英国议会分为上议院和下议院两个部分，议会具有立法和监督政府职能。
英国政府由内阁负责，内阁首相是政府首脑，由议会多数党派的领导人担任。
英国的政治体制稳定成熟，拥有悠久的历史传统和独特的民主制度。
3. 经济发展英国是一个发达的工业化国家，经济实力雄厚。
英国拥有发达的资本市场和金融服务业，是全球金融中心之一。
英国的经济以服务业为主，尤其是金融、保险、房地产、科技和娱乐等领域发展迅速。
此外，英国也拥有发达的制造业和农业，是世界上最重要的出口国之一。
4. 文化传统英国是文化名城，拥有丰富的文化传统和历史遗产。
英国文学、音乐、艺术、博物馆、剧院等领域都有重要影响力。
英国享有丰富多样的文化产业，包括电影、电视、出版、游戏等领域蓬勃发展。
英国还拥有众多世界知名的文化遗产，如巨石阵、温莎城堡、巴斯古城等。
5. 社会风貌英国社会多元包容，拥有多样的文化建制和生活方式。
英国是一个移民国家，吸引了来自世界各地的移民，形成多元的社会结构。
英国的社会福利体系完善，医疗、教育、社会保障等公共服务和福利都得到充分保障。
英国社会秩序良好，法治建设完善，民众享有相对安定和安全的生活环境。
英美概况知识点总结英美是指英国和美国这两个英语为官方语言的国家。
它们在政治、经济、文化等方面有许多共同点，同时也存在一些差异。
下面将从地理、历史、政治、经济、文化等方面对英美进行总结。
地理概况：英美两国都位于北美洲，但地理位置有一些差异。
英国是一个由大不列颠岛和北爱尔兰组成的岛国，位于欧洲西北部的大西洋上。
美国则位于北美洲的中北部，东临大西洋，西濒太平洋。
历史概况：英国是一个历史悠久的国家，拥有世界上最古老的君主制度。
英国曾经是世界上最大的殖民帝国，统治过许多地区。
美国则是一个相对年轻的国家，于1776年宣布独立，脱离英国殖民统治。
美国独立后逐渐发展成为世界上最强大的国家之一。
政治概况：英国是一个君主立宪制国家，国家元首是女王，但实际上的政府首脑是首相。
英国的政治制度相对稳定，以议会制度为基础。
美国是一个联邦制共和国，国家元首是总统，政府采取三权分立的制度。
美国的政治制度注重个人自由和权利保护。
经济概况：英国是世界上第六大经济体，拥有发达的市场经济和先进的金融体系。
主要经济领域包括金融服务、制造业、创意产业等。
美国是世界上最大的经济体，拥有高度发达的市场经济和先进的科技产业。
主要经济领域包括金融服务、制造业、科技产业等。
文化概况：英国是文化的发源地之一，拥有丰富的文化遗产和悠久的文学传统。
莎士比亚、狄更斯等文学巨匠都是英国的代表作家。
英国还有伦敦的剧院、博物馆等文化场所吸引着世界各地的游客。
美国是一个多元文化的国家，吸引了许多移民和不同文化背景的人。
美国的文化产业非常发达，好莱坞电影、流行音乐等在世界范围内有着广泛影响。
总结：英美两国在地理、历史、政治、经济、文化等方面都有许多共同点，同时也存在一些差异。
英国是一个历史悠久、文化底蕴深厚的国家，而美国则是一个相对年轻、多元文化的国家。
两国都在世界上扮演着重要的角色，对全球发展和影响具有重要意义。
Chapter OneBritishSection one :the country and its people and position :name : The United kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (U.K)position：To the west and off the European Continent, containing the Great Britain and the northern part of Ireland.Territory proportion: approximately 240,000 square km.Population : 62.262millionThree political parts: England, Wales and Scotland England (capital city: London):the biggest ,the most developed as well as the most populated country in the U.K (capital city: London)Scotland (capital city:Edinburgh):Wales :smallest partIreland :Henry VIII was the first king to bring Ireland under control; gain its independence in 1927.2.Geographic Features:Northeast to the European Continent and east to the Atlantic, to its northeast is a channel called English Channel between the U.K and France. Neighboring country that share border : Ireland only Britain is an island country, more than1,000kilometres from south to north and 500kilometres form east to west.High Land zone：in north and westLow Land zone: in the south and east (including London).3.English TunnelFinished in 1994,was build up by private companies from U.K and France.4. Climate and Weather :Climate : maritime climate .Main character : abundant and evenly distributed rainfall. Autumn is the rainiestseasonInfluential factors: North Atlantic Drift(warm)Southwesterly wind(warm and wet.winter)Weather: changeable5.inland water :Longest river : Severn RiverMost important and second longest river: Thames River Lakes :in the Lake District6.People and languages :Main peoples: Celts and Anglo-SaxonsLanguages :English is overwhelming, some people in speaks Geltic Language7.Religion:The majority of the British people believe Christianity.Religious education and collective worship are required by British law.8.national flag :The Union Jack or Union FlagSection two : the British Government1.Political system：Constitutional MonarchyDefinition : it means the head ofstate is monarch withlimited powers.Themonarch reigns(统治), butdoes not rule（统制）ernment Component:Central government :consists of Monarch, Parliament and CabinetLocal governments3.Structure of the British government:The head ---- monarchLegislature institution : Parliament(consists House ofCommons and House of Lords)Executive Institution: Cabinet(consists of Prime Minister and Ministers of Civil service)Judicial Institution: court of appeal(supreme court)subordinate to House Of Lord4.Definations:The general idea of government :Technically speaking, British government or refers to the Cabinet(nuclear).This kind of government is called Parliamentary government or Cabinet government.The queen (Victoria ,Elizabeth….) ：Reigns but does not rulepersonifies the country,the symbol of unityAppoint the Prime Minister and other Ministers,the bills need her approval before going into effectThe parliament :Law making body ,need the approval of the monarchConsists of three parts: the monarch, the House Of Lord and the House of Common,It don’t have the executive power.The House Of Lord:The upper house of