Chapter 7： Historical Linguistics
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages.
2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation.
3. The history of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English.
4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe.
5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases.
6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it.
7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language.
8. In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language.
9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds.
10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes.
11. In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the head noun in case, number and gender.
12. The word order of Modern English is more variable than that of Old English.
13. Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words.
14. “Smog” is a word formed by the word-forming process called acronymy.
15. “fridge” is a word formed b y abbreviation.
16. Modern linguists are able to provide a consistent account for the exact causes of all types of language change.
17. Sound assimilation may bring about the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence, as in the case of change of “Engla-land” to “England”.
18. Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.
19. Language change is always a change towards the simplification of language rules
20. The way children acquire the language is one of the causes for language change.
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:
21. H________ linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.
22. The historical study of language is a d________ study of
language rather than a synchronic study.
23. European R________ Movement separates the period of Middle English from that of modern English.
24. An important set of extensive sound changes, which affected 7 long or tense vowels and which led to one of the major discrepancies between phonemic representations of words and morphemes at the end of the Middle English Period, is known as the Great V_______ Shift.
25. A_______ involves the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.
26. A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as e__________.
27. The three sets of consonant shifts that Grimm discovered became known collectively as Grimm s L ____.
28. Sound change as a result of sound movement, known as m_______, involves a reversal in position of two adjoining sound segments. 29. B________ is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffixes of exiting words.
30. Semantic b________ refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation.
31. The original form of a language family that has ceased to exist is called the p_________.
32. Sound a________ refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In this process, successive sounds are made identical or similar to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation.
33. In order to reduce the exceptional or irregular morphemes, speakers of a particular language may borrow a rule from one part of the grammar and apply it generally. This phenomenon is called i_________ borrowing.
34. By identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages, historical linguists reconstruct the proto form in the common ancestral language. This process is called c________ reconstruction.
35. The m ____ rule of adjective agreement has been lost from English.
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:
36. Historical linguistics explores ________________.
A. the nature of language change
B. the causes that lead to language change
C. the relationship between languages
D. all of the above
37. Language change is ______________.
A. universal, continuous and ,to a large extent, regular and
systematic
B. continuous, regular, systematic, but not universal
C. universal, continuous, but not regular and systematic
D. always regular and systematic, but not universal and continuous
38. Modern English period starts roughly _____________.
A. from 449 to 1100
B. from 1500 to the present
C. from 1100 to the present
D. from 1700 to the present
39. Old English dates back to the mid-fifth century when _________.
A. the Norman French invaders under William the Conqueror arrived in
England
B. the printing technology was invented
C. Anglo-Saxons invaded the British Isles from northern Europe
D. the Celtic people began to inhabit England
40. Middle English was deeply influenced by ___________.
A. Norman French in vocabulary and grammar
B. Greek and Latin because of the European renaissance movement
C. Danish languages because Denmark placed a king on the throne of
England
D. the Celtic people who were the first inhabitants of England
41. Language change is essentially a matter of change ________.
A. in collocations
B. in meaning
C. in grammar
D. in usages
42. In Old and Middle English, both /k/ and /n/ in the word “knight” were pronounced, but in modern English, /k/ in the sound /kn-/ clusters was not pronounced. This phenomenon is known as ________.
A. sound addition
B. sound loss
C. sound shift
D. sound movement
43. A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as _____.
A. apocope
B. epenthesis
C. parenthesis
D. antithesis
44. Segment switch of sound positions can be seen in the example of the modern word “ bird” which comes from the old English word “bridd”. The change of the word from “bridd” to “bird” is a cas e of _________.
A. metathesis
B. sound loss
C. sound addition
D. apocope
45. _________ is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.
A. Derivation
B. Blending
C. Compounding
D. Abbreviation
46. “Wife”, which used to refer to any woman, stands for “ a married woman” in modern English. This phenomenon is known as ________.
A. semantic shift
B. semantic broadening
C. semantic elevation
D. semantic narrowing
47. English language belongs to _________.
A. Indo-European Family
B. Sino-Tibetan Family
C. Austronesian Family
D. Afroasiatic Family
48. By analogy to the plural formation of the word “dog-s”, speakers started saying “cows” as the plural of “cow” instead of the earlier plural “kine”. This is the case of _________.
A. elaboration
B. external borrowing
C. sound assimilation
D. internal borrowing
49. Morphologcial changes can involve __________.
A. the loss of morphological rules
B. the addition of morphological rules
C. the alteration of morphological rules
D. all of the above
50. The most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of
________.
A. comparative markers
B. tense markers
C. gender and case markers
D. none of the above
IV. Define the following terms:
51. Apocope 52. Metathesis 53. Derivation
54. back-formation 55. semantic narrowing
56.protolanguage
57. haplology 58. epenthesis 59. Compounding
60. Blending 61. semantic broadening 62. semantic shift 63. Great Vowel Shift 64. acronym 65. sound assimilation
V. Answer the following questions:
66. What is the purpose or significance of the historical study of
language?
