Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 .1Definition of linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of language.
1.1.2 Scope of linguistics
The study of language as a whole is often called General Linguistics.
1.1.3 Some distinctions in linguistics
1) Prescriptive说明性vs. Descriptive描述性
Descriptive---- describe / analyze the language people actually use.
Prescriptive----lay down rules for “correct and standard ”behaviour in using language.
2)Synchronic 共时的vs. diachronic 历时的
Synchronic study---description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) Diachronic study---description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)
Synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.
3) Speech and writing
Speech----Primary medium of language
Writing----Later developed
Speech is prior to writing [5 reasons]
4). Langue and parole (F. de Saussure:1857--1913 )
Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.
Langue is abstract. Parole is concrete.
Langue is stable. Parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.
5). Competence 语言能力and performance语言运用(Chomsky)
Competence-----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language
Performance---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
Q：Similarity and difference between Saussure’s distinction and that of Chomsky Similarity: both make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language.
Difference: Chomsky’s competence-performance is from psychological point of view. Saussure’s langue-parole is from sociological point of view.
6)Traditional grammar and modern linguistics
Q: What are the differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics?
Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.
1.4 Definitions of language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
1.5 Design features of language
1)Arbitrariness: Generally there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. The dog barks wow wow in English but “汪汪汪”in Chinese.
Ps:language is not arbitrary at compounding words and at the syntactic level.
2)Duality: Or double-structured. Language consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. Lower level: sounds which are meaningless. Higher level: units of meaning by grouping or regrouping sounds. Units of meaning can be arranged into infinite number of sentences.
3)Creativity (productivity): language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
4)Displacement: Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.
5)Cultural transmission: Language is culturally transmitted not genetically transmitted. A language is taught and learned within a particular cultural background.
1.6 Functions of language
Chapter 2 Phonetics & Phonology-----The Study of Sounds
2.3 Phonology
2.3.1 Phonology and phonetics
The difference between phonetics & phonology:
Phonetics: Study sounds in isolation; one by one, phonetic features; language universal Phonology: Study sounds patterns to convey meaning; language specific
2.3.2Phone, Phoneme and allophone
Phone:
1) a phonetic unit
2) not necessarily distinctive of meaning
3) physical as perceived
4) marked with [ ]
Phoneme:
1) a phonological unit
2) distinctive of meaning
3) abstract, not physical
4) marked with / /
Student
Phones: [t] [th]
Phoneme: /t/
Allophone: [t] [th]
2.3.4. Some rules in phonology
Sequential rules序列规则/k//b//l//i/四个phoneme造词，bilk(right), ibki(false)
Assimilation rule同化原则
Deletion rule省略规则E.g. Sign design, delete a /g/when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.
2.3.5. Suprasegmental features--------stress, tone, intonation
Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.
The principal suprasegmental features are:
Stress
Tone声调
Intonation语调
Chapter 3 Morphology --- The study of word structure
Morphology: Morphology refers to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.
3.2Open class and closed class
Open class: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs to which new words can be added.---( content words)e.g: beatnik
Closed class: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns to which new words are not usually added. ---(functional words)e.g: and, it, to, the, etc.
3.3Morphemes---------the minimal units of meaning(考）
1). Morpheme词素
Morpheme---the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.
e.g. read-er（two morphemes）
2). Allomorphs
Allomorphs: The variant forms of a morpheme.
Indefiniteness marker
a an
3). Types of morpheme词素变体
Free vs. Bound morpheme:
Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself. e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.
Bound morpheme: a morpheme that must be attached to another one. e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-.
3.4 Analyzing word structure
Roots and affixes
3.5Derivational vs. inflectional morphemes
Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word. E.g friend+-ly > friendly.
---change or don’t change the category.
affection/affectionate economics/macroeconomics
Inflection: grammatical markers and signify concepts as tense, number, case and so on.
E.g. plural, tense, comparative, etc.
---never change the syntactic category.
Boy/boys notice/noticed look/looking
3.6Morphological rules of word formation(不考)
3.7 Derivation
3.8 Compounding
Two or more free roots combine to make a new word.
Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill
Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit
Adjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfree
Preposition compounds: into, throughout
Chapter 4 Syntax---the study of sentences structure
4. 1 Definition
Syntax studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Chapter 5 Semantics（The study of meaning）
5.1 Definition
5.2 Some views concerning the study of meaning
1)Plato: The naming theory命名论
Plato’s naming theory：the meaning is the object in the world that the word refers to. （The word : The linguistic form; The meaning: The object the word refers to.)
*Applicable only to nouns, rather than other word classes
*Applicable to nouns denoting things that exist in the real world.
2)Ogden & Richards: The conceptualism概念论
There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to: rather , in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
Semantic triangle:Thought/reference
Symbol/form referent
3)Firth: Contextualism语境论
Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—element closely linked with language behavior.
The situational context (场景语境):
The linguistic context (语言语境):
4)Bloomfield: Behaviorism行为论
situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer .
Jill use Jack
Situational Linguistic Situational
Context context context
S----------------------r s-----------------------R
Stimulus Linguistic Linguistic Response (non-linguistic)
(non-linguistic) response stimulus
5.3 Lexical meaning（没划重点）
5.3.1 sense ans reference
Sense :The inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.
What a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.
Question: Similarities and Difference between sense and reference
The same sense may have different references in different situations.
Sense(dog)------Tibetan mastiff (藏獒),Toy Poodle(玩具贵宾犬)
The same reference may differ in sense.
Sense 1(morning star)
Reference
Sense 2(evening star)
5.3.2 Major sense relations
5.3.2.1 Synonymy同义词（Definition: The sameness or close similarity of meaning. ）
1）Dialectal synonyms方言同义词: Synonyms used in different regional dialects.（1ift-elevator）2）Stylistic synonyms: Synonyms differing in style.（father-daddy）
3）Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning评价（collaborator-accomplice）4）Collocational synonyms: Synonyms differing in their collocation.同义词搭配（accuse-charge-rebuke）
5）Semantically different synonyms.
5.3.2.2 Polysemy 多义性
Definition: A single entry, but a list of meanings.
5.3.2.3 Homonymy 同音异义
Definition: The words (differing in meaning) + (the same in sound or spelling, or both) Homophones同音异义词
Homographs同行异义词
Complete homonyms同形同音异义词
Question: How to distinguish polysemy and complete homonyms ?-----------depend on the etymology of the words.
A polysemic word is the result of the evolution of the primary meaning of the word. The various meanings of the word are related to some degree (e.g. School).
Complete homonyms are often brought into being by coincidence. (e.g. ball: ①“a round object used in games”-a native English word; ②“a large formal social event at which people dance”-originally exists in French.)
5.3.2.4 Hyponymy 下义关系
Definition: A relation of inclusion.
Superordinate: flower
Hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily
Co-hyponyms
5.3.2.5 Antonymy 反义词
Definition: the oppositeness of meaning.
Gradable antonyms 程度
Complementary antonyms 非此即彼
Relational antonyms 关系成对
5.4 Sense relations between sentences （考）
1. X is synonymous with Y . X 与Y 同义
Truth Condition: If X is true, Y is true;
If X is false, Y is false.
2. X is inconsistent with Y . X 与 Y 不一致
Truth Condition: If X is true, Y is false;
If X is false, Y is true.
3. X entails 包含Y (Y is an entailment 含义of X.)
Truth Condition: If X is true, Y is true;
If X is false, Y is not necessarily false.
4. X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X.Y 是X 的前提)
Truth Condition: If X is true, Y must be true;
If X is false, Y is still true.
5. X is a contradiction (矛盾)
6. X is semantically anomalous （语义异体）
5.5 Analysis of meaning （考）
5.5.1 Componential Analysis 成分分析
Componential Analysis (Feature Analysis; Contrast Analysis): The meaning of a word/phrase can be dissected into the meaning components.
Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships that are related in meaning.
