Chapter 7： Historical Linguistics
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages.
2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation.
3. The history of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English.
4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe.
5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases.
6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it.
7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language.
8. In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language.
9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds.
10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.
11. In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the head noun in case, number and gender.
12. The word order of Modern English is more variable than that of Old English.
13. Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words.
14. “Smog” is a word formed by the word-forming process called acronymy.
15. “fridge” is a word formed b y abbreviation.
16. Modern linguists are able to provide a consistent account for the exact causes of all types of language change.
17. Sound assimilation may bring about the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence, as in the case of change of “Engla-land” to “England”.
18. Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.
19. Language change is always a change towards the simplification of language rules
20. The way children acquire the language is one of the causes for language change.
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
21. H________ linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.
22. The historical study of language is a d________ study of
language rather than a synchronic study.
23. European R________ Movement separates the period of Middle English from that of modern English.
24. An important set of extensive sound changes, which affected 7 long or tense vowels and which led to one of the major discrepancies between phonemic representations of words and morphemes at the end of the Middle English Period, is known as the Great V_______ Shift.
25. A_______ involves the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.
26. A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as e__________.
27. The three sets of consonant shifts that Grimm discovered became known collectively as Grimm s L ____.
28. Sound change as a result of sound movement, known as m_______, involves a reversal in position of two adjoining sound segments. 29. B________ is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffixes of exiting words.
30. Semantic b________ refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation.
31. The original form of a language family that has ceased to exist is called the p_________.
32. Sound a________ refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In this process, successive sounds are made identical or similar to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation.
33. In order to reduce the exceptional or irregular morphemes, speakers of a particular language may borrow a rule from one part of the grammar and apply it generally. This phenomenon is called i_________ borrowing.
34. By identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages, historical linguists reconstruct the proto form in the common ancestral language. This process is called c________ reconstruction.
35. The m ____ rule of adjective agreement has been lost from English.
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
36. Historical linguistics explores ________________.
A. the nature of language change
B. the causes that lead to language change
C. the relationship between languages
D. all of the above
37. Language change is ______________.
A. universal, continuous and ,to a large extent, regular and
systematic
B. continuous, regular, systematic, but not universal
C. universal, continuous, but not regular and systematic
D. always regular and systematic, but not universal and continuous
38. Modern English period starts roughly _____________.
A. from 449 to 1100
B. from 1500 to the present
39. Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when _________.
A. the Norman French invaders under William the Conqueror arrived in
England
B. the printing technology was invented
C. Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe
D. the Celtic people began to inhabit England
40. Middle English was deeply influenced by ___________.
A. Norman French in vocabulary and grammar
B. Greek and Latin because of the European renaissance movement
C. Danish languages because Denmark placed a king on the throne of
England
D. the Celtic people who were the first inhabitants of England
41. Language change is essentially a matter of change ________.
A. in collocations
B. in meaning
C. in grammar
D. in usages
42. In Old and Middle English, both /k/ and /n/ in the word “knight” were pronounced, but in modern English, /k/ in the sound /kn-/ clusters was not pronounced. This phenomenon is known as ________.
A. sound addition
B. sound loss
C. sound shift
D. sound movement
43. A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as _____.
A. apocope
B. epenthesis
C. parenthesis
D. antithesis
44. Segment switch of sound positions can be seen in the example of the modern word “ bird” which comes from the old English word “bridd”. The change of the word from “bridd” to “bird” is a cas e of _________.
A. metathesis
B. sound loss
C. sound addition
D. apocope
45. _________ is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.
A. Derivation
B. Blending
C. Compounding
D. Abbreviation
46. “Wife”, which used to refer to any woman, stands for “ a married woman” in modern English. This phenomenon is known as ________.
A. semantic shift
B. semantic broadening
C. semantic elevation
D. semantic narrowing
47. English language belongs to _________.
A. Indo-European Family
B. Sino-Tibetan Family
C. Austronesian Family
D. Afroasiatic Family
48. By analogy to the plural formation of the word “dog-s”, speakers started saying “cows” as the plural of “cow” instead of the earlier plural “kine”. This is the case of _________.