67. What are the characteristics of the nature of language change?
68. What are the major periods in the history of English?
69. As language changes over time, the meaning of a word may deviate
from its original denotation. Discuss the major types of semantic
changes.
70. Over the years from Old English period to the Modern English period,
English has undergone some major sound changes. Illustrate these
changes with some examples.
71. What are the most widely-spread morphological changes in the
historical development of English?
72. What are the causes of language change? Discuss them in detail. Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics
I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:
l.T 2.T 3.T 4.F 5.F 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T 10.F
11.T 12.F 13.T 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. T 19. F 20.T
II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with
the letter given:
21.Historical 22.diachronic 23.Renaissance
24.Vowel
25.Apocope 26.epenthesis https://www.doczj.com/doc/db9708782.html,w 28. Metathesis 29.Backformation 30.broadening 31.protolanguage
32.assimilation 33. internal https://www.doczj.com/doc/db9708782.html,parative 35. morphosyntactic
III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice
that can best complete the statement:
36.D 37.A 38.B 39.C 40.A 41.C 42.B 43.B 44.A 45.C 46. D 47.A 48. D 49. D 50. C
IV. Define the following terms:
1. Apocope : Apocope is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.
2. Metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis. It involves a reversal in position of two neighbouring sound segments.
3. Derivation: It is a process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems or words.
4. back-formation: It is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existing word.
5. semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.
6. Protolanguage: It is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.
7. Haplology: It refers to the phenomenon of the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.
8. Epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.
9. Compounding: It is a process of combining two or more than two words into one lexical unit.
10. Blending: It is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.
11. semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation.
62. semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which
a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related, meaning.
63. Great Vowel Shift: It is a series of systematic sound change at the end of the Middle English period approximately between 1400 and 1600 in the history of English that involved seven long vowels and consequently led to one of the major discrepancies between English pronunciation and its spelling system.
64. Acronym: An acronym is a word created by combining the initials of