5.5.2 Predication Analysis 述谓结构分析
Two points in the sentence meaning:
1. The meaning of a sentence 不等于the sum total of the meanings of all its components.
2. there are two aspects to sentence meaning : grammatical meaning and semantic meaning . G . Leech: predication （述谓结构） ----- the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.
A predication consists of argument(s) 论元and predicate 谓词.
Chapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学
6.1.1 Definition : Pragmatics is “study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication
6.1.2 Semantics VS. Pragmatics
Similarity: They both study the meaning.
Difference:
Semantics studies the meaning in isolation.独立的
Pragmatics studies the meaning in context (or the language use).
6.1.3 Context
The knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Importance of Context
a b
a b
Context determines the speaker's use of language; the hearer's interpretation of what is said to him or her.
6.1.4 Sentence meaning vs. Utterance meaning
Sentence meaning: abstract and de-contextualized
Utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent
E.g. “John is still single”.
Sentence meaning: JOHN (BE SINGLE)
utterance meaning may be: Encourage the listener to date John.
Summary:
Utterance meaning=Sentence meaning+ Context
三、问答题
1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?
Phonetics----it’s defined as the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerne d with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.
Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.
Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.
Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.
Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.
2.why do we say language is arbitrary?
3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?
4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? why
Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.
现代语言学主要是共时性的，重点研究现代语言。除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，否则很难从历时性角度对语言进行描述。
5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings?
Speech enjoys for the following reasons:
⑴Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.
⑵A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.
⑶speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.
6.how is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s ?
Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study
Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
Chapter 8 Language and Society
1.In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situations
known as domains.
2. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of
that language.
3. A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region.
4.When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he is
converting one mode of thinking into the other.
5.Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language.
6.According to the strong version of the Sapir-Shorf hypothesis, speaker’s
perceptions determine language and pattern their way of life.
7.The sentences “He crazy”and “He be sick all the time”are both acceptible in
black English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous of black English.
8.There are words of more or less the same menaing used in different regional
dialects.
Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition
https://www.doczj.com/doc/589407216.html,nguage use is both systematic and non-systematic, subject to external as well as to internal variation.
2.In linguistic study, linguists first work out a theory about language structure, then, test it with language facts.
3.Formal instruction hardly affects the natural route of SLA.
4.If language learners are provided with sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and chances to interact with language input, they will acquire the native-like competence in the target language.
5.Phonologically slower rate of delivery is an example of conversational modification.
6.Children’s grammar develops gradually until it becomes exactly the adult’s grammar.
7.Foreinger talk is always ungrammatical.