A. elaboration
B. external borrowing
C. sound assimilation
D. internal borrowing
49. Morphologcial changes can involve __________.
A. the loss of morphological rules
B. the addition of morphological rules
C. the alteration of morphological rules
D. all of the above
50. The most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of
________.
A. comparative markers
B. tense markers
C. gender and case markers
D. none of the above
IV. Define the following terms:
51. Apocope 52. Metathesis 53. Derivation
54. back-formation 55. semantic narrowing
56.protolanguage
57. haplology 58. epenthesis 59. Compounding
60. Blending 61. semantic broadening 62. semantic shift 63. Great Vowel Shift 64. acronym 65. sound assimilation
V. Answer the following questions:
66. What is the purpose or significance of the historical study of
language?
67. What are the characteristics of the nature of language change?
68. What are the major periods in the history of English?
69. As language changes over time, the meaning of a word may deviate
from its original denotation. Discuss the major types of semantic
changes.
70. Over the years from Old English period to the Modern English period,
English has undergone some major sound changes. Illustrate these
changes with some examples.
71. What are the most widely-spread morphological changes in the
historical development of English?
72. What are the causes of language change? Discuss them in detail. Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
l.T 2.T 3.T 4.F 5.F 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F
11.T 12.F 13.T 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. T 19. F 20.T
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with
the letter given:
21.Historical 22.diachronic 23.Renaissance
24.Vowel
25.Apocope 26.epenthesis https://www.doczj.com/doc/6b1659348.html,w 28. Metathesis 29.Backformation 30.broadening 31.protolanguage
32.assimilation 33. internal https://www.doczj.com/doc/6b1659348.html,parative 35. morphosyntactic
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice
that can best complete the statement:
36.D 37.A 38.B 39.C 40.A 41.C 42.B 43.B 44.A 45.C
46. D 47.A 48. D 49. D 50. C IV. Define the following terms:
1. Apocope : Apocope is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.
2. Metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis. It involves a reversal in position of two neighbouring sound segments.
3. Derivation: It is a process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems or words.
4. back-formation: It is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word.
5. semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.
6. Protolanguage: It is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.
7. Haplology: It refers to the phenomenon of the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.
8. Epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.
9. Compounding: It is a process of combining two or more than two words into one lexical unit.
10. Blending: It is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.
11. semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation.
62. semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which
a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning.
63. Great Vowel Shift: It is a series of systematic sound change at the end of the Middle English period approximately between 1400 and 1600 in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.
64. Acronym: An acronym is a word created by combining the initials of
a number of words.
65. sound assimilation: Sound assimilation refers to the
physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology.
V. Answer the following questions:
66. What is the purpose or significance of the historical study of
language?
1) Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric
developments in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different languages.
2) The identification of the changes that a particular language has
undergone enables us to reconstruct the linguistic history of that language, and thereby hypothesizes its earlier forms from which
第12章现代语言学理论与流派 12.1 复习笔记 本章要点： 1. The Prague School and Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 布拉格学派与功能句子观 2. The London School and context of situation 伦敦学派与语境观 3. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 韩礼德与系统——功能语法 4. Bloomfield and American Structuralism 布隆菲尔德与美国结构主义 5. Chomsky and Transformational-Generative Grammar 乔姆斯基与转换——生成语法 常考考点： 各流派的代表人物、理论基础、特点、主要观点、重要概念；语言普遍性和人类行为关系等。 本章内容索引：
I. Saussure and modern linguistics II. The Prague School 1. Main points and contribution 2. Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP) 3. Communicative Dynamism (CD) III. The London School 1. Introduction 2. Malinowski’s theories 3. Firth’s theories 4. Halliday and Systemic-Functional Grammar 5. Systemic grammar and Functional grammar (1) Systemic grammar (2) Functional grammar IV. American Structuralism 1. Introduction 2. Three stages of the development V. Transformational-Generative Grammar 1. Introduction 2. The Innateness Hypothesis 3. Generative Grammar 4. Stage of development of TG Grammar 5. Main features of TG Grammar
英语专业考研语言学复习题附答案 Chapter I Introduction I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. 8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. 9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. 11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. 12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. 14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. 15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. 16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. 18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language. 20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. Ch omsky defines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language. https://www.doczj.com/doc/6b1659348.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless
导言 0.1 复习笔记 一、语言学的对象和学科性质 （一）语言学的研究对象 语言学是研究语言的科学，语言是语言学的研究对象。 1．语言现象 语言现象是人类社会普遍具有的现象，它是最早纳入人类研究视野的现象之一。 （1）人类对于世界上的各种自然现象和社会现象的理性认识以及相关的许多抽象观念，是在各个古典文明形成的时期出现的。有关语言的理性思考也是从这一时期开始的。 （2）中国先秦时期的思想家、古希腊的哲学家、古代印度的思想家等，都提出了对语言的一般看法，并且对后人产生了深远影响。这是对语言的最早的理性认识。 2．语言学的发展过程 （1）语言学的三大发源地 在各个文明的发展过程中，古代文化典籍的传承成为文化发展延续的重要途径。这些政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学等方面的经典著作要得到学习和继承，都需要语言方面的分析和解释。这样，在许多有着悠久历史文化传统的地区都出现了语文学研究，这是语言的系统研究的开始。中国、印度和希腊—罗马在传统语文学的研究上都取得了辉煌成就，是语言学的三大发源地。 （2）语言学三大发源地的成就 ①中国传统语言研究
a．先秦时期已经出现大量的文化典籍，它们所使用的古代书面语体被后人学习继承，称作文言文。直至20世纪初，正式的书面语一直使用这种文言文的形式。 b．中国传统的语言研究主要是围绕解读文言文典籍的需要进行的，主要是分析汉字的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。 ②古代印度语言研究 a．在印度，文化经典主要是宗教典籍，所用的语言是古代的梵语。最初这些经典是靠口耳相传，后来由文字记载下来。 b．古代印度的语言研究主要是对这些宗教经典的解读。古代印度的学者在对语言一般性质的认识以及具体的语音和语法研究等方面都有卓越建树，对世界其他地区的语言研究也产生了深远影响。 ③西欧语言研究 a．古希腊有丰富的文化典籍，语文学非常发达，已经有了系统的语法研究成果。 b．罗马人继承了古希腊的语言研究传统，形成了拉丁语的语法研究体系。 c．西欧各国有一千多年时间在正式的场合都使用古典拉丁语，语言研究主要围绕拉丁语进行，语法、修辞、逻辑成为学校传授的主课，编出了种种语法、词典和读本，逐渐形成了传统的西方语言学。 （二）语言学的学科性质 1．语文学时期的语言研究不是独立的学科