a number of words.
65. sound assimilation: Sound assimilation refers to the
physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds are made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology.
V. Answer the following questions:
66. What is the purpose or significance of the historical study of
language?
1) Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric
developments in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language and provide valuable
英语语言文学专业基础 本科目包括英语语言学基础、英美文学基础知识、英语国家概况、英汉互译四部分内容，总分150分，其中英语语言学基础15分，英美文学基础知识70分，英语国家概况15分，英汉互译50分。 I、英语语言学基础（15分） 一、考试要求和内容 该部分主要考查普通语言学的基本概念和基本理论。 二、考试题型 填空题、选择题、判断题、名词解释题。 三、参考书 《新编简明英语语言学教程》，戴炜栋、何兆熊主编，上海外语教育出版社，2002。 II、英美文学基础知识（70分） 一、考试要求 本部分考试旨在考查考生对有关英美文学的基本概念、主要流派、基础知识的理解和掌握情况，以及运用所学的基础理论知识分析、评论简单的文学文本。 二、考试内容 1、英国文学部分 1）古英语诗歌的形成、发展及主要文本。 2）英国中世纪文学的形成和发展、主要诗人及其作品。 3）英国文艺复兴时期的文学：“文艺复兴”产生的历史背景、定义及其主要特征、对英国文学的影响、主要作家及其作品。 4）新古典主义时期（十八世纪）英国文学：启蒙运动形成的原因、启蒙运动的定义、特征及其对英国文学的影响、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 5）浪漫主义时期（十九世纪早期）英国文学：英国浪漫主义文学形成的历史背景、浪漫主义诗歌的主要作家及其作品、浪漫主义小说的主要作家及其作家品、浪漫主义散文的主要作家及其作品。 6）维多利亚时期（十九世纪中后期）英国文学：英国现实主义文学形成发展的历史背景、这一时期主要的作家及其作品。 7）现代时期（二十世纪）英国文学：英国现代主义文学形成的历史背景、现代主义文学的主要流派、这一时期主要作家及其作品。 2、美国文学部分 1）早期的美国文学：清教主义文学形成与发展、早期美国文学的主要作家及其作品。 2）浪漫主义时期的美国文学：早期浪漫主义文学的主要作家及作品、超验主义时期的主要作家几作品、后期浪漫主义文学的主要作家及作品。 3）现实主义时期的美国文学：美国现实主义文学的形成与发展及主要流派、美国现实主义文学与自然主义文学的异同、这一时期主要的作家及作品。 4）现代时期的美国文学：美国现代主义文学的形成与发展及主要流派、战后美国文学的形成与发展、现代时期美国文学的主要作家及作品。 三、考试题型 填空题、单项选择题、匹配题、名词解释题、文本分析题。 四、参考书 《英国文学简史》（新增订本），刘炳善，河南人民出版社，2007； 《美国文学简史》（第2版），常耀信，南开大学出版社，2003 III、英语国家概况（15分） 一、考试要求 本部分考试旨在考查考生对英美国家的地理、历史、政治、文化、社会习俗、宗教群体、价值观念以及该国人民的思想态度和生活方式的掌握情况。 二、考试题型 填空题、判断题、名词解释题。 三、参考书 《英美概况》（上、下册），张奎武主编，吉林科学技术出版社，2003 IV、英汉互译（50分）
英语专业考研语言学复习题附答案 Chapter I Introduction I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general. 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks. 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts. 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole. 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication. 8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. 9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology. 10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences. 11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. 12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings. 13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. 14. Social changes can often bring about language changes. 15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. 16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive. 17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar. 18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time. 19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language. 20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 21. Ch omsky defines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language. https://www.doczj.com/doc/db9708782.html,ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules. 23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless
中国语言学史期末复习资料 一、名词解释 1、雅学：《尔雅》首创按意义分类编排的体例和多种释词方法，对后代词书、类书的 发展产生了很大的影响，后人模仿《尔雅》创作了一系列以“雅”为书名的词书， 如《小尔雅》、《广雅》、《通雅》等，而研究雅书又成为一门学问，被称为“雅学”’。 2、小学：“小学”这个名词最初跟学校有关系的，《大戴礼记》云：“及太子少长，知 妃色，则入于小学。小学者所学之官也”；汉代小学指童蒙识字课，也即语言文字 方面的学问；隋唐时代小学概念扩大；唐代以后“小学”成为文字学、音韵学、训 诂学的总称。 3、《切韵》：隋代陆法言所著，是韵书中影响最大的一部，按四声分卷，共五卷；平 生分上下两卷，上、去、入各一卷，共分韵部193部，记音简略，先释义，后记音。 在汉语音韵学当中，《切韵》被看作是整个语音史的中枢，又是研究历代语音系统 和现代各方言因素的首要研究系统。 4、《广韵》：全名《大宋重修广韵》，陈彭年等奉赦编撰，这是目前保留下来最早的， 最完整的韵书，根据前代《切韵》、《唐韵》等韵书修订而成，共分为五卷（平声分 上下两卷，上、去、入各一卷）分206韵。 5、《干禄字书》：是唐中的一部正字书，作者颜元孙。干禄，求禄位，学好写字就能 求得禄位，是科举时代的字体标准。 6、《说文解字》：由东汉经学家、文字学家许慎所著，简称《说文》，根据文字的形体， 创立540个部首。系统阐述汉字的造字规律，是中国第一部即后代所说的字典。 7、因声求义：是传统的训诂方法之一，是指通过对汉字声音线索的分析来探求字义。 8、字书：字数是研究字形和根据字形以考证音义的书，包括（1）学童识字课本，如 《急就篇》等；（2）解释汉字形体、读音和意义的书，如（汉）许慎的《说文解字》，（梁）顾野王的《玉篇》，（宋）司马光等的《类篇》，（清）《康熙字典》等。（3） 刊正字书的书，如（唐）颜元孙的《干禄字书》，（宋）张有的《复古编》等。 9、秦代三书：李斯《仓颉篇》、赵高《爰历篇》、胡母敬的《博学篇》在历史上被称为 秦代三书。“秦代三书”的社会作用有两个：一是规范了文字书写形体，二是成就 了一部权威的蒙学知识教材。 10语文学：是文字或书面语言的研究，特别注重在文献资料的考证和文字的训诂，这种研究比较零碎和缺乏系统性。 11 语言学：研究对象是语言本身（口语与书面语），研究的结果可以得出科学的、系统 的、全面的语言理论。 12 声调：普通话中有四个声调，通常叫四声即阴平、阳平、上声、去声。 13反切：古代的一种记音方法，用两个字拼出另一个字的读音，取上字之声母，用下字之韵母及声调，拼出被切字的读音。 14 《中原音韵》：元.周德清著，他认为“言语一科，欲作乐府，必正名语，欲正名语 必思中原之音。”根据元朝的北曲用韵，把韵部分析归纳为19韵部。 15 《玉篇》：南朝梁.顾野王撰，是中国古代一部按汉字形体，分部编排的字书，是我 国第一部按部首分门别类的汉字字典。 16 大小徐：指徐铉、徐渭兄弟二人，两人俱精通文字，对说文有着重要的研究，号“大 小徐”。 17 籀文：古汉字中一种书体的名称，西周末和春秋初的文字，字体与秦篆相近，又称 “大篆”、“籀书”。 18 古文：指战国时期盛行于六国的文字。
《英语语言学概论》课程教学大纲 一、课程说明: 《语言学概论》课程是英语专业本科阶段的一门必修课。 《语言学概论》研究始于20 世纪初，其目的是揭示人类深层结构，对语言和语言交际作出客观、科学描述。现已形成了语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等一系分支学科。语言学研究社会学等人文学科的结合逐步形成了社会语言学这样的交叉学科。 对于主修语言学的学生来说，了解语言学的知识和语言理论是完全必要和有益的。 本课程的对象是英语专业高年级学生，在本科阶段第6学期和第7 学期开设。其中第一、二、三、四、五、七、八、十一章为必修，其余章节为选修。 二、教学目的及要求: 本课程的具体要求是：比较全面，系统地了解《语言学概论》这一领域的研究成果，以及一些最主要、最有影响的语言理论和原则，从而加深对人类语言这一人类社会普遍现象的理性认识，并具备一定的运用语言学理论解释语言现象、解决具体语言问题的能力。 本课程是一门知识性比较强的课程。在教学过程中，应重点讲授主要理论、原则、和研究方法，使学生着重掌握基本概念和基本理论，在理解消化的基础上记忆。 本课程的对象是英语专业学生，在讲解过程中原则上采用英语范例，但不排除一些有助于学习者理解的、针对性强的汉语例子。应鼓 励学生结合自己的语言实践提供更多的例子来解释相关理论，以达到理论和实践相结合的目的。
三、教学重点与难点: 本课程的教学重点是语言学的基本知识和基本理论，语音学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学这些语言学的核心内容。 本课程的教学难点是音韵学理论、句法结构和各个语言学流派的理论观点及其局限性。 四、与其它课程的关系: 本课程是一门主干性课程。与其相关的课程，如语法学、词汇学和语体学等都是语言学的分支，属于选修课程。 五、学时与学分: 学时：72学时 学分：4学分 六、教学内容： 第一章绪论 本章主要教学内容: 1．语言学习的意义 2．语言的定义。 3．语言的定义特征 4．语言的起源。 5．语言的功能。 6．语言学的定义。 7．语言学的核心内容。 8．宏观语言学的定义及分支。