8.Learners with different first languages would learn a second language in differnet ways.
下定义： 1.IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法) the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.Direct from the external form of syntactic structure, analyze the direct component of the sentence. 2. Endocentric Constructions (向心结构) ENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD. 3.Exocentric Constructions (离心结构) EXOCENTRIC construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is funct ionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including：the basic sentence ；the prepositional phrase the predicate (verb + object) construction the connective (be + complement) construction 4.Relations of Position（位置关系） Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. https://www.doczj.com/doc/589407216.html,positionality组合原则--- a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined. 6.Performatives(施为句): Utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false. https://www.doczj.com/doc/589407216.html,ngue（语言）--refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 8.Parole --refers to the realization of language in actual use, or the actual or actualized language. https://www.doczj.com/doc/589407216.html,petence: a language user?s underlying knowled ge about the system of rules. 10. Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations. 11.Morpheme---- is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. 12.Bound morphemes--Morphemes which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme. 13.Variable words(可变化词) --- they may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may
一、填空题:（每空1 分，本大题共10 分） 1. （）语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的，它是语言学 走上独立发展道路的标志。 2. 人的大脑分左右两半球，大脑的左半球控制（ 掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。 3. 进入20世纪以后，语言研究的主流由历史比较语言学转为 （）。 4. 俄语属于印欧语系的（ 5. 一个音位包含的不同音素或者具体表现出来的音素叫做 （）。 6. 语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是（ 7. 现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于（）字 母。 8. 言外之意之所以能够被理解是因为（）起了补充说明的 作用。 9. 方言在社会完全分化的情况下，有可能发展成（? ）?； 在社会高度统一的情况下，会逐渐被共同语消磨直到同化。 10. 南京方言的“兰”、“南”不分，从音位变体的角度来说，[n ]和[l]是 属于（）变体。 二、单项选择题: 码填在题干上的括号内。（每小题1 分，本大题共15 分）
1. 在二十世纪，对哲学、人类学、心理学、社会学等学科产生重大影响 的语言学流派是（） A.历史比较语言学 B.心理语言学 C.结构主义语言学 D.社会语言学 2. “人有人言，兽有兽语”中的“言”属于（） A.语言 B.言语 C.言语行为 D.言语作品 3. “我爱家乡”中“爱”和“家乡”（） A.是聚合关系。 B.是组合关系。 C.既是聚合关系又是组合关系。 D. 4. 一种语言中数量最少的是 A.音素 B.音位 C.语素 D.音节 5. 英语的man—→men采用的语法手段是 A. 屈折变化 B.变换重音的位置 C. 变化中缀 D.异根 6. 在汉语普通话中没有意义区别功能的声学特征是（） A.音高 B.音强 C.音长 D.音质 7. [ε]的发音特征是 A.舌面前高不圆唇 B.舌面后高不圆唇 C.舌面前半高不圆唇 D.舌面前半低不圆唇 8. 构成“语言、身体”这两个词的语素的类型（） A.都是成词语素 B.都是不成词语素 C.“语”和“言”是成词语素，“身”和“体”是不成词语素 D.“语”和“言”是不成词语素，“身”和“体” 9. 广义地说，汉语动词词尾“着”、“了”、“过”属于语法范畴中的 （）
英语语言学概论 期中作业 专业：英语（翻译）学号：20131311202 姓名：汤汪
第七章语言、文化与社会 1、语言与文化 (1)语言 语言有广义和狭义之分。 狭义的语言包括口头语言、书面语言和书面语的物质载体——文字。最狭义的语言不包括文字，只包括口语和书面语，口语和书面语是人类社会用来进行交际和思维的最重要、最常用、最发达、最严密的符号体系。 广义的语言不仅包括狭义语言，而且还包括准语言。准语言又称副语言、类语言，根据诉诸感官的不同，准语言又可分为听觉的（伴随声音、音乐语言、其他声响符号）、视觉的（表情、体态等；图表、公式等；绘画语言；舞蹈语言；蒙太奇语言；符号、标识语言；其他视觉符号）、触觉的（盲文等）三类。 广义的语言其实包括了人类用于交际的所有手段，因此可以将广义的语言定义为“人类使用的一切符号”。 (2)文化 文化是社会成员共同拥有的生活方式和为满足这些方式而共同创造的事事物物，以及基于这些方式而形成的心理和行为。 广义的文化可以分为物质文化、制度文化和心理文化三个层次。物质文化是一种可见的显性文化。制度文化和心理文化是不可见的隐性文化或曰潜在文化。 物质文化是指人类创造的种种物质文明。诸如生产和交通工具，武器，日用器具，服饰，居住、饮食和其他人类行为所需要的物品等等。 制度文化是指种种制度和理论体系。诸如饮食习惯、建筑工艺、卫生管理、娱乐方式等生活制度，婚姻形式、亲属关系、家庭财产分配等家庭制度，劳动管理、艺术生产、教育、道德、风俗、宗教、利益、法律、政治、警察、军队等社会制度，以及有关这些制度的各种理论体系。 心理文化包括思维方式、审美情趣、宗教信仰、价值观念等等，比之物质文化和制度文化，心理文化处于更深的层次上。 (3)语言与文化的关系 语言与文化相互依赖、相互影响.语言是文化的重要载体；文化对语言有制约作用.本文对语言的内在系统,从语言的形式和结构上作了分析,并对语言的社会功能和其它外在因素进行了探讨。 语言在人类的一切活动中都起着十分重要的作用,是人类社会生活不可缺少的一个部分。自古以来,语言学家们都试图从多方面对语言进行探讨,形成了许多语言学流派。归纳起来,现代语言学主要来源于两大传统：语文学传统和人类学传统。语文学传统从比较语言学和历史语言学开始,根据文学作品和书面文献的研究对语言进行分析和比较。19世纪语文学家的工作为现代语言学的独立研究奠定了基础,后来发展到布龙菲尔德的结构主义和乔姆斯基的转换生成语法。这一传统的继承者强调语言的自然属性,把语言看成是一个封闭的,独立的系统,把语言学看成是一门横跨人文科学和自然科学的独立的边缘科学。人类学传统指运用人类学方法去研究没有书写系统和文字传统的社会集团的语言。自20世纪初