the Parliament ,unelected, consist of clergy(神职人员) and members of peerage.Debating place:the Palace of WestminsterBestowed with judicial power.The Lord Chancellor:the presider of The House Of Lord as well as a member in Cabinet, he works in Department for Constitutional Affairs.head of the judiciary of England and Wales,serving as the President of the Supreme Court of England and Wales.The house of common:The centre of the parliamentary powerMain function:to pass laws, bills and acts of Parliamentto scrutinize, criticize and restrain the actions ofthe governmentto influence the future government policyDefinition :democratically elected bodythe source of the vast majority of government ministers There is a elected speakerbills normally originate in the House of Commons. Only the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or SupplyThe cabinet :responsible to Parliament for the administration of national affairs.The Cabinet is the most powerful and it serves as the nucleus of the Government.Debate place :Downing street.No 10 Downing Street is a historic building that is also a place of work. It is a symbol of Government and the home to the Prime Minister and his family. Establishment time：1856supreme decision-making bodyThe Prime Minister :monarch's principal advisorappointed by monarchNo 10 Downing Street is a historic building that is also a place of work. It is a symbol of Government and the home to the Prime Minister and his family.Local government :The English government is a three-tiered government: central government, county government and district government. The central government enforces laws through local governments.Section 3:British Laws and Politics Laws :judiciary &constitutionJudiciary :In the structure of the U.K central government, the Court of Appeal, which is subordinate to the House of Lord, is in charge of the judiciary issues.British judiciary consists of 2 branches-------civil law（citizen s’duties and obligations） criminal law(define and enforce obligations of a person)，It’s not necessary to pick up jury in the course of the civil trail while criminal trails have to be held in open court for the criminal law assume the innocent of the accused until he was proved to be guilty by a smoking gun.(reasonable doubt) In the process of the criminal trail by jury. The judge pass the result issued by the jury.Jury system(mostly used in criminal trial)Definition :In the United kingdom the court is open to the public and the jury is used during the trial.12members,random selection,obligation, chosen by both side(the plaintiff and the defendant)Unanimous verdictConstitution :No written constitution in U.K, it’s function is embodied by several separate lawsFour elements of the British legal ：acts of the parliament/Statutory Law（国内成文法）, common law(公民法),convention(惯例、习惯法),EU legislation（欧盟法）Barrister -------inn court, bar examinationPolitics :Politic system :a two-party political system.▪political parties:▪the Whig Party—Liberal Party▪the Tory Party—Conservative Partymajority seats in the Parliament means the power to form a government (government party, opposition parties )Government policies are initiated by whipsThere is no need to apply for membership in a party.The conservative party ----right wing---oldMain support----middle and upper-middle class. Advocation :privatization of the state owned firmsfree enterpriseadvocate :pragmatismindividualism.Margaret ThatcherThe labor party------left wing/the leftCreated by trade unionMixture of the two partiesDoctrine of SocialismMain support :Working classAdvocation :Establish a welfare stateNationalized industryExercise control over the private industries to revive the primary industryLiberal Democratic-----minority partyadvocates policies based on freedom of the individual and supports the adoption of Propositional Representation at elections(代议制选举)Election:Prime Ministers are elected from national Constituency (选区)Period： 5 yearsGovernment :the party has the majority seats of the parliament.Prime Minister :the leader of the majority party.Section 4:national economy and major cities1. General Survey :first country to start industrial revolution;comprehensive industry systemmineral production：mainly exhausted, others are mainly oil and gaseconomy model :one of the most essential market economy in the world.Industry :⏹comprehensive industry system⏹one of