中国先秦两汉时期传统语言学与西方希腊罗马时期语言学优点和缺点之比较 【摘要】中国作为世界语言学发源地之一，与印欧语言属于不同的语系，相比较印欧语有其优势和劣势。先秦两汉时期是中国传统语言学的繁荣时期，本文主要从先秦两汉时期《尔雅》、《说文解字》等传统语言学专著看汉语语法词源特点及传统语法特征并与西方语言学做一个对照，借此借鉴西方语言的长处，促进自身对中国传统语言学的认知。 【关键词】语法系统、《尔雅》、《说文解字》 一、总体比较中国先秦两汉时期传统语言学与西方希腊罗马时期语言学特点。 中国是语言学的发源地之一，世界的语言发源地有三。“真正的发源地有三：印度、希腊（罗马继其后）、中国。印度、希腊属印欧语系，同一语系的语言研究，必多共同之处。所以，古典语言学实际上只有两大传统，汉语传统和印欧语传统。这两个传统研究的都是语言，也必有共同之处。第一个共同点是，语言学的发生都跟哲学、逻辑学有关，研究对象是文献语言。第二个共同点是，都与诠释古代经典有关，研究对象是文献语言。由于印欧语和汉语的结构和形式大不相同，这就决定了研究的内容也大不相同。”① 笔者从何九盈先生这里得到些启示，在中国来说先秦时期的《尔雅》是以对事物的解释而成为一本有参考价值的被大多数人所认可的中国传统语言学专著，而《说文解字》则是以对字的构造、来源等进行解释而成为传统语言学中具有里程碑意义的著作。可是它们都不是语法专著，并不能代表着中国在先秦两汉时期有自己的语法体系。 “中国古代有无完整的语法学，说法不一。至少在先秦两汉时代，在隋唐两宋时代，并无语法专著产生。而印度、希腊、罗马的语言研究，语法学一直长盛不衰，这是两大传统最为重要的不同之处。 人所共知，印度大约在公元前4世纪（相当于中国的战国时期）出现了《波你尼经》。‘波你尼经集合了许多语法学家的成果，用了种种方法，终于把全部梵语（包括作为有例外的吠陀语）的语音、语词的构成和变化规则，隐括在三千九百八十三条经句之内，又把这样 ①《中国古代语言学史》何九盈著商务印书馆北京第4版，2013.第32页
《英语语言学概论》答案完整版 考核方法：闭卷考试 时间：100分钟 题型： I. 单项选择(15×1?=15?) II．判断(15×1?=15?) III．填空(10×1?=10?) IV．术语解释(5×2? =10?) V．简答题(4×5? =20?) VI. 分析题（30’） 重点掌握的术语： 1. Linguistics语言学 The study of the nature, structure, and variation of language, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. 2. design features设计特点 They are a series of features which are uniquely a part of human language and unlikely to be found in the communication system of other creatures. They are displacement, productivity, cultural transmission, arbitrariness, discreteness and duality. 3. Displacement移位 Language can be used to refer to things which are in the past, present or future, real or imagined,or in far-away places. 4. Duality二元性 It is generally the case that language is organized at two levels or layers which is known as the physical level and meaningful level simultaneously. 5. Arbitrariness任意性 It is generally the case that there is no …natural? connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. 6. Manner of articulation发音方法 It is the case that we describe the consonant sounds in terms of how they are articulated. 7. Place of articulation发音部位 It focuses on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. 8. articulatory phonetics发音语言学 The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. And the study of how speech sounds are made, or …articulated? is articulatory phonetics. 9. Phonology音系学 The description of the systems and patterns of the speech sounds in a language. 10. Assimilation同化 It is the process when two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or …copied? by the other. For example, the word …can? in the sentence …I can go.?may pronounce as [k??] instead of [k?n] because of the influence of the following sound [g]. 11. Back-formation逆构法，逆序构词 A word of one type is reduced to form another word of different type. For example, the word …donation? first came into use and then the verb …donate? was created from it.
语言学的资料很少，看完书后想找些习题或往年试题做做，可以起到练兵，巩固所看书本知识的作用。我收集了一些高校语言学的往年试题供大家参考，讨论，交流一下做题的感受，也希望大家可以把自己所考学校的往年试题发表在上面，给大家一起讨论。 1 One of the main features of our human language is arbitrariness .Can you briefly explain what is this feature refers to ? Give examples if necessary(10 points). < 北师大2003年试题） 2 In english we can describe a story as "a successful story" or "a success story ".Do you think they mean the same ? Please explain and give your reasons(10 points) ,< 同上》 3 Expain the following terms ,giving examples where necessary.