下定义 1.(P3)Sociolinguistics(社会语言学): The studies of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society is called sociolinguistics. 2.(P7)Language（语言）: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 3.(P8)Arbitrariness（任意性）: This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. 4.(P2)Phonetics（语音学）：Phonetic refers to the study of sounds used in linguistic communication. 5.(P16)Voicing（浊音化）: Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds. 6.(P26)Assimilation rule（同化规则）: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. 7.(P29)Intonation（语调）: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. 8.(P42)Syntax（句法）: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 9.(P42)Category（范畴）: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. 10.(P48)Complementizers（补语化成分）:Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers. 11.(P53)Head movement（中心语移动）: The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement. 12.(P64-65)Linguistic context（语言语境）: The linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word. 13.(P66)Reference（所指）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.
广州大学 2012年研究生入学考试试题（全日制专业学位硕士） 招生领域：教育硕士 科目名称：语言学基础 科目代码：928 Ⅰ.Define the following terms (4 points each, 20%) 1. functional linguistics 2. minimal pair 3. consonant 4. syntax 5. synonymy Ⅱ. Indicate whether the following statements are true or false (1 point each, 10%) 1. In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spoken form for a number of reasons. 2. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. 3. The part of a sentence which comprises an infinite verb or a verb phrase is grammatically called predicate. 4. The smallest meaningful unit of language is allomorph. 5. Human language is arbitrary. 6. All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language. 7. In most cases, the illocutionary force of “freeze!” is a warning. 8. Linguistics is the course of language. 9. In English, pitch and length constitute intensity which seems to determine stress. 10. Tense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of meaning. 1
英语语言学试题（1） I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets. (2%×10=20%) 1、As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___. A、prescriptive B、sociolinguistic C、descriptive D、psycholinguistic 2、Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible. A、mouth B、lips C、tongue D、vocal cords 3、The morpheme "vision" in the common word "television" is a(n) ___. A、bound morpheme B、bound form C、inflectional morpheme D、free morpheme 4、A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A、coordinator B、particle C、preposition D、subordinator 5、"Can I borrow your bike?" _____ "You have a bike." A、is synonymous with B、is inconsistent with C、entails D、presupposes 6、The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___. A、semantics B、pragmatics C、sociolinguistics D、psycholinguistics 7、Grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization. A、elaboration B、simplification C、external borrowing D、internal borrowing 8、___ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication. A、Lingua franca B、Creole C、Pidgin D、Standard language 9、Psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area which is responsible for physical articulation of utterances, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, ___ . A、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and the angular gyrus B、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and cerebral cortex C、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and neurons D、Broca's area, Wernicke's area and Exner's area 10、According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations. A、learning B、competence C、performance D、acquisition II. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in One word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (1%×10=10%) 11、Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's k_______ of the rules of his language. 12、The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b______ . 13、M_______ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 14、A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 15、Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are called c______ synonyms. 16、The illocutionary point of r_____ is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. 17、Words are created outright to fit some purpose. Such a method of enlarging the vocabulary is known as word c______.