the seven major industrialized countries ofthe Western Worldfinance :London is one of the financial centre of the world’s businesstrade:long coastline ,limited domestic market ,inadequate raw material ,trading nation, petroleum tradeAs for Sino-British trade:China: raw materials, sideline productsBritain: technical equipmentBritain is China's 4th biggest European trade partnereconomic influence :one of the seven major industrialized countries of the Western World, the member of the G8 summitFramework of economy :Economy system : capitalism ,including Public Sector and Private Sector.GDP: The world’s sixth largest economyCurrency: sterlingMining :Oil(.self sufficient .North sea,1975) ,Gas, and Coal (be kept for future use)Manufacturing Industry:Iron and steel industry is the largest manufacturingindustry.A large auto-vehicle industry------Aston Martin,Land Rover, Dodge, and Rolls Royce.Agriculture :favorable condition : mild climate ,Highly mechanized ,Important department :Dairy farming and fishinganimal husbandryPoultry ['pəʊltrɪ]meatEnergy productionMajor Energy Companies: Shell, British Petroleum[pɪ'trəʊlɪəm](BP), British Gas (BG)TransportationWell-known merchant marineOne of the busiest railways in the worldDeveloped highways and airlines (the major airline are mainly operated by the British airways(state-owned) Communication (all state-owned)One of the largest and most developed in the world “999”for police, fireman and ambulanceLargest telecommunication provider-----BT(British Tele communication)FinanceCentral bank of the UK：controls the currency and actsmaintain the integrity and value of the currencyEconomy structuresServices industries, especially, business and financial services—the strongest performing sector in the UK economy with London being the most developed area in the whole country.major citiesLondon•南岸，伦敦眼摩天轮•杜莎夫人蜡像馆／天文馆（Madame Tussaud's/Planetarium）•伦敦塔•伦敦地牢•敞篷巴士伦敦观光游（The Original London Tour）•议会大厦（Houses of Parliament）夏季对外开放•西区和威斯敏斯特大教堂（Westminster Abbey）观光•达利的世界展览馆（Dali Universe）•汉普顿宫（Hampton Court Palace）•肯辛顿宫（Kensington Palace）BelfastManchesterCardiff EdinburgBirminghamChapter twoSection 5 :Origin of the English NationThe native Celt :Celt are considered to be the natives of Great Britain and the ancestors of the Scots, Irish and Welsh peopleOriginate from：Eastern and central EuropeRoman Conquest：Brought about Christianity.Occupied England until 410 A.DLater on, the Jutes and Angles landed, the Angles(the winner) gave the name to England and English people..Alfred the Great.First (Anglo-Saxon )king of (all) England“The father of the British navy.”The battle of HastingsHarold GodwinsonBrave and respectful, but not the direct heir of the throne. But he managed to crown himself the king by wining the support of the WitanWilliam the ConquerorEdward’s cousinSet out from Normandy to English south coast Battlefield :Build up a fort and camped in Hasting, southeastern England.Result : William won, battle abbey mourn for the dead Be crowned in Westminster on Christmas day of 1066,becoming the first Anglo-Norman king of England.Influence :Sped up the development of feudalism in Britain, after the war, the feudalism system was established. Build up the tower of LondonFeudal aristocracy was established.Open up a bi-lingual period in English historyLast invasion of England initiated by foreignersFeudalism system:Established by William the great.The throne provides the land and castlesThe monarch will need the support from the barons Definition :feudal system - giving land in return for service.Section 6: the decline of feudalism in EnglandHenry II and His Reform :William consolidated the feudalism and he took all kinds of measures to strengthen the king’s power, which intensify the conflicts between the monarch andhis baronsHenry the 2nd came into power and become the first king of Plantagenet (金雀花)dynasty.Measures：force the foreign mercenaries to leave the England, demolish the illegal castles built by the barons, abolish the land tax based on hidecreate the circuit courts and the jury systemthe king’s court have the right to try the guilty clerkEffect:Strengthen the feudal orderBring a period of security and prosperityThe course of the form was interrupted and left unfinished.The Great CharterWhen the king John ruled the England, the baronsforce the king to sign and swear to observe the Great Charter.The