(50 points) <中山2003》 design feature macrolinguistics vowel minimal pair folk etymology aspect anopho r error analysisr metaphor 4 Language can change through blending ,metanalysis ,back-formation, analogical creation and borrowing.Give two english words for each of them ( 5 points) 清华 2000年试题 5 Answer the following question briefly.clearly,grammatically and correctly.(10 Points ) 湖南师大2003年 What is it wrong to assume that the meaning of a sentence is the sum of the meaning of the words which compose it ? 7 Define the following terms.(10 points) 中国海洋大学1999 Phoneme ,consonant,morpheme,lexicon,syntax,endocentric construction,semantics,hyponymy ,language ,design feature 8 Define the following terms .(20 points) 苏州大学1997 allophone morpheme assimilation internal authority interlanguage phatic communion closed-class word government semantica triangic lingua franca
语言学作为一门独立的学科(即为语言本身的目的而研究语言)起始于19世纪上半叶,是随着历史比较语言学的出现而诞生的.在一个多世纪里,语言学的发展,概括起来说,经历了四个主要阶段,可分别以语言研究中先后占据重要地位的历史比较语言学派,结构主义语言学派,转换生成语法学派和功能主义语言 学派的四大学术思潮为其标志. 1历史比较语言学 历史比较语言学指的是采用历史比较的方法对语言之间的系统对应现象进行解释,从而揭示语言的历史渊源,语言的演变规律及其亲缘关系. 历史比较语言学的工作最初是由在东印度公司任职的英国学者琼斯(W.Jones)开始的.琼斯在1786年首先提出了梵语同欧洲古希腊语,拉丁语有着共同的来源这一观点,但他并没能找出它们之间的语音对应 规律.因此,他的研究还不能算是真正的历史比较语言学. 一般认为,历史比较语言学的奠基人是19世纪丹麦的拉斯克(R.Rash),德国的葆朴(F.Bopp)和格林 (J.Grimm).这三位历史比较语言学的先驱广泛地调查了一大批诸如梵语,希腊语,拉丁语,冰岛语,立陶 宛语,峨特语等古代和现代语言,对它们的词形作了系统的比较,找出了其中的语音对应规律;由此确定 了它们之间的亲缘关系. 另一位影响较大的历史比较语言学家是德国的施来赫尔(A.Schleicher).他在前人研究的基础上致力于古印欧语的重建工作,并提出了所谓谱系树理论(Family Tree Theory).该理论认为,一个语系就好像一棵树,亲语是树干,子语是树枝,构成一个谱系树.谱系树理论的提出是历史比较语言学的一大进展.一个语系从假设的原始母语逐步演变到各种语言的历史过程一目了然地展现了出来. 19世纪下半叶出现了以保罗(H.Paul)等人为代表的新语法学派(Neogrammarians),该学派的出现将历史比较语言学的研究又推进了一大步.新语法学派认为,历史比较语言学不应该只是对语言变化做单纯的 描写,而应该联系语言的使用者探讨语言变化的本质.他们把语言变化的规律归纳为两条极其重要的原则:一是语音规则无例外论,二是类比原则. 随着科学的发展和语言研究的不断深入,历史比较语言学的一些局限性,如孤立地研究语言单位而忽视 了语言的体系性,强调对语言现象的历史比较而忽视了语言的整体性等,便明显地暴露出来了.到了20世纪初,语言的研究,在理论和方法上,都酝酿着一场重大的变革. 2 结构主义语言学 1911年是语言学发展史上比较重要的一年.这一年的6月和7月间,早年曾从事过印欧语言历史比较研究的瑞士语言学家索绪尔(F.de Saussure)在日内瓦大学系统地传授了他本人语言学理论中的精华部分——静态语言学(Static Linguistics).1916年,也就是在索绪尔去世三年后,他的学生巴利(Charles Bally)和薛施蔼(Albert Sechehaye)根据讲稿和听课笔记整理出版了《普通语言学教程》(Course in General Linguistics)一书.这部著作自出版以来,流传之广,影响之深,在语言学史上是罕见的.美国语言学家霍凯(C.Hockett,1965)曾把《普通语言学教程》称誉为现代语言学史上的四项重大突破之一.该书中提出的一系列理论突破了历史比较语言学的局限性,开创了语言学中结构主义语言学的新纪元. 索绪尔语言理论的主要特点是把语言看成是由语言各个成分之间的关系组成的结构系统.换句话说,索 绪尔认为,语言是一个大系统,其中有词汇,语法,语音三个小系统;而这三个小系统各自又有许许多多彼此有联系的成分.另外,索绪尔对语言的研究与历史比较语言学不同之处还体现在他的三个二分法之中,即语言和言语,聚合关系和组合关系,共时研究和历时研究等的区分. 在索绪尔学说的直接或间接影响下,语言研究中出现了许多不同的结构主义学派,如布拉格学派,哥本哈根学派,美国描写语言学派等.各结构主义学派在语言研究中虽侧重的方面有所不同,但是他们都是采用共时的研究方法,对语言系统本身的结构成分及其相互关系从不同方面进行描写. 在众多的结构主义派别中,影响最大的是美国描写语言学派.该学派由美国人类学家鲍阿斯(F.Boas)所 始创,但最有影响的人物当推布龙菲尔德(L.Bloomfield).1933年布龙菲尔德出版了《语言论》(Language)一书,对这一学派的理论和方法做了规范性的描写.他主张语言学的任务就是要客观地,系统地描写可以观察到的语言素材,以此来揭示语言各因素之间的关系.在研究方法上,他们只注重语言形式的分析,而 忽视意义的研究;认为语义不属语言研究的范围.这个学派对语言研究的最大贡献在于探索出了一套相 当严谨的语言描写方法,即以分布和替代为标准对语言单位进行层层切分和归类的描写方法. 3 转换生成语法 1957年,美国麻省理工学院的乔姆斯基(N.Chomsky)出版了《句法结构》(Syntactic Structure)一书,在语言学界引起了一场革命,从而开创了语言研究的转换生成语法时期.虽然在语言研究方法和原则方面,乔姆斯基继承了结构主义的一些特征,例如哈里斯所创造的转换理论,雅柯布逊的语言共性理论,以