现代语言学考试复习要点 1. Definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary(随意的) vocal symbols used for human communication. . 2. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics microlinguistics: is concerned with the study of language or languages per se, not concern other field of study such as sociology, psychology, literature, computer science, etc. Macrolinguistics:is concerned with the study of language which involves other discipline (interdisciplinary) sociolinguistics: Psycholinguistics: Applied linguistics: 3 langue and parole(语言和言语) 由Swiss linguist F. de Saussure 提出的Langue r efers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.(conventions and rules; abstract; relatively stable;) Parole refers to the realization of a langue in actual use.(the concrete use of the conventions and rules; concrete, refers to the naturally occurring language events; varies from person to person, situation to situation) 区别的目的：parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation and what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole(发现规律)。4．competence and performance(能力和运用)： American linguist A. Chomsky proposed in the late 1950s. Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 犯错误的原因是：though internalized, but with social and psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment. . 5．prescriptive VS descriptive(规定性和描述性): descriptive: describes and analyses the language people actually use, // descriptive is a distinctive feature in modern linguistic studies. prescriptive:aims to lay down rules for ‘correct’behaviour(what
1、历史比较语言学：是运用历史和比较两种方法，发现几种语言在历史演变中的对应规律从而确定语言的亲属关系，构拟产生这些亲属语言的原始母语。 2、组合关系：语言符号与符号之间组成的言语链条关系叫组合关系。组合关系是一种现实的、有顺序的、可数的横向关系。 3、聚合关系：在链条某一环节上能够互相替换的，具有相同作用的符号聚积成类的关系叫聚合关系。聚合关系是一种联想的、无顺序、不易精确数出来的纵向关系。 4、语言的融合：一种语言战胜另一种语言或一种语言被另一种语言吞噬的现象，叫做语言的融合。 5、语言的层级性：语言系统是一套层级装置，底层是一套音位装置，上层分为语素、词、句子三层。 6、音素：音素是人类语言在一次发音中从音质角度切分出来的最小的语音单位。 7、音位：音位是具体语言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。 8、国际音标：国际音标是国际语音协会于1888年公布的一套记音符号。大部分符号采用拉丁字母，少数用希腊字母，还有的采用大小写、正反写、合体写或添加符号与改变符号等方法。国际音标可分为宽式音标和严式音标两种。它的优点是形体简便，记音准确、灵活、完备。 9、音位变体：可归并为同一个音位的各个音素，我们称之为音位变体。 10、非音质音位：利用音高、音长、音强这些非音质要素形成的音位叫非音质音位。 11、语义：指语音形式表现出来的语言和言语的全部内容，它包括语言意义和言语意义两大类。 12、义素：义素是对某个义位的语义特征进行分析后得到的最小的语义单位。 13、语义场:语义场就是归属于一个总称之下的在意义上紧密联系的一组词的义位的聚合体。 14、语境：语言环境简称语境，指人们用语言进行交际时的具体环境。 15、词：词是语言中可以独立运用的最小音义结合单位。 16、语素：语素是语言中不能独立运用的最小的音义结合单位。 17、词缀：词缀指附着在词根之上的语素，它对词义的构成起附加作用。 18、复合词：复合词由两个或两个以上的词根复合构成。例：汉语中的“火车”、“心疼”，英语中的“black-board(黑板)”、“rail-way(铁路)”。 19、重叠词：是由相同的词根相叠构成。如：看看、试试、多多等。 20、语法：语法是音义结合的各结构单位之间的组织规则的汇集，它包括词的构词、构形的规则和组词成句的规则。 21、词组：词组是实词与实词的有机组合。词组在句子中具有相当于词的作用，但它是比词大的语法单位。 22、语法范畴：是把同一性质的语法意义进一步综合概括所形成的语法意义的类别，如词形范畴与词类范畴等。 23、语法手段：对语法形式再概括所得出的类别就是语法手段，也叫语法方式，一般包括内部屈折法、附加法、重叠法、异根法、重音法、词序、虚词、语调、冠词、前置词和后置词、助动词等。 24、直接成分分析法：指从句法结构的外部形式，特别是隐形形式入手，对句子的直接组成成分进行分析的方法。由于句子的直接成分与句子的层次性一致，所以也叫层次分析法。 25、意音文字：一部分字符是义符，一部分字符是音符的文字是意音文字。 26、字符：字符也就是文字符号，是文字的最基本的单位，也就是直接跟某种语言单位相联系的符号。