Great Charter ,or the Magna Charter is very critical in English history and it’s called the corner stone of English history.The content :The king must observe the rights of his vessels.No tax should be imposed without the consent of the Great Council.No free man will be imprisoned or banished without being convicted by a juryThe merchants are allowed to move about freely.Birth of the Parliament:Simon de Montfort(西蒙德孟福尔)brings changes to the organization of the Great Council.2citizens from a flourishing town,2 knights from each county can join the Great Council.Changed the name into Parliament.In the early years, Parliament met only by the king’s invitation. It’s role was to offer someadvice.Significance :The Parliament marked the decline of feudalism and the rise of the Bourgeoisie.The hundred year’s warReason:The conflict between these two countries over foreign markets and territory led to the Hundred Years' War.Definition :A series armed international conflicts over a116-year period between the England and France.Joan of arcThe effect:England lost its territory on the continent.The ruling Norman began to regard England as their homeEnglish replaced French and became the official language again.Gunpowder was used in the wars,Prepare the soil for the growth of the middle class Sped up the decline of the feudalism.Salutary to commercial development.The bourgeoisie became more powerfulThe PlagueEpidemic disease spread by rat fleasStart from Italy, then spread to France, German and England without warning and cure.Believed to be originated in Asia.Effect:Caused a large number of population lossBrought about economic disruption and bad influence on the development of the culture.(universities closed …)give occasion to the peasants uprising.The Peasants UprisingCauses:The natural disasters and social problemsDue to the lack of labor, the peasants are demanding better living condition and higher wagesThe first labor law, the Statute of Laborers, prohibited laborers from asking for more wages. Time and place:In Essex and Kent ,1381,and was led by Wat Tyler and Jack StrawThe king used a scam and suppressed the uprising, ultimately, the uprising was failedEffect :The poll tax was abolishedThe serf system was brought to an end in England afterwards.The Wars of the RosesDefinition :A series of civil wars fought between the house of Lancaster(red rose) and the house of York（white rose）.Major Causes:The dispute on the succession of the crownThe unpopular domination reign of Henry the 6th. Consequence :Both sides at war are the mounted knights and theirentouragesGive birth to the strong and centralized Tudor dynastyInfluence :Sped up the decline of the feudalism in England.Section 8:The English Civil War/RevolutionBriefing :A series of armed conflicts and political games between Parliamentarians and Royalist.Back Ground:The Wars of Roses weaken the feudal nobles,The peasants ,as a result of the peasant uprising and the Enclosure ,the free labors composed a new class------the proletariat (the peasants no longer have their lands)England further develop its foreign trade and expansion ,aiming to achieve its “primitive accumulation of capital”Meanwhile，the bourgeois ideology and morality is forming up.During the Elizabeth’s reign the relation between monarch and bourgeoisie was strained, the latter required the freedom of speechJames the first:Preach the Divine Right of KingsDied because of disease.Charles the first:The son of James the first.Advocate the Divine right of kings(君权神授) Provoked the conflicts between the Catholicism and Puritanism(The Bishops’ War---- enforce Anglican reforms onto Scottish church and was rejected,-----war ,long parliament which sowed the seeds for the civil war).Initiated the British Civil (rose his standard) War between Parliamentarian and Royalist.The First British War:Cause :The appearance of the Long Term Parliament.The tension between the king and Parliament Charles decided to arrest 5members of Parliament. Charles initiated the war by rising his standard in Nottingham .Result :Charles was failed and was capturedThe Second Civil War:Process:Although captured ,the king Charles the first ultimately escaped and negotiated new agreement withScots.The agreement led to the “second civil war”. but eventually, the Royalists were defeated by Parliamentarians.Other revolts were put down by Oliver Cromwell.The