昆仑旅游学院课程教学大纲体例 《英语语言学》教学大纲 课程代码： 建议学时数：2 学分：2 课程类别：其他课本 先修课程：基本语言学知识 适用专业：英语专业
《英语语言学概论》教学大纲 课程编号： 学时数：72 (讲课：72 实验：0 实习：0) 学分数：4 适用专业：英语 开课学期：6 一、课程的性质和目的 1. 课程性质：普通语言学是英语专业的一门专业必修课。 2. 目的和任务：学生通过学习本大纲规定的内容，了解和掌握普通语言学有关语音、音系、词汇、句法、语义、语用、文体、语言与社会文化、语言与心理、语言与认知、语言与计算机、语言学与外语教学、语言学流派等基本理论和语言研究的基本方法。 二、课程教学内容及学时分配 第一章导论（6学时） 关于语言：语言的定义、起源、特征、功能。关于语言学：语言学的主要分支学科，宏观语言学。语言学中一些重要的基本概念：描写与规定、共时与历时、语言和言语、能力与表现。 第二章语音（6学时） 语音学：语音的发生与感知，发音器官，国际音标，辅音，元音，语音的描写，协同发音。音系学：音位理论和音位变体、音系规则，区别特征，音节，重音，语调，声调。 第三章词汇（4学时，学生自学为主，教师讲授为辅） 词汇概说：词的含义，词的识别，词的分类。形态学：词的构成，语素，屈折，派生，义素、音素和语素的关系。词的变化。 第四章句法（6学时） 句法关系：位置关系，替换关系，同现关系。语法结构：语法结构，直接成分，内向结构、外向结构，并列关系，从属关系。句法功能：主语，谓语，宾语，词类和功能的关系。语法范畴：数、性、格，一致关系。语句构成：短语，小句，语句。递归性：连接，嵌入。句法之外：句子的连接，衔接手段。 第五章语义学（6学时） 词汇语义学：“意义”的意义，指称论，涵义关系，成分分析。句子语义学：组合理论，逻辑语义学。 第六章语言与认知（6学时） 什么是认知？心理语言学：语言习得，语言理解，语言的产生。认知语言学：识解，范畴化，图式理论，隐喻，转喻，整合理论。 第七章语言、文化、社会（6学时）
对比语言学的定义、起源与发展 对比语言学(Contrastive Linguistics)的定义 1、语言学中的比较与对比 比较是人类认识事物、研究事物的一种基本方法，也是语言学研究的一种基本方法。如果说，语言学的根本任务是对语言的某种现象加以阐述的话，那么要对某一语言现象作出阐述，总是需要对这一现象的种种表现加以比较和分析(Harlmann1980:22)。因而，按其本质来说，对比语言学也是一种比较,不过是一种具有特定含义的语言学中的比较。下面，先让我们来看看对比语言学的比较，与语言学中其他分支的比较有什么不同，从而使我们能够确定对比语言学在整个语言学中的位置，及其与其他语言学研究的联系。 在进行语言学比较时，根据比较对象的不同，可以沿两条轴线来进行。一方面，可以选择共时或历时的语言现象来进行比较;另一方面，可以选择在某一语言内部或各种语言之间的语言现象来进行比较。这两条轴线的互相交叉，便形成了如下四个象限，这四个象限将语言学研究分成四大类性质和目的不同的比较。 象限I代表了同一语言内部的共时比较。这类比较是对某一语言在其历史发展的某一阶段(特别是现时阶段)的语音、语法和词汇等系统的内部构成成分及组织结构的比较。 在共时语言学研究中，要对某一语言的某一结构系统进行描述，就必须对这一结构系统里的各种语言现象加以比较分析。例如，如果我们要研究一种语言的语音系统，我们就要比较这个系统里的各个音素的发音部位和方法有什么不同，它们的声学物理属性有什么不同，在音节中的分布又有什么不同的规律，我们就必须比较这个语言中各类词的语法作用有什么不同，组合搭配有什么特点，等等。而且，要确定一个语言中的词可以区分为哪几个词类，这本身就要进行大量的形态、语义、语法特征等方面的比较。因此可以说，同一语言内的共时比较是语音学、语法学、词汇学等构成当代语言学主流的各个
Linguistics Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics 1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically. 1.2 What is language? Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 1.3 Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 Arbitrariness Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 Duality Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. 1.3.3 Creativity Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 Displacement Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation. 1.4 Origin of language 1. The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. 2. The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. 3. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which