2019广州大学考研619汉语综合考试与827阅读与写 作复习全析（含真题） 《2019广州大学考研619汉语综合考试复习全析（含历年真题，共三册）》由鸿知广大考研网依托多年丰富的教学与辅导经验，组织官方教学研发团队与广州大学优秀研究生共同合作编写而成。全书内容紧凑权威细致，编排结构科学合理，为参加2019广州大学考研的考生量身定做的必备专业课资料。 《2019广州大学考研619汉语综合考试复习全析（含历年真题）》全书编排根据广州大学考研参考书目： 1．《语言学纲要》，叶蜚声、徐通锵，北京大学。 2、《现代汉语》（增订版），黄伯荣、廖序东主编，高等教育出版社。 3、《古代汉语》，王力主编，中华书局。 结合提供的往年广大考研真题内容，帮助报考广州大学考研的同学通过广大教材章节框架分解、配套的课后/经典习题讲解及相关985、211名校考研真题与解答，帮助考生梳理指定教材的各章节内容，深入理解核心重难点知识，把握考试要求与考题命题特征。 通过研读演练本书，达到把握教材重点知识点、适应多样化的专业课考研命题方式、提高备考针对性、提升复习效率与答题技巧的目的。同时，透过测试演练，以便查缺补漏，为初试高分奠定坚实基础。 适用院系： 人文学院：语言学及应用语言学、汉语言文字学 资料选购适用科目：
619汉语综合考试（自命题） 本书包括以下几个部分内容： Part 1 - 考试重难点与笔记： 通过总结和梳理《现代汉语》（黄伯荣增订五版）、《古代汉语》（王力校订重排本）、《语言学纲要》（叶蜚声、徐通锵北大修订版）各章节复习和考试的重难点，建构教材宏观思维及核心知识框架，浓缩精华内容，令考生对各章节内容考察情况一目了然，从而明确复习方向，提高复习效率。该部分通过归纳各章节要点及复习注意事项，令考生提前预知章节内容，并指导考生把握各章节复习的侧重点。 Part 2 - 教材配套课后/经典习题与解答 针对教材《现代汉语》（黄伯荣增订五版）经典课后习题配备详细解读，以供考生加深对教材基本知识点的理解掌握，做到对广大考研核心考点及参考书目内在重难点内容的深度领会与运用。 Part 3 - 名校考研真题详解汇编： 根据教材内容和考试重难点，精选本专业课考试科目相关的名校考研真题，通过研读参考配套详细答案检测自身水平，加深知识点的理解深度，并更好地掌握考试基本规律，全面了解考试题型及难度。 Part 4 - 广州大学历年考研真题： 汇编广大考研专业课考试科目的2014-2017年考研真题试卷，方便考生检查自
I.第一单元 A定义 1Design features of language. The features that define our human languages can be called design features, including arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 2. Functions of language Informative, Interpersonal（maintain social relations）, Performative, Emotive, Phatic communion寒暄语，Recreational，Metalinguistic元语言功能 3.Main branches of linguistics Phonetics: the description, classification and transcription of speech sounds语音学 Phonology: the study of speech sounds of a language as a system音系学 Morphology: the internal structures of words形态学 Syntax: the internal structures of sentences.句法学 Semantics: the study of meaning as encoded in language.语义学 Pragmatics: the study of language use, meaning in context.语用学 B 填空 1 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2 Langue vs parole (Saussure) C 翻译terms D topic Qs 1 Important distinction in linguistics Descriptive (native speakers) vs prescriptive （rules for correct uses of language）studies Synchronic (used at a particular point) vs diachronic studies (changes over time) Langue vs parole (Saussure)--Langue (language) is the language system: social, essential, stable; Parole (speech) is the actual use of the language system: individual, accidental, unstable Competence vs performance--Competence is the underlying knowledge about one’s language; Performance is the actual use of that knowledge in language use situations. Syntagmatic （组合关系）vs paradiamatic relations（聚合关系） Modern linguistics 第二课 QUESTIIONS 1Phonetics (divisions; speech organs;) The three branches of phonetics Articulatory phonetics: the study of sound production