语言学教程笔记 第一章语言学导论 语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。 1. 任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核 心特征。例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作 a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pe n/。 任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。（2）句法层面上的任意性。 （3） 任意性和规约性。 2. 二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成， 每层都有自身的组合规则。话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是 相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产 性。 3. 创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性 和递归性。利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。 4. 移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的 物体、时间或观点。因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而 后者位置距我们非常之远。语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。移位性赋予人 们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化 的语境中。他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。 5. 文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。 6. 互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的 角色是可以随意更换的。 元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考"。所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？
南京师范大学英语语言学考研复试经验 南师英语语言文学下的语言学方向和外应初试和复试考的是一样的，只是进去后的研究方向不同。 楼主初试总分398，排名第二，政治68，日语94，专业一117，专业二119，复试笔试122，面试80，口语82，最后综合排名也是第二。 查分后，对结果不满意的，可以申请复查，但基本不会有变动。 看过17年的题，比16年略微简单点，所以分数线应该会偏高一点。去年外应最高分402，然后就是398，397，393，389。英语语言文学初试最高399，录取的最低为373。 这个复试线基本就是按照大家的成绩来确定的(当然，最后扩招的话，就另当别论了。我们去年是扩招了，今年不清楚。上课到现在，老师也没给我们透露过，这样也好，对大家都公平)。去年是1:1.2的比例确定进复试名额的，比如总共招5个人，那么进复试的有6个人。这个比例还算好的。我闺蜜，去年考陕师大，1:2的比例，对半刷，比南师狠。 那么重点来了，去年，我们可以给学长(南师研究生贴吧里有学长可以帮忙查排名，具体帖子自己去找)发邮件，查排名，然后按照1:1.2的比例，结合招生官网的录取人数，就可以算出来自己能不能进复试。南师不给排名，搞得很多分数处于边缘的同学很纠结，所以知道排名还是很有用的。貌似有人说今年学长不干了，这个我就不清楚了，有心的同学自己去贴吧找找看。 群 那么如果真的不能通过学长查了，那就得靠你们自己了。 另外，复试分面试和笔试，具体的复试经验我之前都说过了。
最后的重点来了，语言学方向的同学，不管是外应还是英语语言文学下的语言学，复试的考题和初试不太一样，所以真题是很有价值的。那么真题找谁呢，你懂的。某号，就无散领斯伊斯无就。如果辨别不出来这个号，那我也无能为力了。最后祝大家好运。在美丽的随园校区等大家来。 特别要说的是，复试的压力绝对在初试之上。总共名额9个，推免推了5个，留给我们这些参加考试的就只有4个名额了。而且复试全考专业课，考的不仅细，就题目本身来说，较初试还上升了一个难度，挺有挑战性的。最最关键的，它超钢，会考到其他书里的东西。所以，真题是极其有价值的。当时就是买了去年考上的学姐的复试资料。南师复试还是比较公平的，以实力说话，而且复试也绝不是走过场，你要付出比初试更大的努力。楼主当时准备复试，前后差不多一个月，把戴的书过了3遍，买的资料过了2～3遍，时间紧，任务重，压力大，就这么熬过了3月份，最终结果很欣慰，笔试122。另外，楼主每天会跟读一会儿新概念2，因为面试也是很重要的。 以上内容为仙林南师大考研网整理的英语语言文学考研知识点，如果同学还想获得更多英语语言文学考研资料，可以加入我们的南京师范大学考研复试交流群还可获得超强院校专业信息、每日打卡监督学习、研究生学姐答疑，不定期奖励活动等。
Chapter 1 What is language? [A] The origins of language Some speculations of the origins of language: ①The divine source The basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language. Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all. ②The natural-sound source The bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them. The “Yo-heave-ho” theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds. Onomatopoeic sounds ③The oral-gesture source It is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication. The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from
语言学的资料很少，看完书后想找些习题或往年试题做做，可以起到练兵，巩固所看书本知识的作用。我收集了一些高校语言学的往年试题供大家参考，讨论，交流一下做题的感受，也希望大家可以把自己所考学校的往年试题发表在上面，给大家一起讨论。 1 One of the main features of our human language is arbitrariness .Can you briefly explain what is this feature refers to ? Give examples if necessary(10 points). < 北师大2003年试题） 2 In english we can describe a story as "a successful story" or "a success story ".Do you think they mean the same ? Please explain and give your reasons(10 points) ,< 同上》 3 Expain the following terms ,giving examples where necessary.(50 points) <中山2003》 design feature macrolinguistics vowel minimal pair folk etymology aspect anopho r error analysisr metaphor 4 Language can change through blending ,metanalysis ,back-formation, analogical creation and borrowing.Give two english words for each of them ( 5 points) 清华 2000年试题 5 Answer the following question briefly.clearly,grammatically and correctly.(10 Points ) 湖南师大2003年 What is it wrong to assume that the meaning of a sentence is the sum of the meaning of the words which compose it ? 7 Define the following terms.(10 points) 中国海洋大学1999 Phoneme ,consonant,morpheme,lexicon,syntax,endocentric construction,semantics,hyponymy ,language ,design feature 8 Define the following terms .(20 points) 苏州大学1997 allophone morpheme assimilation internal authority interlanguage phatic communion closed-class word government semantica triangic lingua franca