army marched on the parliament and conducted the “Pride’s Purge” Finally, the king was charged with high treason ,being “tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy” and executed.The third Civil war:Rebellion:Ireland(treaty) and Scotland agreed to support Charles the second.Process:Cromwell was unable to stop Charles the second, hecrowned a new king. Afterwards, Charles the 2nd fled to France, ended up the war.Significance:Overthrew feudal system in England.Pave the way for the development of capitalist production.Regarded as the beginning of the modern world history.Oliver Cromwell:Established the commonwealth of EnglandDestroyed the feudal system.Became the Lord ProtectorThe restoration :AnarchyIncompetent leader RichardFactionsGeneral George Monck marched south with his army from Scotland.Charles the 2nd was crowned the king of England, which was known as English Restoration.After the restoration, the parliament factions become two parties(later becoming the Tory and Whig)The Glorious Revolution:James the 2nd intended to restore the Roman Catholicism in England and conduct religious persecutionsTories and some of the Whigs decide to replace James the 2nd with his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange(奥兰治亲王威廉)---both were protestants Finally ,James the second abdicatedMary II and William III jointly succeeded to the throne of EnglandSignificance:Regarded as the real beginning of constitutional monarchy ,which means the parliament become thesource of supreme power instead of the king Parliament pass the “Act of Union”and the name of Great Britain was officially adopted and came into use.Section 9:The Industrial Revolution Definition : the invention and appliance of various machines and British urbanization.Condition :The accomplished “primitive accumulation of capital” through plunder and expansion.The enclosure movement provide free labor.The church was deprived of their land and privilege The notorious triangular trade.Favorable geographical position for tradeHuge merchant marine.Pragmatism and mercantilismProtestant “work ethic” and laissez-faire(放任政策)People s’ adventure spiritProcess:The Industrial Revolution first started in textile industry.Iconic inventions:Flying shuttle,carding machine（梳棉机） ,spinning jenny,water framethe steam engine. Watt steam engine was first used to pump water from coal mine.First steam locomotive.(marked the new stage of Industrial Revolution).Achievements of IR:Thousands of miles of canalsA complete railway system.Steam boats and the largest commercial fleet made Great Britain a strong sea power.Social and Political effect:1.Britain became the “workshop of the world”.2.The Britain ‘s social structure was simplified: The middle class and proletariat emerged,The noble class could no longer compete with the middle class.The conflicts between proletariat and capitalism became the biggest social problem in Britain.The small farmers disappeared3.The centre of economy shifted to the central area and northern England.Big cities sprang up.Adam Smith：An evolutionary approach to guide the economy. Advocate the “invisible hand”and laissez-fair policy.The Chartist Movements:A radical campaign for parliament reform of the inequities.Effects :failed because of its weak and divided leadership, it did not have a political party to be a leader.started the history of the workers’ struggle for liberation.Queen Victoria（1819-1901） :Presiding the Industrial revolution and the expansion of the British Empire overseas.Value of the times: (emphasized) prudish gentility and repression.Section 10:The Rise and Fall of the British Empire.（the empire on which the sun never sets）Briefing :During the long 18 century, British rose to a dominant position in the world and became the first country to start Industrial Revolution.The mighty middle class provided a strong platform for settlement and commerce.Growth of the overseas empire:Prerequisite :Pioneering marine policy of king Henry the 7th . Establishment of the modern merchant marine system. Mercantile institution(重商主义体系)Henry the 8th and the rise of the Royal Navy:King Henry the 8th founded the modern English navy.The Elizabeth eraSir Francis Drake(弗朗西斯-德雷克)Circumnavigated the Globe（环游地球，England grew the interest outside the Europe.Established First colony in NewfoundlandWas seen as the formation of the British Empire England