西方语言学史重点 一、语言学的分类 （一）功能角度：理论语言学和应用语言学 （二）具体研究对象：普通（一般）语言学/个别（专语、具体）语言学 （三）研究时段：共时语言学和历时语言学 （四）研究方法：描写语言学和对比语言学 （五）研究对象的状态：静态语言学和动态语言学 （六）研究角度和范围：微观语言学和宏观语言学 二、应用语言学类别 社会语言学、心理语言学、神经语言学、统计语言学 三、西方语言学史的分期 1.一般的划分方法 （1）古代语言学（19世纪以前） （2）近代语言学（19世纪） （3）现代语言学（20世纪上半叶） （4）当代语言学（20世纪50年代末至今） ——“五段两线三解放 “五段”指语文学、历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、形式语言学、交叉语言学等五个阶段；“两线”指“整齐论”和“参差论”两条路线的斗争；“三解放”指历史比较语言学、索绪尔、社会语言学这三个有代表性的里程碑。 2.传统语文学的定义、性质、局限性 定义：传统语文学是传统语言学的重要组成部分，它主要包括三大语文传统，分别是古希腊传统、古印度传统，以及中世纪阿拉伯传统。 传统语言学是一个与现代语言学相对的概念，泛指20世纪以前的语言学，特别是指索绪尔的语言学理论之前的各种语言学理论。那么，与它相对的现代语言学就是指20世纪以来，建立在瑞士语言学家索绪尔的语言理论基础上的各种语言流派及其分支学科的总称。 性质：“依附性”是传统语文学重要的性质。传统语文学并不能算作一门真正的独立学科，只能称为语言学的前奏。 局限性：要成为一门真正的学科，必须要有自己独立的研究对象，独立的研究方法以及多样化的研究材料，而传统语文学并不具备。 古希腊、古罗马、古印度 四、古希腊语言研究
《英语语言学》教学大纲 一、课程名称：英语语言学 二、课程类别：专业选修课 三、教学时数：周学时数 2，总学时数 34 四、学分：2 五、开课时间：第6学期 六、开课专业：英语专业 七、教学对象：英语专业本科三年级学生 八、教学目的：《英语语言学》是针对英语专业学生开设的限选课程。本课程的教学目的是使学生学习必要的语言学方面的基本理论和基本知识，掌握研究、运用语言的基本方法，为今后的工作打下坚实的基础。在课程结束时，学生需达到以下要求： （1）了解语言的本质特征，语言的功能、语言学中的重要区别及普通语言学的主要分支。 （2）系统了解语言学各分支的知识，即语音学、音位学、词汇学、句法学、语义学、语用学等的基本内容及研究方法。 （3）了解语言学与其他相关学科交叉所形成的学科，如心理语言学、社会语言学、应用语言学等的基本知识与研究方法。 （4）了解语言学主要流派的基本观点。 九、课程内容： 语言学导论 内容：语言学的主要问题。语言的本质。语言的功能。语言学的主要分支。语言学中的重要区别。 重点：语言的design features和语言学中的重要区别。语言的起源只作简要介绍。 词汇学 内容：词的含义与分类。词的形成与变化。 重点: 词素、词根、词缀等概念以及词的形成与变化。 语义学
内容：“意义”的意义。涵义关系、成分分析及句子意义。 重点: 涵义关系、成分分析及句子意义。不同学派的观点只作简要介绍。 语言、文化和社会 内容：社会语言学的基本内容。语言和文化的研究，如萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说。从情景和社会变异视角研究语言与社会的关系。 重点：语言和文化的研究。语言与社会的关系只作简要介绍。 语用学 内容：语用学的研究范畴。言语行为理论。会话含义理论，后格莱斯时期的理论发展，关联理论、Q原则、R原则、I原则和M原则。 重点：言语行为理论、关联理论、Q原则、R原则、I原则和M原则。 母语与第二语言习得 内容：语言学和外语教学的关系。不同语言学理论以及它们在语言教学上的价值。语言学习、错误分析和测试。 重点：语言学习、错误分析和测试。语言学和外语教学的关系只作简要介绍。 十、教学时间安排： 学期周内容学时 第六学期1语言学导论2 2语言学导论2 3词汇学2 4语义学2 5语义学2 6语言、文化和社会2 7语言、文化和社会2 8语言、文化和社会2 9语言、文化和社会2 10语用学2 11语用学2
[考研类试卷]英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编20 一、填空题 1 As the lexical words carry the main content of a language while the grammatical ones serve to link its different parts together, the lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones______. (中山大学2008研) 2 In traditional grammar, ______is the only word class which can function as a substitute for another item. (中山大学2006研) 3 In terms of the meaning expressed by words, they can be classified into______words and ______words. (南开大学2007研) 4 The______is the minimal distinctive unit in grammar, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether lexical or grammatical. (北二外2008研) 5 There are two fields of morphology: the study of______and the study of______. (人大2006研) 6 A______morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself. (北二外2003研) 7 ______ is a branch of linguistics that studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology. (南开大学2007研) 8 ______is a relatively complex form of compounding in which a new word is formed by joining the initial part of one word and the final part of another word. For example, the English word smog is made from______and______. (人大2006研) 9 Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an______affix from a longer form already in the language. (中山大学2006研) 10 ______is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. It is the minimum free form. (中山大学2005研)