I. Fill in the blanks. 1. The features that define our human languages can be call ed ______ features. (北二外2006研) 2. Linguistics is usually defined as the ______study of language. (北二外2003研) 3. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of______ communication. 4. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually ter med______ 5. Linguistics is the scientific study of______. 6. Modern linguistic is______ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe. 7. One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of ______ over writing. 8. The branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of a language is called ______. (北二外2003研) 9. The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words is called______ . (北二外2004研) 10. ______mainly studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. (北二外2005研) 11. Semantics and ______investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning. (北二外2007研) 12. In linguistics, ______ refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation as sentence. (中山大学2008研) 13. ______can be defined as the study of language in use. Sociolinguistics, on the other hand, attempts to show the relationship between language and society. 14. The branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of sentence is called _______. (北二外2008研) 15. Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual ph enomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as and . The former refers to the abstract linguistic linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and the latter is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or through writing. (人大2006研) 16. The description of a language as it changes through time is a ______ study. 17. Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s______. 18. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is ______ and parole. The former is the French word for “language”,which is the abstract knowledge necessary for s peaking，listening， writing and reading. The latter is concerned about the actual use of language by peop le in speech or writing. Parole is more variable and may change according to contextu al factors. 19. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is and performance. (人大2006研) 20. Chomsky initiated the distinction between ______ and performances. (北二外2007研) II. Multiple Choice 1.Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature? (大连外国语学院 2008研) A. Arbitrariness B. Convention C. Duality of the following words is entirely arbitrary? (西安交大2008研) A. tree B. crash C. typewriter D. bang
语言学考研笔记整理 一、语言和语言学 1．语言的本质 （1）自然属性：语言从本质上来说是一套符号系统。 （2）社会属性：是人类最重要的交际工具。 （3）心理属性：是人类进行思维的工具。 语言的自然属性从本质上来说是一套符号系统。 2．什么是符号？语言符号和其它符号的不同特点。 符号：用甲事物指代乙事物，甲即乙的符号。 语言符号的特点：①有声的；②成系统的；③分层次的装置，语音→音素→音节→语素→词；④音义结合是任意的，是约定俗成的（不可论证，无理据）；⑤线条性：语言符号在输出时是一个接一个的，不能全盘端出。 语言符号与客观事物的关系。 3．语言最基本的社会功能：交际功能。 文字：是在语言的基础上产生的，是记录语言的书写符号。 符号：是形式和内容（意义）的统一体。 （1）语言符号的形式：声音（语音）是语言的物质外壳，听觉可感知。 （2）语言符号的内容：意义（语义）是人们对现实现象的概括反映。 （99年填空） 4．语言符号的特点：①任意性和强制性；②线条性；③系统性。 人的语言和动物语言有何不同？ 简要说明语言符号的任意性和强制性。 答：①任意性：语言符号的音与义之间没有必然的、本质的联系，它们的结合是由社会“约定俗成”的。表现：某种具体语言的音义结合关系；形成人类语言多样性的一个重要原因。②强制性：符号的任意性知识是就创制符号时的情形说的。符号一旦进入交际，也就是某一语音形式与某一意义结合起来，表示某一特定的现实现象以后，它对使用它的社会成员来说就具有了强制性。任何人不能借口任意性而随意改变音义之间的结合关系。符号的音义结合是社会约定俗成的，它们之间的关系改变也要由社会来决定。
Linguistics Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 1.4 Origin of language 1. The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. 2. The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. 3. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which