extend its influence overseas and consolidate its political development at home.Expend the empire by wars and colonization:First overseas colony Newfoundland.Successively establish colonies in North America, Australia and New Zealand.Free trade and“informal empire”The “salutary neglects”provoke the American Independence war. The period of first British Empire was over.British Empire in AsiaBritish East India company occupied nearly the whole of India.Later on Ceylon(锡兰，今斯里兰卡)and Burma (缅甸) was conquered .Initiated Opium war against China and prevailed .Break down of the Pax Britannica(英国强权下的盛世) The deterioration in the 19th century:Competition from other countries such as Germany and United States.The loss of the foreign market.Britain and the New Imperialism:New imperialism ：the European colonial expansion between 1870s and the outbreak of the first world war. Pursuit :“empire for empire’s sake” desire for territory(appearance of the racial superiority)Later on Britain conduct Home rule in its white settler coloniesThe impact of first world war:Millions of casualties and heavy economy strain (liquidated assets).(Allied power)The heavy cost of war destroy it’s capacity to maintain its vast empire.Its international standing was declining and replaced by the U.SDeclining foreign trade.Decolonization:Reasons:The rising anti-colonial nationalism movementschallenge the power of the empire.The end of the empire started with the outbreak of the World War Two and India independence movements(leader---mahatma Gandhi)The end of the British Empire:Reason: Due to the impact of the world war two and Economic crisis in1947,later on, Britain abjured its attempt to be a first-rank power.。
英美概况知识点总结一、地理位置英国位于欧洲西北部，由大不列颠岛和北爱尔兰岛两大部分组成，与法国相隔英吉利海峡。
美国则位于北美洲，南临墨西哥湾，东隔大西洋与非洲相望。
二、历史背景1. 英国历史悠久，是一个大英帝国时代曾经占领过大片海外领土的国家，也是现今英联邦的成员国。
2. 美国则是一个相对较新的国家，于1776年宣布独立，随后在19世纪迅速扩张，成为世界上最强大的国家之一。
三、社会制度1. 英国为君主立宪制国家，现为君主立宪制议会民主制国家。
2. 美国为联邦制共和国家，政府分为三个独立的机构，即行政、立法和司法。
四、宗教1. 英国是一个多元宗教国家，主要宗教包括英国国教（基督教）、天主教和伊斯兰教等。
2. 美国宗教信仰自由，主要宗教包括基督教、天主教、犹太教、伊斯兰教、佛教等。
五、文化1. 英国文化深厚，以莎士比亚、狄更斯等文学巨匠为代表，拥有世界上最古老的大学之一牛津大学。
2. 美国文化年轻活力，是全球娱乐文化的重要输出国，好莱坞产出大量世界级电影和音乐。
六、教育1. 英国的教育体系包括小学、中学、大学等，素有“教育王国”的美誉。
2. 美国教育分为幼儿园、小学、中学、大学等，大学中拥有世界一流的学府如哈佛大学、斯坦福大学等。
七、科技1. 英国拥有世界领先的科学研究机构和科技企业，如剑桥大学的科研实力备受赞誉。
2. 美国在科技领域有世界上最杰出的创新能力和科研机构，硅谷更是全球IT行业的中心。
八、经济1. 英国是一个高度发达的资本主义经济体系，金融业、制造业、服务业是主要支柱。
2. 美国是世界上最大的经济体，以先进的科技和创新，拥有全球范围内强大的影响力。
九、旅游景点1. 英国拥有众多著名旅游景点，如大本钟、温莎城堡、巨石阵等。
2. 美国也有众多旅游胜地，如纽约时代广场、大峡谷、好莱坞等。
十、社会福利1. 英国实行普遍医疗保险制度，居民享受国家提供的医疗服务。
2. 美国的医疗保险制度相对复杂，没有普遍的国家医疗保健计划。
英美概况知识点Part 1.英国的全称为：The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland，这就是英国的英文全称，有时候也可以称：The United Kingdom。
一．英国四部分是英格兰（England），首都伦敦(London)，英格兰是英国面积最大、人口最多、经济最发达的一个部分。
（England is the largest, most populous and most economically developed part of Britain.）苏格兰（Scotland），首都爱丁堡(Edingburgh)威尔士（Wales），首都卡迪夫(Cadiff)北爱尔兰（Northern Ireland）、首都贝尔法斯特（Belfast）。
英国人凯尔特人(凯尔特人)作为英国本土人。
凯尔特部落从公元前750年左右从欧洲穿越而来。
C、凯尔特部落的盖尔人主要定居在北方（现代苏格兰人和爱尔兰人的祖先）。
凯尔特人的英国人。
部落（现代威尔士人的祖先），生活在原始社会。
Celts(凯尔特人)taken_as the nativeșin Britain. The Celtic tribes crossed from Europe from about 750B. C. the Gaels of the Celtic tribes mainly settled in the north (the modern Scottish and Irish's ancestors). the Britons of the Celtic . tribes(the modern Welsh's ancestors ),living in primitivesociety.盎格鲁撒克逊人英国人的祖先。
盎格鲁人、撒克逊人和朱特人属于日耳曼部落，大约在5世纪来到英国。
1066-Battle of Hastings黑斯廷斯战役William the Conqueror征服者威廉1076-Revolt of the Earls伯爵的反抗1086-Landholders swear loyalty to William the Conqueror封臣发誓效忠征服者威廉As fast as the Conqueror subjugated 征服the territory领土he confiscated 没收the lands of those who had fought against him, and either took them himself or distributed them among his followers, who held them in feudal tenure 占有as vassals of the king. Some of the English, in all probability not a large number, who had neither fought against him nor revolted反叛, he allowed to redeem 赎回their lands and to hold them from him by the same tenure as before. Thus, for the complicated复杂的land system of the English was substituted取代a perfectly simple arrangement according to which all land was held feudally 如封建地of the king. In a great meeting held at Salisbury索尔兹伯里in 1086 William summoned 召集all the landholders封臣and made them swear allegiance 效忠to him as chief lord and king.' Thus he laid down建立the rule that every landholder封建主in England, whosesoever vassal 封臣he might be, owed allegiance