第十二章现代语言学理论与流派 复习笔记 I.索绪尔和现代语言学 现代语言学始于瑞士语言学家索绪尔，他被称为“现代语言学之父”和一位“使语言学走向现代的大师”。 索绪尔认为，语言是用声音表达交流思想的符号系统。符号是形式和意义的联合，是表示者和被表示者的结合。符号是语言事实的核心，研究语言必须从符号本身的特性人手。 索绪尔区分了几组重要的概念：能指和所指，语言和言语，共时研究和历时研究等。 II．布拉格学派 布拉格学派的形成可以追溯到马泰休斯领导召开的该学派的第一次会议。1．主要观点及贡献 布拉格学派的研究有三大重点： (1)强调共时研究的合理性，因为它可以提供完整且易掌控的研究材料。 (2)强调语言的系统性，指出任何语言单位都不能在孤立的的情况下得到令人满意的分析及评估。换句话说，语言单位处于功能对比、对立之中。 (3)它将语言看作是在所属语言群体中发挥一系列功能的工具。 2．功能句子观 功能句子观是一套语言学分析理论，它是指用信息论的原理来分析话语或文本。其基本原则就是一句话中各部分起的作用取决于它对全句意义的贡献。 一些捷克语言学家尝试从功能的角度来分析句子。他们相信一个句子包含话
语的出发点和话语的目的。话语的出发点叫做主位，它是说话人和听话人都知道的信息；话语的目的是说话人要向听话人传递的信息，叫做述位。从主位到述位的运动揭示了大脑本身的运动。 功能句子观旨在研究话语中新(未知)、旧 (已知)信息的分布问题。已知信息指那些对于听话人不再是新信息的部分；新信息是即将向听话人传达的信息。句子中主语一谓语的分布不总是与主位一述位的分布一致。 3．交际能力 另一种版本的分析法叫做交际能力，由费尔巴斯提出。他用交际动力表示句子成分对交际发展所起的作用。 费尔巴斯把功能句子观解释为不同程度的交际力的分布。他认为，句子前面部分承载的交际力最低，然后逐步增加，直到交际力最大的成分。 Ⅲ．伦敦学派 1．介绍 伦敦学派专门用来称呼独具英国特色的语言学研究。弗斯使语言学在英国完全成为一门公认的科学。弗斯主要受人类学家马林诺夫斯基影响，而后他又影响了他的学生韩礼德。三人都强调“语言环境”和语言“系统”的重要性。因此，伦敦学派也被称为系统语言学和功能语言学。 2．马林诺夫斯基的理论 (1)语言是一种行为模式，而不是什么与思想相对应的东西。 (2)话语意义并不来源于构成话语的词的意义，而是来源于话语发生的上下义之间的关系。其断言是根据两大观察结果得出的： ①在原始社会团体中，书写并不存在，语言只有一种使用方法。 在所有人类社会中，孩子以此种方法习得语言。
F. De Saussure is considered to be the “father of modern linguistics”. Linguistics can be defined as the scientific study of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Properties of language: Arbitrariness(任意性)the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Duality(二层性)Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels, and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. Productivity(creativity创造性)Language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. Displacement(移位性)This property of human language provides speakers with the opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from the barriers caused by remoteness in time and place. Branches of linguistics Phonetics(语音学) 研究语言，包括语言的产生(发出，传递，感知)，对语音，词语和连 续言语的描写和分类 Phonology(音系/位学) 研究支配语音分布和 排列的规则以及音节的形式 Morphology(形态学/词形学) 内在构造，研 究意义最小的单位-语素和构词过程 Syntax(句法学) 研究产生和理解正确的句 子所遵循的规则 Semantics(语义学) 意义如何在语言中被编 码 Pragmatics(语用学) 在语境中研究意义 Prescriptive(规定式)Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language. It tries to lay down rules for “correct” or standard language behavior. Descriptive(描写式)Modern linguistics is descriptive, which means its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. Modern linguistics mainly describes and analyses the facts of language. Synchronic(共时)现代语言学主要是共时性，侧重于现代语言；Diachronic(历时)