语言学纲要》练习题参考答案 导言部分 （一）名词解释 1 ?语言：语言是一个音义结合的符号系统，是人类独有的、最重要的交际工具，同时也是思维工具。 2 ?语言学：语言学是以人类语言作为研究对象的学科，研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展 及其在社会生活中的运用以及语言研究成果的应用问题，等等。分理论语言学和应用语言 学两个领域。 3 ?语文学：人类最早的语言研究是从解释古代文献开始的，是为了研究哲学、历史和文学 而研究语言的。我们把这种依附于其他学科存在的语言研究成为语文学。 4?小学”：在中国古代，小学先从教授字的形（六书）、音、义开始，就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。小学一直是经学的一部分，包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。5?理论语言学：普通语言学的一个部分，与应用语言学相对。主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为主要的研究对象。 （二）填空 1 ?古印度、古代中国、古希腊具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。 2?文言是我国古代的书面语，用它写成的文章称为文言文。 3 ?文字学、音韵学、训诂学是我国传统的语文学。 4 ?研究语言的结构，主要是研究语音、词汇、语法三个部分。 5 ?运用语言传递信息的过程，可以分为编码、发送、传递、接收、解码五个阶段。 第一章语言的社会功能
一、名词解释 1. 语言的两个有限 任何一种语言都是一个音义结合的符号系统，其中作为基本符号的语素和词在数量上是有 限的，把语素或词组合起来构成词组或句子的规则也是有限的。语言的这两个有限性是区 别言语活动的基本特征。 2. 言语活动的两个无限 言语活动是以语言为工具展开的交际或思维活动，其中作为这个活动的最基本的单位一- 句子，在理论上可以是无限长的，在数量上可以是是无限多的。 3. 大脑左右半球分工 人类大脑左右半球分工不同，左脑主管语言、逻辑、书写及右侧肢体运动，而右脑主管色彩、空间感、节奏和左侧肢体运动。大脑两半球分工是人类特有的，但出生婴儿大脑两半球没有分工。 4. 非语言交际工具或副语言交际工具 人们在运用语言进行交际的时候，不但动嘴，而且脸部的表情、手的动作、乃至整个躯体的姿态等非语言的东西也都参加进来。我们这些非语言的交际工具称为副语言交际工具。副语言交际工具的使用范围非常有限，只能起辅助性的交际作用，以补充语言交际的某些 不足。 5. 辅助性交际工具 指的文字、旗语、电报代码等在语言的基础上产生的交际工具。这些交际工具若离开语言 就不能独立存在。其特点是：都有特殊的服务领域，使用的范围相当狭窄。
Chapter 1 Introduction Teaching objectives To define language and its defining features ◆To distinguish the distinctive terms in linguistics ◆To master functions of language Teaching difficulties 3 origins 4 scholars’ viewpoints 5 defining features 6 distinctive terms 7 functions of language What is language? Sapir’s definition (1921) “Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols 语言是人类所独有的，用任意创造出来的符号交流思想、感情和愿望的非本能的方法。——撒皮尔，1921 Hall’s definition (1968) Language is “the institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.” 语言是人们通过惯用的任意口头—听觉符号进行交际 和互动的惯例。——霍尔，1968 Chomsky’s definition (1957) “From now on I will consider language to be a set of (finite or infinite) sentence, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.” 从现在起，我将语言看作是一系列（有限的或无限的）句子，每个句子的长度有限，并由有限的成分组合而成。——乔姆斯基，1968 许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统. 当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介; 当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具; 当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体. Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols Used for human communication. 语言是一个用于人类交际的、具有任意性的语音符号系统。 The design/defining features (识别性特征) Arbitrariness （任意性） Productivity/Creativity（创造性） Duality （双重性） Displacement （空间移位性） Cultural transmission（文化传递） Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
[考研类试卷]英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编20 一、填空题 1 As the lexical words carry the main content of a language while the grammatical ones serve to link its different parts together, the lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones______. (中山大学2008研) 2 In traditional grammar, ______is the only word class which can function as a substitute for another item. (中山大学2006研) 3 In terms of the meaning expressed by words, they can be classified into______words and ______words. (南开大学2007研) 4 The______is the minimal distinctive unit in grammar, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether lexical or grammatical. (北二外2008研) 5 There are two fields of morphology: the study of______and the study of______. (人大2006研) 6 A______morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself. (北二外2003研) 7 ______ is a branch of linguistics that studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology. (南开大学2007研) 8 ______is a relatively complex form of compounding in which a new word is formed by joining the initial part of one word and the final part of another word. For example, the English word smog is made from______and______. (人大2006研) 9 Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an______affix from a longer form already in the language. (中山大学2006研) 10 ______is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. It is the minimum free form. (中山大学2005研)