first to the king and then to his own lord, and that, therefore, no English vassal might follow his lord against his king. In so doing William violated 违反the recognized feudalprinciple公认的领地原则that a vassal owed allegiance to his immediate lord only.Mag na Carta 大宪章Henry III亨利三世1315-1322Great European Famine also 1348-Black Death欧洲大饥荒，黑死病The Hundred Year s’ War百年大战The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts wagedbackground of the Hundred Years War went as far back as to the reign of William the Conqueror. When William the Conqueror became king in 1066 after his victory at the Battle of Hastings, he united England with Normandy in France. William ruled both as his own.In 1328, Charles IV of France died. Charles did not have any sons to take over his land and all his brothers were dead. He did have a sister called Isabella. She was the mother of Edward III and Edward believed that because of this, he should be king of France. However, the French decided that a cousin of Charles, Philip, should be crowned king.By 1337 Edward was ready to fight for what he believed washis and he declared war on Philip.The war is commonly divided into three phases separated by争洛琳的战争 and, which saw the slow decline衰落of English fortunes 机遇after the appearanceJohn Wyclif church reformer约翰威克里夫Richard II 理查德二世Henry IV亨利四世Henry V战神亨利五世Henry V (16 September 1386 – 31 August 1422[1][2]) was King of England from 1413 until his death at the age of 35 in 1422. He was the second English monarch君主who came from the House of Lancaster兰卡斯特家族.After military experience fighting various lords 上院议员who rebelled反叛against his father, Henry IV, Henry came into political conflict with the increasingly ill king. After his father's death, Henry rapidly assumed假定control of the country and embarked着手on war with France. From an unassuming 不出风头的start, his military successes in the Hundred Years' War, culminating 告终with his famous victory at the Battle of Agincourt亚金科特战役,saw him come close to conquering France. After months of negotiation 谈判with Charles VI of France, the Treaty of Troyes特鲁瓦条约recognised Henry V as regent摄政王and heir-apparent 法定继承人to the French throne, and he was subsequently随后married to Charles's daughter, Catherine of Valois卢瓦卢的凯瑟琳. Following Henry V's sudden and unexpected death in France, he was succeeded by his infant 未成年的son, who reigned as Henry VI.Role in government and conflict with Henry IVThe Welsh 威尔士的revolt反抗of O wain Glyn dŵr absorbed使全神贯注Henry's energies until 1408. Then, as a result of the king's ill health, Henry began to take a wider share in politics. From January 1410, helped by his uncles Henry and Thomas Beaufort伯福特— legitimated合法的sons of John of Gaunt冈特的约翰— he had practical control of the government.Both in foreign and domestic国内的policy he differed from the king, who in November 1411 discharged排出the prince 王子from the council理事会. The quarrel of father and son was political only, though it is probable that the Beau forts had discussed the abdication退位of Henry IV, and their opponents 对手certainly endeavored 努力to defame 诽谤the prince.Queen Elizabeth I(1558)Francis Drake (1580) 法兰西斯.德瑞克Spanish Armada 无敌舰队William ShakespeareWilliam Shakespeare (26 April 1564–23 April 1616)was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent 优秀的dramatist.He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon"埃文河的吟游诗人.His extant 显著的works, including some collaborations合作, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, two epitaphs墓志铭on a man named John Combe库姆, one epitaph on Elias James以利亚詹姆斯, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon 史特拉福. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway安妮海瑟薇, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet哈姆奈特 and Judith朱迪思. Between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men宫廷大臣剧团, later known as the King's Men. He appears to have retired toStratford around 1613 at age 49, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive, and there has been considerable重要的speculation 推测about such matters as his physical appearance,sexuality, religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others.Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were mainly comedies and histories, genres流派he raised to the peak of sophistication诡辩and artistry 艺术性by the end of the 16th century. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, King Lear, Othello奥赛罗, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest works in the English language. In his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies悲喜剧, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights.Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy准确性during his lifetime. In 1623, John Heminges赫名斯and Henry Condell康德尔, two friends and fellow actors of Shakespeare, published the First Folio第一对开本, a collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare's. It was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson本琼生, in which Shakespeare is hailed致敬, presciently 有先见, as "not of an age, but for all time."Shakespeare was a respected poet and playwright in his own day, but his reputation did not rise to its present heights until the 19th century. The Romantics浪漫主义者, in particular, acclaimed 欢呼Shakespeare's genius, and the Victorians worship-ped Shakespeare with a reverence崇敬that George Bernard Shaw乔治萧伯纳called "bardolatry"莎士比亚崇拜.In the 20th century, his work was repeatedly adopted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance. His plays remain highly popular today and are constantly studied, performed, and reinterpreted重新解释in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world.Scientific Revolution: Galileo,Descartes笛卡尔, Kepler, Bacon,NewtonThe protestant Reformation( Martin Luther)新教改革The Glorious Revolution1688; English Bill of Rights1689The Enlightenment启蒙运动:Thomas Hobbes, John LockeThe Enlightenment is the period in the history of western thought and culture, stretching 延伸roughly from the mid-decades of the seventeenth century through the eighteenth century, characterized以.为特点by dramatic引人注目的revolutions in science, philosophy, society and politics; these revolutions swept away the medieval world-view中世纪的世界观and ushered引座员in our modern western world. The Enlightenment begins with the scientific revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.Two English intellectuals知识分子, mathematician Thomas Hobbes霍布斯(1588–1679) and philosopher John Locke 约翰洛克(1632–1704), were among the first to use a scientific approach to study man and his society. As a mathematician, Hobbes’ political theory was an effort to make politics into an exact science like geometry几何学. Hobbes w as an admirer of Galileo’s studies of motion, and attempted to apply Galileo’s scientific principles to social theory.The philosopher John Locke was himself a friend of Sir Isaac 艾萨克牛顿Newton, and was influenced by Newton’s description of the universe as a vast machine operating by precise严格的, unvarying 不变的scientific laws. Locke thought deeply about the nature of economics, psychology and religion, as well as politics. Both men lived through upheavals剧变of seventeenth-century English politics, and witnessed the establishment确立of limited monarchy君主政治and Parliamentary议会的rule. Hobbes had witnessed the bloody 血腥的execution死刑of King Charles I in 1649, as the culmination 高潮of England’s bitter Civil War (1642–1649). As tutor 导师to the young heir-apparent 法定继承人Charles II, he fled 逃走with the royal household to France after theKing’s execution. Locke, on the other hand, although aligned 结盟with the political opposition to the Stuarts斯图亚特王室and exiled 放逐in 1683, was successful in government circles upon his return to England after 1688. He witnessed the so-called ―Glorious Revolution‖ of 1689, in which William and Mary came to the throne of England, replacing the monarch James II almost without bloodshed.Hobbes’s and Locke’s divergent 相异的views of human nature reflect their different personal experiences. While Hobbes concluded that the nature of humans was competitive, that fear was their most powerful motive for action, and that their natural state was one of war, Locke saw men living in a state of nature which was basically reasonable and cooperative.Hobbes’s pessimistic悲观的view of human nature did not appeal to most Enlightenment thinkers: Locke’s view of humankind as essentially reasonable and benevolent仁慈的accorded符合much better with the optimism of the age, and seemed to justify it. But the two English political theorists had pointed the way to a new, rationalist理性主义者approach to the problems of government and society. They showed that the laws of science might have their counterpart 副本in other laws that governed social and politicalbehavior. The scientific method could be applied even to intractable 棘手的questions of politics.。
